ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING

FOR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND REHABILITATION

18
CONCRETE DAM CONSTRUCTION
AND FOUNDATION TREATMENT
ERNEST K. SCHRADER
Civil Engineer and Concrete Specialist
Walla Walla, Washington
WILLIAM F. SWIGER
Consulting Engineer
Buhl, Idaho
Vice President and Senior Consulting Engineer (Retired)
Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation

AGGREGATE
ERNEST K. SCHRADER

General

Aggregates greatly influence the material properties of a dam, including its

- strength,
- dimensional stability, and
- crack potential.
Accordingly,
- selection of
o the aggregate source,
o the equipment used for its production,
o the layout of plant and stockpiles, and
- scheduling
should receive appropriate attention.
Extensive aggregate investigation studies normally are performed by the
engineer well before construction. The contractor has a responsibility to use
results of aggregate investigations and to understand them. The engineer has a
responsibility to share the information. From a construction standpoint, particular
attention should be given to
- the size of the aggregate source,

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 - its consistency,
- the water table,
- stripping requirements,
- haul routes,
- potential degradation of the aggregate, and
- the results of crushing trials.
Aggregate that tends
- to break into flat and elongated particles, or
- into an abundance of one size group,
involves extra processing effort and potential waste material.
Regardless of
- whether investigations are done by the engineer, or
- in rare cases by the contractor,
a practical approach should be taken during evaluation and development of
project specifications. Basic criteria for high-quality aggregates have been
established over the years and should be applied when needed. However,
“textbook-perfect” criteria are not necessarily needed for all mass concrete.
Aggregates that were marginal or unacceptable by classical standards have
recently been used in mass concrete to make very acceptable materials. For
example, low-specific-gravity sand that still had good shape and durability was
used at Ririe Dam. At Middle Fork Dam, quarried marlstone (shale) was used in
roller compacted concrete, resulting in a desirable low modulus of elasticity and
other properties that make mass concrete less susceptible to cracking. Lower-
strength roller compacted concretes have shown an advantage when the
aggregates contained a normally un-allowed high percentage of nonplastic
material finer than 75 microns.
Use of the value engineering approach—which has become a formal part of
many large projects—gives the contractor a vehicle for submitting a proposal to
use relaxed aggregate requirements, if they would still provide a technically
acceptable concrete and result in savings. The savings would be shared by the
owner and the contractor.

Plant Layout

The aggregate plant location and layout are mostly dictated by

- terrain and
- the location of the aggregate source.
Gravel sources such as
- islands,
- gravel bars, and
- alluvial fans
usually

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 - are located in the valley bottom and
- are spread over a considerable area.
Sometimes they are at a significant distance from the dam. Quarries tend to be
located higher up on the abutments and close to the dam.
A basic philosophy for the aggregate plant layout is that materials should be
- moved,
- handled, and
- re-handled
the least number of times possible and over the shortest practical distances.
When a choice is available, it is cheaper to move material to a lower elevation
than a higher one. However, modern high-capacity conveyors and trucks provide
greater flexibility than was possible in the past. An example of a layout that can
be very efficient using today’s equipment is a quarry with a primary jaw crusher
located within it so that shot material can be dozed to it without loading or truck
haul. When the push distance for the dozer becomes inefficient, the crusher is
moved closer to the quarry face. Material front the primary crusher can be
transported by conveyor over rough terrain
- without scarring the environment, and
- without the hazards of road haul to a permanently located processing
facility.
Stockpiling by conveyor and extraction by a reclaim system are still efficient
and technically desirable techniques [p. 553] for large jobs. For small and
medium-size dams the expense cannot often be justified. Hauling to large
stockpiles from surge bins can be handled more efficiently than in the past. At
Willow Creek Dam a single 35-ton chassis off-highway truck was fitted with a
special dump bed that allowed much greater capacity per trip. The operator
controlled loading of his own truck without leaving the cab. Stockpiles of these
materials contained a peak combined volume of about 420,000 tons (381,000
tonnes). Withdrawal during concrete production took place simultaneously with
continued stockpiling. In 9 months, working mostly a double shift 6 days a week,
the single truck wiith operator transported 900,000 tons (816,000 tonnes) of
aggregate to stockpile.

Processing Equipment

Most aggregate processing equipment is the same as it was as 20 or 30 years

ago, except that it is somewhat more durable, more transportable, and easier to
service. Higher-capacity equipment is also more readily available, including
- conveyors,
- jaw crushers,
- cone crushers,
- classifiers,
- roll crushers,

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 - screen decks,
- rod mills,
- ball mills,
- hammer mills, and
- heavy media separators.
Most
- aggregate costs,
- production difficulties, and
- related concreting problems
usually are traceable to the fine aggregate. This historical situation has continued
with no major breakthrough in production equipment, except for some
improvement in
- impact crushers and
- the Japanese sand enveloped cement (SEC) process.
Portable impact crushers that throw the aggregate against stationary anvils by
centripetal force have become more common and have developed a reputation
for capability and flexibility. They can produce material ranging from coarse
aggregate to fine sand. However, frequent replacement of the anvils can be a
significant maintenance item, and efficiency is lost if fine aggregate is produced
from saturated materials. These crushers usually produce an excellent particle
shape, and overcome problems of excessive flat and elongated particles
common to cone crushers and many basalts.
Sand enveloped cement (SEC) (also referred to as – “double mixed”) is a
recent Japanese innovation. It is often discussed as a more efficient and
improved concrete, but basically it is simply the result of the production of a very
well controlled fine aggregate gradation and shape at constant moisture. The
procedure is relatively slow and expensive at this time, but it produces a higher
slump and more consistent concrete for the same cement content. The
procedure uses a saturation chamber and two water additions. The sand and
primary water are first mixed and then added to the other ingredients and
remaining water. Total mix times can double using this procedure and special
equipment is necessary.
An essential part of processing equipment is the power source. Providing
commercial power lines to remote areas is expensive, but so is on-site
generation. The duration of the project and the cost and reliability of fuel for
generators are key factors. On-site generation may be necessary on a temporary
basis while service lines are provided from commercial sources. Lately,
scheduling and agreements with power utilities for such facilities seem to take
longer and be less reliable. Use of the more dependable, efficient portable
generators available today should be considered if the start-up time for
aggregate production is critical, and especially if the generators can then be put
to use in another phase of work after commercial lines are established.

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Temperature Control

Temperature conditioning of aggregates has been an expensive and necessary

part of mass concrete construction. It is more important during the warm months
in regions with major seasonal changes, and in higher-strength-concrete zones
with higher cement contents.
The primary reason for controlling or reducing the temperature of aggregates
is to reduce
- the initial concrete temperature and
- the peak internal temperature reached within the mass after hydration.
Secondary benefits include
- uniform moisture conditioning, which often accompanies cooling;
- lower water demands and/or cement contents; and
- a longer workable life for the mix.
Past common methods of cooling are effective, using
- chillers,
- cold storage, and
- spraying with cold water as the aggregates travel on a belt.
The use of liquid nitrogen, which produces a very cold gaseous atmosphere
when released from pressurized storage tanks, will extract considerable heat
from aggregates and from concrete as it is being mixed. Its advantages are
becoming better recognized, and its use more common. In working with liquid
nitrogen, one must appreciate
- the safety hazard of the extremely cold gas and
- the potential for damage to the aggregate if the surface is flash-frozen
while saturated.
However, with most flash freezing, the thawed particle surface in the fresh mix
should be acceptable.
A concept that recently has been used successfully for aggregate
temperature control on roller compacted concrete projects also has application to
large conventional concrete projects. In areas where there are considerable
differences in seasonal temperatures, most aggregate production can be done
during the cold months. By making and stockpiling most of the aggregates during
the cooler time of the year, expensive forced cooling can be minimized or
eliminated, because aggregates that are stockpiled in large quantity at low
temperatures will remain relatively cool even when warm weather arrives. If the
aggregate meets specification requirements, payment should be made for it [p.
554] as a product delivered to the site but not yet incorporated into the work. At
Willow Creek Dam, approximately 200,000 yd3 (150,000 m3) (50% of the total
requirement) was stockpiled before the start of concreting. At Middle Fork Dam,
temperatures in the aggregate piles below about 40°F (4°C) were found when
material was taken from stockpile during hot summer days that reached peak

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temperatures near 95°F (35°C). A similar situation occurred at Monksville Dam,
where occasional areas of frost were exposed during front loading from stockpile
to make concrete in the summer when temperatures reached about 85°F (29°C).
[p. 555…]

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