DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aa. Nutrient in plants 植物的營養

i. nitrogen 氮
ii. mineral 礦物質

3Ab. Absorption in plants 植物的吸收

i. roots 根部
ii. experimental setup 實驗裝置

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

3Ad. Gas exchange in plants 植物的氣體交換

3Ae. Transpiration 蒸騰
i. definition 定義
ii. experimental tools 實驗工具
iii. xylem & phloem 木質部 及 韌皮部
iv. process 過程
v. factors affecting the rate 影響速率的因素

3Af. Transport of substances in plants 植物體內物質的轉運

3Ag. Support in plants 植物的支持

i. xylem & thin-walled cell 木質部 及 薄壁細胞
ii. woody stem vs. herbaceous stem 木本莖 vs. 草本莖

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aai. Nutrient in plants – nitrogen 植物的營養 – 氮

1. Acquired in the form of NO3– and NH4+

以 NO3– 和 NH4+ 的形式獲取
2. NO3– and NH4+ are absorbed by active transport and diffusion
藉著主動運輸和擴散作用吸收 NO3– 和 NH4+
3. May also be derived from NH4+ absorbed from the soil
亦可能來自從泥土吸收的 NH4+
4. Absorbed NO3– and NH4+ are transported to the mesophyll cells
and used to form amino acids
using the carbon skeleton derived from the intermediates of the Krebs cycle
Amino acids formed are then condensed together to form proteins
吸收了的 NO3– 和 NH4+ 被運送到葉肉細胞，
用於氨基酸的合成，
而氨基酸的碳骨架則來自克雷伯氏循環的中間產物
合成的氨基酸隨後被縮合，形成蛋白質

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aaii. Nutrient in plants – mineral 植物的營養 – 礦物質

1. Nitrate 硝酸鹽
- For the formation of chlorophyll / protein
用以製造 葉綠素 / 蛋白質
Deficiency symptoms 缺乏病的病徵
i. Leaving the leaves yellow 葉片會變黃
ii. Poor growth 生長緩慢

2. Phosphorus 磷
- For the formation of protein / nucleic acids / ATP which are important for
growth
用以製造 蛋白質 / 核酸 / ATP，這些對生長是很重要的
Deficiency symptoms 缺乏病的病徵
- Poor growth 生長緩慢

3. Magnesium 鎂
For the formation of chlorophyll
用以製造葉綠素
Deficiency symptoms 缺乏病的病徵
- Leaving the leaves yellow 葉片會變黃

* insufficient light supply to the plant can also make the leaves yellow
光照不足都會令植物的葉片變黃

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Abi. Absorption in plants – roots 植物的吸收 – 根部

1. Absence of cuticle allows water movement / gaseous exchange to occur freely
at the root epidermis.
由於沒有角質層，水分可自己無阻地進入根表皮 / 氣體可在根表皮自由交
換。

2. Root has an (outgrowth / root hair / long cellular extension) to provide a large
surface area for the absorption of water and minerals from the soil
根有 (突起物 / 根毛 / 長的細胞擴展) 以提供大的表面積從而方便泥土
吸收水及礦物質

3. The epidermal cells of the root have a large number of mitochondria for
providing energy for active transport of minerals
- because the mineral concentration in the cell sap is higher than that in the
soil water, thus the minerals are absorbed against a concentration gradient.
根的表皮細胞有大量的線粒體，
提供足夠能量予礦物質的主動轉運。
- 由於表皮細胞細胞液的礦物質濃度，較土壤水分的為高，
所以礦物質逆著濃度梯度被吸收。

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Abii. Absorption in plants – experimental setup 植物的吸收 –實驗裝置

[leafy shoot = 帶葉枝條、water = 水、air bubble = 氣泡]

The rate of movement of the air bubble measures the rate of water absorption.
氣泡移動速率可用作量度吸收水份速率。

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

A = cuticle 角質層
- impermeable to water to prevent excessive water loss by evaporation
不透水，可避免因蒸發作用而失去水分
- some plants, e.g. moss leaf has no cuticle and the leaves is one-cell thick
- the surface area to volume ratio is large
- this would lead to a high rate of water loss from the plant
- so, this can only survive in a moist and shady environment
部分植物，例如 蘚類的葉片沒有角質層，及葉片是一層細胞的厚度
- 表面積對體積的比例較大
- 導致高的失水速率
- 所以，它只能在潮濕的陰暗的環境中生存
- aquatic plants has no cuticle
- there is no danger of desiccation
- the leaf surface is permeable to allow gas exchange
水生植物沒有角質層
- 沒有乾燥的危險
- 葉面可透氣而讓氣體進行交換

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

B = palisade mesophyll (contain chloroplast) 柵欄葉肉 (含葉綠體)

- cells are closely packed
- higher density of chloroplasts
- since it located in the upper layer of leave,
so the cells are under direct illumination
- 細胞排列緊密
- 葉綠體密度較高
- 因它位於葉片的上層，所以細胞直接受到陽光照射

C = spongy mesophyll (contain chloroplast) 海綿葉肉 (含葉綠體)

- lower density of chloroplasts
- loosely packed with a lot of air spaces between the cells
- to allow carbon dioxide to move freely by diffusion to the mesophyll cells
- water film on the surface of spongy mesophyll for dissolving of gas
- 葉綠體密度較低
- 排列疏鬆，細胞間有大量氣室
- 使二氧化碳能自由移動，擴散到葉肉細胞
- 海綿葉肉表面具有一薄層的水分，容許氣體溶解

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

D = guard cells (contain chloroplast) 保衛細胞 (含葉綠體)

- For regulating the size of the stomatal opening /
For regulating water loss
控制氣孔打開的大小 / 調節水分的散失
- thicker inner wall and thinner outer wall / kidney-shaped
When the cell is turgid,
the outer wall will stretch more than inner wall and the cell will bend
the stoma becomes open to facilitate gaseous exchange
厚內壁及薄外壁 / 腎形
當細胞硬脹，外壁比內壁伸展較多，細胞會彎曲
氣孔變成打開，促進氣體交換。
- aquatic plants has no guard cells
- gaseous diffusion occurs all over the plant surfaces
水生植物沒有保衛細胞
- 整個葉面都可作氣體擴散

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

E = stoma (singular) / stomata (plural) 氣孔

- Provides a passage for gases / water vapour
為 氣體 / 水蒸汽 提供通道
- Carbon dioxide in air diffuses through stomatal pores into air spaces to palisade
mesophyll, so the size of stoma will affect the rate of photosynthesis
空氣中的二氧化碳經氣孔，擴散入氣室，之後到柵欄葉肉
所以氣孔的大小會影響光合作用的速率
- Lower epidermis of leaves >> Upper epidermis of leaves
- reduce water loss since the temperature of upper epidermis is higher when
the plant is under direct sunlight.
- Proof :
Peel off the upper and lower epidermis. Then, observe under the
microscope whether stomata are only present on lower epidermis.
葉片的下表皮 >> 葉片的上表皮
- 防止水分散失，當陽光直接照射下，上表皮的溫度比較高。
- 證明︰
撕下上表皮及下表皮，並在顯微鏡下觀察氣孔是否只位於下表皮

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

E = stoma (singular) / stomata (plural) 氣孔

- some plants, e.g. moss leaf has no stoma
- atmospheric gases dissolves into the water film on the leaf and then
diffuses in and out through the entire surface of the leaf
部分植物，例如 蘚類的葉片沒有氣孔
- 大氣的氣體溶入葉表面的水膜中
然後透過整塊葉片的表面擴散入和出葉片
- submerged leaves of aquatic plants
- no stoma and cuticle on the leaf surface
- so the leaf surface is permeable to allow gas exchange by diffusion over the
leaf surface
水生植物浸沒於水中的葉片
- 葉面上沒有氣孔及角質層
- 葉面可透氣，通過擴散於整塊葉面進行氣體交換
- leaves floating on water
- stomata only found on the upper side
浮在水面的葉片
- 氣孔只分佈在上表面

F = Air space 氣室
- large intercellular spaces :
for rapid diffusion of gases to facilitate photosynthesis
- when a leaf is put in hot water, the air in the air spaces expands and bubbles
appear on the surface on the leaf
- 很大細胞間空間
更快速的氣體擴散，促進光合作用
- 當葉片放入熱水時，葉片氣室內的空氣膨脹及有氣泡在葉面出現

G = epidermal cell 表皮細胞

- For protecting against mechanical damage / infection
對機械性損傷 / 感染作出保護
- no chloroplast 沒有葉綠體

leaves are thin :it allows the mesophyll cells to have a rapid supply of gases, and
adequate supply of light
葉片薄︰ 令葉肉細胞可迅速供應氣體及足夠的陽光

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ac. Structure of leaf 葉片結構

A: guard cell 保衞細胞

B: epidermal cell 表皮細胞
C: stomata 氣孔

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Ad. Gas exchange in plants 植物的氣體交換

1. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen is released

During respiration, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released
當光合作用時，吸收二氧化碳、放出氧氣
當呼吸作用時，吸收氧氣、放出二氧化碳

2. During photosynthesis, the size of stomata becomes bigger, more carbon

dioxide can be absorbed and more oxygen can be released.
On the contrast, stomata close in darkness.
當光合作用時，氣孔會變大，吸收更多的二氧化碳及放出更多的氧氣。
相反，氣孔於黑暗時會關閉。

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aei. Transpiration – definition 蒸騰 – 定義

Transpiration 蒸騰作用
- is the loss of water from a plant by evaporation
- the rate of transpiration is high when stomatal pores are widely open
While transpiration is low when stomatal pores are closed
- 是指植物經蒸發散失水分的過程。
- 當氣孔完全打開時，會有高的蒸騰速率
而當氣孔關閉時，會有低的蒸騰速率

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aeii. Transpiration – experimental tools 蒸騰 – 實驗工具

1. cobalt chloride paper 氯化鈷試紙

Wet : from blue to pink Dry : blue
濕︰由藍色轉粉紅色 乾︰藍色
2. dry calcium chloride 乾燥的氧化鈣
absorb water 吸收水分

3.

[leafy shoot = 帶葉枝條、reservoir = 貯水器、tap (closed) = 活塞 (關閉)、

graduated capillary tube = 有刻度的毛細管、air bubble = 氣泡]

a. As the plant lost water by transpiration / evaporation, it absorbed water from

the set-up, so the air bubble moved towards the left.
Distance travelled by the bubble / time = rate of absorption
當植物以蒸騰作用/蒸發作用失去水份，它會從裝置中吸水，
因此氣泡移向左邊。
氣泡移動的距離 / 時間 = 吸水的速率
b. reservoir is used to adjust the position of bubble by opening the tap
貯水器通過打開活塞可用來調校氣泡的位置

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aeii. Transpiration – experimental tools 蒸騰 – 實驗工具

4.

[oil layer = 油層、burette = 滴定管、leafy shoot = 帶葉枝條、water = 水、

balance = 天平]
Note 註:
The amount of water absorbed by the plant = volume changed
The amount of water transpired = weight changed
Net gain of water by the plant = (volume changed) – (weight changed)
The water gained is essential for various life processes, e.g. formation of new cells,
photosynthesis, support, cellular metabolism, etc.
該植株的吸水量 = 容量改變
該植株 (由蒸騰作用導致) 的失水量 = 重量改變
植株淨得到水分 = 容量改變 – 重量改變
而這些淨得的水分會用於該植株體內的不同生命過程
如形成新細胞、光合作用、支持作用、細胞代謝等等

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aeiii. Transpiration – xylem & phloem 蒸騰 – 木質部 及 韌皮部

xylem 木質部
phloem 韌皮部

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aeiv. Transpiration – process 蒸騰 – 過程

1. Water vapour diffuses from air space to the atmosphere through the stomata.
水蒸氣經氣孔由氣室擴散至大氣中。

2. Loss of water vapour from air space is replaced by the evaporation of water
from the moist surface of spongy mesophyll cells
The process of evaporation also carries heat away so as to reduce the
temperature of plant
氣室水分散失由海綿葉肉細胞濕潤表面的水分蒸發而替代
蒸發的過程亦會將熱能帶走從而將植物降溫

3. The loss of water from spongy mesophyll cells lowers its water potential and
hence water is drawn from the neighbouring cells by osmosis
海綿葉肉細胞的水分散失降低了它的水勢，
並促使水分從鄰近細胞通過滲透進入

4. A water potential gradient is thus created between neighbouring cells, which

eventually draw water (together with dissolved mineral) from xylem.
鄰近細胞間因此產生水勢梯度，最終導致水分(混有已溶解的礦物質) 由木
質部流出

5. Water is pulled up from the xylem vessels

水由木質導管中抽上

6. Transpiration pull is generated.

形成蒸騰拉力

7. Water from the soil is absorbed by the root cell through osmosis
Mineral from the soil is absorbed by the root cell through diffusion and active
transport
根細胞通過滲透吸收水
根細胞通過擴散和主動運輸吸收礦物質

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aev. Transpiration – factors affecting the rate 蒸騰 – 影響速率的因素

1. Humidity increase  Transpiration rate decrease

濕度上升  蒸騰速率下降
In a humid condition, the diffusion gradient of water vapour between the air
spaces in the leaf and the atmosphere is smaller than that in a dry condition.
Water vapour diffuses slowly to the atmosphere.
在潮濕情況下，葉片氣室和大氣的水蒸氣擴散梯度較乾燥情況下細。
水蒸氣以較慢速度擴散到大氣

2. Temperature increase  Transpiration rate increase and then decrease

溫度上升  蒸騰速率上升及後下降
Under high temperature, the rate of evaporation from mesophyll cells increase
for cooling down the plant, and the transpiration rate increase.
However, if the temperature is too high, the stomata will close and then the
transpiration rate decrease.
於高溫下，為了將植物降溫，葉肉細胞的蒸發率上升及蒸騰速率上升
但若溫度太高，氣孔會關閉及令蒸騰速率下降。

3. Light intensity increase  Transpiration rate increase and then decrease

a. The temperature increased at higher light intensity so the rate of diffusion
of water vapour / evaporation became faster
b. At higher light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increase and the
stomatal pore opened wider for providing more carbon dioxide, so the rate
of diffusion of water vapour / evaporation became faster
However, if light intensity is too high, the stomata will close so that the rate of
transpiration will decease
光強度上升  蒸騰速率上升及後下降
a. 溫度在較高的光強度下會上升，
加快水蒸氣擴散速率 / 加快蒸發速率。
b. 在較高光強度下，光合作用速率上升，為提供更多二氧化碳，
氣孔會增大，加快水蒸氣擴散速率 / 加快蒸發速率。
但當光強度太高，氣孔會關閉使蒸騰速率會下降

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aev. Transpiration – factors affecting the rate 蒸騰 – 影響速率的因素

4. Wind increase  Transpiration rate increase and then decrease

Wind blows away the water vapour around the stomata so as to decrease the
humidity and increase the transpiration rate.
Under strong wind, the stomata will close so that the rate of transpiration will
decease.
風力上升  蒸騰速率上升及後下降
風將葉片表面的水蒸氣帶走，令濕度下降及蒸騰速率上升
在強風下，氣孔會關閉使蒸騰速率會下降

5. use vaseline blocks the stomata  no transpiration

利用凡士林阻塞氣孔  沒有蒸騰作用

6. cut all the leaves  no transpiration

切去所有葉片  沒有蒸騰作用

7. Too much fertilizer 太多肥料︰

Water is drawn out of the roots and there will not be enough water for the plant
根部的水分被抽出而使植物沒有充足的水分。

8. Waterlogged / Too much water / Cyanide

積水 / 太多水份 / 氰化物︰
a. Roots cell cannot absorb oxygen 根部不能吸收氧氣
b. No aerobic respiration 沒有有氧呼吸
c. Low active transport 低主動運輸
d. Less minerals absorb 低礦物質吸收
e. High water potential 高水勢
f. Less water absorption 低吸水率
g. Wilted 萎蔫

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Aev. Transpiration – factors affecting the rate 蒸騰 – 影響速率的因素

When the rate of transpiration increases,

the diameter of xylem vessels and stems decreases.
Water is transported up the stem by transpiration pull, this force increases with
transpiration rate and pulls the xylem vessel’s walls inwards, thus reducing the
diameter of the xylem as well as that of the stem
當蒸騰率上升，木質導管及莖的直徑下降。
利用蒸騰拉力將水由莖向上運輸，
此力增加蒸騰率及將木質導管壁向內拉，
因此減低木質部及莖的直徑。

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DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Af. Transport of substances in plants

植物體內物質的轉運

Vascular tissue – Xylem 維管組織 – 木質部 :

1. transport of water and mineral from root to stem and then to the leaf
水和礦物質由根部轉運到莖部及再轉運到葉部
Proof:
Put the stem of a leafy shoot in a dye solution for some time
Cut cross sections of the stem and the leaf
Examine the sections under the microscope
Xylem would be stained by the dye
將帶葉枝條莖部放於染色溶液裡一段時間後
切取莖和葉的橫切片
然後在顯微鏡下仔細觀察該些切片
木質部會被染色

2. hollow cell / no cellular content / no end walls / large lumen / empty lumen
 reduces resistance to flow
中空細胞 / 沒有細胞內的物質 / 上下細胞之間沒有接壁 / 管腔大
/ 細胞中空
 減低運輸時的阻力

3. non-living tissue 非生物組織

4. thickened / lignified wall to withstand the negative pressure of the transpiration

pull / to prevent the collapse of xylem vessels
加厚 / 木質的壁抵抗蒸騰拉力的負壓力 / 避免木質管的倒塌

5. cut stem in water 於水中修剪莖部

- prevent air entering and block the xylem
防止空氣進入及堵塞木質部

6. cut the branches 修剪樹枝

- branches : the exposed wound / lack of protective cover by the bark
renders the tree easily infected by microbes / bacteria / fungus
樹枝︰暴露傷口 / 缺乏樹皮保護
令樹木容易受 微生物 / 細菌 / 真菌 感染

21 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Af. Transport of substances in plants

植物體內物質的轉運

Vascular tissue – Phloem 維管組織 – 韌皮部

1. transport of organic food (sucrose)
Mesophyll cell (produce sugar through photosynthesis)
 Phloem  other parts of plant (e.g. roots)
Since root has no chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
有機食物 (蔗糖) 的轉運
葉肉細胞 (透過光合作用生產糖)  韌皮部
 植物的其他部分 (例︰根部)
因為根部沒有葉綠素進行光合作用

young stem 嫩莖

woody stem 木質莖

X = phloem 韌皮部、
Y = xylem 木質部

Root 根部

1. absorption 吸收
2. food storage 貯存食物
3. transport of food 食物運輸
4. transport of water 水的運輸

22 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Agi. Support in plants – xylem & thin-walled cell

植物的支持 – 木質部 及 薄壁細胞

1. Xylem 木質部
have thick / lignified cell wall
- to provide mechanical support to the plant
- to give better penetrating power through the soil
- to prevent the plant from collapse
- to increase the tensile strength of the root
具 厚 / 木質化 的細胞壁
- 提供植物機械性的支持
- 提供通過泥的穿透力
- 防止植物倒塌
- 增加根的拉伸強度

2. Thin-walled cell 薄壁細胞

If it filled with water, it becomes turgid and capable to support the stem
若它充滿水，它會變得硬脹及能為莖提供支持

23 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

DSE Biology Chapter 3A – Essential life processes in plants 植物維持生命的活動

3Agii. Support in plants – woody stem vs. herbaceous stem

植物的支持 – 木本莖 vs. 草本莖

1. The support of woody stem is mainly due to the presence of xylem, in other
words, the woody stem is mainly supported by hardness of xylem.
The support of herbaceous stem is mainly due to the turgidity of the thin walled
cells
木本莖主要由木質部的存在所支持
換言之，木本莖是由木質部的堅硬度所支持
草本莖主要由薄壁細胞的硬脹所支持

2. a. immersed in concentrated salt water

/ excessive amount of fertilizer is added
沉濃鹽水 / 加入過量的肥料
- water potential of the cell sap is higher than
that of the concentrated salt water / external environment
細胞液的水潛能高於濃鹽液的 / 外面環境的
- herbaceous stem lose water by osmosis
草本莖通過滲透失去水份
b. stop water supply 停止水供應
 herbaceous stem lose water by transpiration
since the rate of transpiration more than the rate of absorption
草本莖通過蒸騰失去水份
因為蒸騰率大於吸水率
 plants loses its turgidity / cells become flaccid
植物失去硬脹 /細胞變得軟縮

c. covering the roots of a tree with concrete 用混凝土覆蓋樹木

The concrete covering the root areas forms an impermeable layer.
Insufficient water and oxygen can reach the roots.
This leads to poor root growth rendering poor support to the tree.
混凝土覆蓋樹木的根部形成不可滲透層。
水和氧氣到達根部非常不足
這會令根部生長不良以致不能為樹木提供良好的支持

24 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung