CHILD

AND
ADOLESCENT
LEARNERS
AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
Human Development
➢ the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
➢ through the life span
➢ includes growth and decline
➢ can be positive or negative

Major Principles of Human Development:

1. Development is relatively orderly
a) Proximodistal Pattern
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

b) Cephalocaudal Pattern
Development proceeds from the head downward.

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes and rate of
development are likely to vary among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio- emotional processes.
Approaches to Human Development
1.) Traditional Perspective
• Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood
and decline in late old age
2.) Life-span Approach
• Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during childhood.

Characteristics of a Life- Span Perspective

a. Development is LIFELONG- It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates development.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 b. Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL- Development consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional
dimensions.
c. Development is PLASTIC- Development is possible throughout the lifespan.
d. Development is CONTEXTUAL- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
e. Development involves GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION- Growth, maintenance and
regulation are 3 goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages.

Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform Practice

• All areas of development and learning are important.

• Learning and development follow sequences.
• Development and learning proceed at varying rates
• Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.
• Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
• Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self- regulation, and symbolic or representational capacities.
• Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
• Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.
• Children learn in a variety of ways.
• Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition, and social
competence.
• Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
• Children‘s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 2: THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother
is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor
and delivery are primary concerns.

Three Phases:
1.) Germinal Stage= first 2 weeks, conception, implantation, and
formation of placenta
2.) Embryonic Stage= 2 weeks-2 months, formation of vital organs and
systems
3.) Fetal Stage= 2 months –birth, bodily growth continues, movement
capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of
hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers
are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety
inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

• Extreme dependents on adult

• Beginning psychological activities
• Language of newborn is cry
• Usually eats every two to three hours
• Uncoordinated movements
• Toothless
• Poor vision
• Usually doubles weight by 9 months
• Responds to human voice and touches
• Responds to human voice and touch
1 year old
• Change from plump baby to a learner
• Begins to walk and talk
• Ability for passive language
• Tentative sense of independence
• Determined explorer
2 years old
• Begins to communicate verbally
• Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences
• Famous for negative behavior ―NO to everything!
• Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• Great imitators

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years
which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-
old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater
independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This
knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially
had interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that
they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by
demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers
several inches apart. A toddler‘s fierce determination to do something may give
way to a four-year-old‘s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the
disapproval of others.

3 years old
• Wants to be just like parents
• Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• Climbs stairs with alternating feet
• Can briefly stand on one foot
4 years old
• Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct
• Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death)
5 Years old
• Can hop on one foot and skip
• Can accurately copy figures
• May begin to read
• Socialize with other children their age

Middle Childhood and Late Childhood

The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected
to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills
and by assessing one‘s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare
students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates
slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social
relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.
• Both large and small muscles well-developed.
• Developed complex motor skills
• From independent activities to same sex group activities
• Acceptance by peers very important
• Parental approval still important
Adolescence (13 to 18 years old)
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation,
known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider
abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at
greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections
that can have lifelong consequences.
• Traumatic life stage for child and parent
• Puberty occurs
• Extremely concerned with appearance
• Trying to establish self- identity
• Confrontation with authority
Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old)

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in their mid-30s tend to love to hear that
they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent
crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will
help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.
• Physical development complete
• Emotional maturation continues to develop
• Usually learned to accept responsibility for actions and accept responsibility for
actions and accept criticism
• Usually knows how to profit from errors
• Socially progress from age- treated peer groups to people with similar interests.
Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old)
The late thirties through the mid-sixties are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which aging, that began
earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It
may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater
efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of
recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the AIDS
epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in those economies (Weitz, 2007).
• Physical changes begin to occur:
➢ Hair begins to begin to thin and gray
➢ Wrinkles appear
➢ Hearing and vision decrease
➢ Muscles lose tone
• Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging
• Love and acceptance still take a major role
Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries. Late adulthood is
sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the ―young old‖ and ―old old‖ or the ―young old‖, ―old old‖,
and ―oldest old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the ―young old‖ who are
people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old‖ or those who are 80 and older. One of the primary differences between these
groups is that the young old are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in
being productive and active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently,
but risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for
this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern
for this age group. A better way to appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age
and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health
for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those
of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the
same age).
• Fastest growing age bracket of society
• Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination
• Some memory problems
• Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
• Very concerned with health and finances
• Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 3: ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of developmental psychology. The
major questions include the following:

• Is development due more to genetics or environment?

• Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
• Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally important?
Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates

• Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what many psychologists
today believe about these issues.
Nature vs. Nurture

• The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as the nature versus
nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
• Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers
such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with
experience determining our knowledge.
• Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be
affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.
Early Experience vs. Later Experience

• A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of early
experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in early childhood,
or do later events play an equally important role? Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in
early childhood. According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five.
If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or
develop normally.
• In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not necessarily have
a dominating effect over behavior throughout life. Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to
develop normally into well-adjusted adults.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly over time,
or through a series of predetermined steps?
Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:
1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the importance of the
unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that
development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.
1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial development.
Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson
described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes include classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is shaped by the interaction between
the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of cognitive
theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is whether or not their
child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the ages at which certain skills and
abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental
theories have historically focused upon deficits in behavior, focus on individual differences in development is
becoming more common.
5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental theories in this area
tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the environment's unique impact on an
individual, so individual differences are an important component of these theories. Today, psychologists look at
both norms and individual differences when describing child development.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who
came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's
basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how
their personalities developed and whether or not they would
end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages
of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic,
Latency, and Genital.

STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Conflict
Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can
successfully advance to the next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at
a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she matures
psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance, they are met by
opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then most of the troops
(libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to remain behind to fight
and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.
Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation
Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs
of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration.
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of
a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a
particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been
permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from
putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or
mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly
when under stress.
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully
aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the
outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future
relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively
tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their feces when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get
rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal
stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things away. In
essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex
parent.
➢ Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial
ideas and one that many people reject outright.

The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father
and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the
generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual
(pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to
enable him to do so.

Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he
loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration
anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviours. This is called identification, and is how the three- to five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus
complex.

Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviours of another person. The
consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become
the superego.
➢ Electra Complex

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes
that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.

The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish
for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.

The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female
gender role.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re:
defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely
confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of
adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship
with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may
prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex,
rather than sexual intercourse.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious, motivation- main cause of behavior lies
buried in the unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy and a theory of
personality.
Three Structures of Personality
1.) ID
2.) Ego
3.) Superego

Tripartite Theory of Personality

Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego (also known as the
psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way
physical.
The id is the primitive and instinctive component of
personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality, including the sex
(life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which
is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied
immediately, regardless of the consequences.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world (like a referee). It is the
decision-making component of personality
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often
compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and
norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others. It is similar
to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt.
Trait Approach to Personality
This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits which are the fundamental units of one’s
personality.
Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means that traits should remain consistent
across situations and over time, but may vary between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due
to genetic differences. These theories are sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because of their emphasis on
measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given
numeric score to indicate how much of a trait they possess.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 5: PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Schema- Piaget used the term ―schema‖ to refer to the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt
too and organize environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience.
Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience.
Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences
do not match our schemata (plural of schema) cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium this means there
is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and
accommodation to establish equilibrium.
Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage
The first stage corresponds for infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the
senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn, about him and the world.
➢ Object permanence
This is the ability of the child to know that and object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in
the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage
The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence
at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend the
child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
➢ Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually develops the period between 2 to 7
years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already
pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass at around for years of age, Nico, may, after pretending
to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone.
➢ Egocentrism/Self centered
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point
of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who buys a toy truck for
his mother’s birthday. Or a three years old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy ―uncle and
not daddy
➢ Centration
This refers to the Tendency of the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and include other aspects. For
example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they
have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses s transferred to an obviously taller
buy narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused or ―centered
only one aspect for the new glass, that it is a taller glass.
➢ Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but
cannot understand 5-3 is 2.
➢ Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human lie traits or characteristics to inanimate object. When at night,
the child is asked, where the sun is, show will reply, ― “Mr. Sun is asleep”.
Stage 3. Concrete- Operational Stage
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in term of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8 - 11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by
the following:

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 ➢ Decentering
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the
child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to a more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situations.
➢ Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operation cannot be reversed.
➢ Conservation
This is the ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mas, volume, or area do not change even
if there is a change in appearance. The concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water
in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.

➢ Seriation
This refers to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based on one, dimension such as weigh, volume or
size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
now solve in general ideas or specific problems and can educated guess. This stage is characterized by the following
➢ Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to
make a final division or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects; The individuals can now
deal with ― “What if” questions.

➢ Analogical reasoning
Ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answer in
another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operation stage can make an analogy. If United
Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to Asia. The individual will reason that since the UK is found in the
continent of Europe then the Philippines is found what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of concrete object the individual can now understand relationship and do analogical
reasoning.

➢ Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all
countries near the north pole have cold temperatures Greenland is near the north pole. Therefore, Greenland has
cold temperature

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 6: ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHO- SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Erik Homburger Erikson

• The Father of Psychosocial Development

• Nationality American/ German
• Fields Developmental Psychology Influences Sigmund Freud/ Anna Freud Coined
the term Lifespan Development
• He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s when he met Anna Freud
• An Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna’s encouragement, he began to study child
psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
• He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn about the influence of society and
culture on child development. From this, he developed a number of theories, the
most famous being his psychosocial development.
• He believed that humans have to resolve different conflicts as they progress through
each stage of development in the life cycle.
• Erikson’s theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is
characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual. If a person is unable to resolve a conflict
at a particular stage, they will be confronting and struggle with it later in life.
Elements
Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human interaction and how an individual becomes more conscious of themselves
and their surroundings.
Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual becoming competent in different areas life, by becoming competent
in life they feel more important.
Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an individual struggles to attain some psychological quality. Sometimes
referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be a time of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual works toward
success or failure.
8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Best known theories of personality and development.

• Personality develops in a series of predetermined stages.
• Psychosocial, and not psychosexual.
• In each stage of development conflicts acts as turning points in life
Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought, behavior and emotional responses that
characterize a person’s adaptations to surrounding situations.
Psychosexual Development- Refers to the emotional and psychological changes across the life cycle that occurs in the
context of the individual’s social environment.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth
continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which
they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages
of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively,
rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a ―time of vigor of action and of behaviors
that the parents may see as aggressive."
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs
during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read
and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they
teach the child specific skills.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs.
role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for
a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During
this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory
of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs.). Generativity
refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory
of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time
that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 7: KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that moral development is a

continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
• Used Piaget’s story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
• One of the best-known stories of Kohlberg’s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz
who lived somewhere in Europe.

Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-old and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a personal code of morality.
Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation.
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different
individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role
models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person
belongs.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the
approval of others.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order
to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of
abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views
from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights.
The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are
times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear-cut. For
example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles.
People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The
principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend
these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences
of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 8: VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO- CULTURAL THEORY
Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

• The Mozart of Psychology

• Lev Semonovich Vygotsky was born in Western Russia on November 5, 1986.His
father, Semi L‘vovich, founded the ―Society of Education in Gomel‖, and held a
wide range of active interest including foreign language, history, literature, theater
and arts. His mother was educated as teacher.
• His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his
own teaching.
• He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development and
educating students with special needs.
Sociocultural theory of development:

• Crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a cultural
context, have on cognitive development.
• Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities.
• Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner’s environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model,
assist, give directions and provide feedback.
• Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Language

• Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture.

• Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
• It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
• It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems.
• It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner to regulate and reflect
on his own thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what the child accomplishes alone and what he/she can accomplish with guidance of another.
Zone of Actual Development
Which the child may perform certain level of competency she/ he may not immediately be at it.
Scaffolding
Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she cannot accomplish independently. It is not
about doing the task for the child while he/she watches. It is not about doing short cuts for the child It should involve the
judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal
development.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 9: BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent
qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory
emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt
to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in various
ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive
system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each
other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which children
live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the
children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and
caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow. Similarly, how children
react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more
supportive interactions and relationships will understandably foster they children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems is that it is
possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the development of them to
progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique
genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in. It is, in
essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family,
and between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, for example
they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time with them, then the child’s development
is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.
However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences disequilibrium
and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain the
developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact with may still have an
impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the
neighborhood the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on
his children and mistreat them at home.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have significant
influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their
dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in peaceful
environments.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the
influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family
structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.
By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the
diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize
us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.
For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim at home.
Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her
behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these settings.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 CHAPTER 10: STAGES OF CHILD LEARNING DEVELOPMENT
When planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating an educational program, the nurse as educator must carefully
consider the characteristics of learners with respect to their developmental stage in life. The more heterogeneous the target
audience, the more complex the development of an educational program to meet the diverse needs of the population.
Conversely, the more homogeneous the population of learners, the more straightforward the approach to teaching.
An individual’s developmental stage significantly influences the ability to learn. Pedagogy, andragogy, and gerogogy are
three different orientations to learning in childhood, young and middle adulthood, and older adulthood, respectively. To
meet the health-related educational needs of learners, a developmental approach must be used. Three major stage-range
factors associated with learner readiness—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation—must be taken into account at
each developmental period throughout the life cycle.
For many years, developmental psychologists have explored the various patterns of behavior particular to stages of
development. Educators, more than ever before, acknowledge the effects of growth and development on an individual’s
willingness and ability to make use of instruction.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
As noted earlier, actual chronological age is only a relative indicator of someone’s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
stage of development. Unique as each individual is, however, some typical developmental trends have been identified as
milestones of normal progression through the life cycle. When dealing with the teaching-learning process, it is imperative
to examine the developmental phases as individuals progress from infancy to senescence so as to fully appreciate the
behavioral changes that occur in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
As influential as age can be to learning readiness, it should never be examined in isolation. Growth and development interact
with experiential background, physical and emotional health status, and personal motivation, as well as numerous
environmental factors such as stress, the surrounding conditions, and the available support systems, to affect a person’s
ability and readiness to learn.
Musinski (1999) describes three phases of learning: dependence, independence, and interdependence. These passages of
learning ability from childhood to adulthood, labeled by Covey (1990) as the ― “maturity continuum”, are identified as
follows:

• Dependence is characteristic of the infant and young child, who are totally dependent on others for direction,
support, and nurturance from a physical, emotional, and intellectual standpoint (unfortunately, some adults are
considered to be stuck in this stage if they demonstrate manipulative behavior, do not listen, are insecure, or do not
accept responsibility for their own actions).
• Independence occurs when a child develops the ability to physically, intellectually, and emotionally care for himself
or herself and make his or her own choices, including taking responsibility for learning.
• Interdependence occurs when an individual has sufficiently advanced in maturity to achieve self-reliance, a sense
of self-esteem, and the ability to give and receive, and when that individual demonstrates a level of respect for
others. Full physical maturity does not guarantee simultaneous emotional and intellectual maturity.
What is child development and what skills do children develop at different ages
What is child development?
Child development is a process every child goes through. This process involves learning and mastering skills like sitting,
walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes. Children learn these skills, called developmental milestones, during predictable
time periods.
Children develop skills in five main areas of development:
1. Cognitive Development This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems. For example, this includes a two-
month-old baby learning to explore the environment with hands or eyes or a five-year-old learning how to do simple
math problems.
2. Social and Emotional Development This is the child's ability to interact with others, including helping themselves
and self-control. Examples of this type of development would include: a six-week-old baby smiling, a ten-month-
old baby waving bye-bye, or a five-year-old boy knowing how to take turns in games at school.
3. Speech and Language Development This is the child's ability to both understand and use language. For example,
this includes a 12-month-old baby saying his first words, a two-year-old naming parts of her body, or a five-year-
old learning to say "feet" instead of "foots".
4. Fine Motor Skill Development This is the child's ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and fingers,
to pick up small objects, hold a spoon, turn pages in a book, or use a crayon to draw.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 5. Gross Motor Skill Development This is the child's ability to use large muscles. For example, a six-month-old baby
learns how to sit up with some support, a 12-month-old baby learns to pull up to a stand holding onto furniture, and
a five-year-old learns to skip.
What is a developmental milestone?
A developmental milestone is a skill that a child acquires within a specific time frame. For instance, one developmental
milestone is learning to walk. Most children learn this skill or developmental milestone between the ages of 9 and 15
months.
Milestones develop in a sequential fashion. This means that a child will need to develop some skills before he or she
can develop new skills. For example, children must first learn to crawl and to pull up to a standing position before they
are able to walk. Each milestone that a child acquires builds on the last milestone developed.
To find out more information about age-appropriate developmental milestones click on a specific age below. If you are
concerned your child has not met a developmental milestone.
What are typical milestones, or skills, children learn at different ages?
We now know that our brains are not fully developed at birth. In fact, a baby's brain weighs about one quarter (1/4) of
what an adult's brain weighs! The brain grows very rapidly during the first several years of life. During this time, your
child is learning all sorts of new skills.
What if my child does not meet a developmental milestone?
Each child is an individual and may meet developmental milestones a little earlier or later than his peers. You may have
heard people say things like, "he was walking before he turned 10 months, much earlier than his older brother" or "she
didn't say much until she was about 2 years old and then she talked a blue streak!" This is because each child is unique
and will develop at his or her own pace.
However, there are definitely blocks of time when most children will meet a milestone. For example, children learn to
walk anytime between 9 and 15 months of age. So, if your child is 13 months of age and not yet walking, there is no
need to worry if he is crawling and pulling to a stand. He has acquired the skills he needs to learn to walk and may begin
walking soon. However, if you have a child 15 months of age who is not yet walking, it would be a good idea to talk
with your child's pediatrician to make sure there aren't any medical or developmental problems since age 15 months is
outside of the normal "window" or time frame in which children learn to walk.
In this website, we will provide you with some information about these "windows" or blocks of time when children
usually develop a skill. We also will share with you some warning signs or "red flags" to watch for that may mean your
child is not meeting developmental milestones. We will also give you the names of some books and websites about
child development that you may find helpful.
However, whenever you have questions, do not hesitate to ask a professional like your child's doctor, nurse practitioner,
or a trained child development or behavioral specialist. There are also several clinical specialists who are specifically
trained in various areas of development who can be consulted. These include speech pathologists, occupational and
physical therapists, developmental psychologists and audiologists.
How can I help my child meet these developmental milestones?
As parents, we all want our children to succeed and be the best they can be. We know from research that two factors
influence how your child succeeds and grows: genes and environment.
One of the factors that influence our child's development is their genetic makeup or "genes." Some people refer to this
as "nature." Genes are the genetic material we pass onto our children. Children are born with their "genes" in place.
These genes act like a blueprint for what characteristics a child may have. For example, genes determine if a child will
have blue eyes or brown eyes; they also determine if he will be left- or right-handed.
The other factor that influences child development is the environment. This includes experiences children have in their
home, school and community environments. Some people refer to this as "nurture." The environment can either improve
or harm a child's genetic blueprint. For example, malnourished children who live in third world countries may not reach
their IQ potential because of the impact of their environment on their brain development.
We often think we need to run out and buy special toys, music and games to stimulate our child's development, but we
have to remind ourselves that it is more important to provide the following, every-day activities you can do with your
child to encourage brain development.

• Give your child lots of love and attention. No matter what a child's age, holding, hugging, and listening are
important ways to show your child they matter.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
 • Interact with your child by talking, singing, playing, eating, and reading with your child. Your child will grow
up feeling special and important to you. You will also learn a lot about your child's interests and skills.
• Read, read, read. Research has shown that children who are read to by their parents have a larger vocabulary
than other children. Reading also provides children with new perspectives about the world we live in.
• Learn some simple parenting skills for helping your child to learn how to behave. The most important parenting
skills are having consistent rules, rewarding behaviors you want to see your child do more of, and having
consequences for behaviors you do not want your child to continue to do.
• Limit TV time and video time to no more than 1-2 hours of educational viewing per day.
• Ask for help when you need it from your spouse, partner, family, friends, and your child's doctor or nurse
practitioner. Parenting is wonderful but it is not always easy.
11 Types of Play Important to a Child's Development

Play builds your child's creativity and imagination as well as other skills. Whether it is simply rolling a ball back and forth
with a sibling or putting on a costume and imagining she's an astronaut—she's developing important social skills such as
learning to take turns, cooperating, and getting along with others.
Does all play look the same to you? Sociologist Mildred Parten describes six types of play that a child will take part in,
depending on their age, mood, and social setting.
Unoccupied Play
Unoccupied play refers to activity when a child actually isn't playing at all. He may be engaged in seemingly random
movements, with no objective. Despite appearances, this definitely is play and sets the stage for future play exploration.
Solitary (Independent) Play
Solitary play is just what it sounds like—when your child plays alone. This type of play is important because it teaches a
child how to keep himself entertained, eventually setting the path to being self-sufficient.
Any child can play independently, but this type of play is the most common in younger children around ages 2 or 3. At that
age, they are still pretty self-centered and lack good communication skills. If a child is on the shy side and doesn't know his
playmates well, he may prefer this type of play.
Onlooker Play
Onlooker play is when a child simply observes other children playing and doesn't partake in the action. It's common for
younger children who are working on their developing vocabulary.
Don't worry if your little one is behaving this way. It could be that the child feels shy, needs to learn the rules, or maybe is
the youngest and wants just to take a step back for a while.
Parallel Play
Put two 3-year-olds in a room together and this is what you are likely to see: the two children having fun, playing side by
side in their own little world. It doesn't mean that they don't like one another, they are just engaging in parallel play.
Despite having little social contact between playmates, children who parallel play actually learn quite a bit from one
another like taking turns and other social niceties.3 Even though it appears they aren't paying attention to each other, they

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS
truly are and often mimic the other one's behavior. As such, this type of play is viewed as an important bridge to the later
stages of play.
Associative Play
Slightly different from parallel play, associative play also features children playing separately from one another. But in this
mode of play, they are involved with what the others are doing—think children building a city with blocks. As they build
their individual buildings, they are talking to one another and engaging each other.
This is an important stage of play because it helps little ones develop a whole host of skills—socialization (what should we
build now?) and problem solving (how can we make this city bigger?), cooperation (if we work together, we can make our
city even better) and language development (learning what to say to get their messages across to one another).4 Through
associative play is how children begin to make real friendships.
Cooperative Play
Cooperative play is where all the stages come together and children truly start playing together. It is common in older
preschoolers or in younger preschoolers who have older siblings or have been around a lot of children). Cooperative play
uses all of the social skills your child has been working on and puts them into action.5 Whether they are building a puzzle
together, playing a board game, or enjoying an outdoor group game, cooperative play sets the stage for future interactions
as your child matures into an adult.
Other Types of Play
While these stages are important and necessary for a child's social development, there are other types of play that also
contribute to a child's maturity. These types of play usually develop as a child begins to engage in cooperative play and
include:

• Dramatic/Fantasy Play: When your child who loves to play dress-up, doctor, or restaurant, it's dramatic or fantasy
play. Through this type of play, not only does your child's imagination get a workout, but she learns how to take
turns, cooperate, share and work on language development. Through roleplay, kids are also able to learn about
functioning in the greater community.
• Competitive Play: Whether she's beating her brother at Chutes and Ladders or playing on a local soccer team, your
child is engaging in competitive play. Rules and turn-taking, and functioning as part of a team are the big lessons
taken from this type of play. You may have to give your child guidance about dealing with both winning and losing.
• Physical Play: Gross and fine motor skills really come into play here, whether your child is throwing a ball or
riding a bike. Physical play encourages kids to be active.
• Constructive Play: Forms of constructive play include building with blocks, making a road for toy cars, or
constructing a fort out of couch pillows. Constructive play teaches kids about manipulation, building, and fitting
things together.6 Cognitive skills are used to figure out how to make something work best, whether it is a block
tower that won't stand up or a sandcastle that keeps collapsing.
• Symbolic Play: This type of play can be vocal (singing, jokes, rhymes), graphic arts (drawing, coloring), counting,
or making music. This type of play helps children learn to develop skills in expressing themselves and exploring
their experiences, ideas, and emotions.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

XYLENE A. GAÑGAN, RL., MLIS