SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL-BASED ANALYSIS OF PERMEABILITY DATA, JOHN HENRY
MEMBER, STRAIGHT CLIFFS FORMATION (UPPER CRETACEOUS), UTAH, U.S.A.
JAMES W. CASTLE, FRED J. MOLZ, SILONG LU,* AND CYNTHIA L. DINWIDDIE**
Departments of Geological Sciences and Environmental Engineering & Science,
Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0919, U.S.A.
e-mail: jcastle@clemson.edu
ABSTRACT: Interpretation of depositional environments combined
with field measurement of permeability for a portion of the Upper
Cretaceous Straight Cliffs Formation near Escalante, Utah, provides
new results for understanding and modeling facies-dependent perme-
ability variations. Offshore, transition–lower shoreface, upper shore-
face, and foreshore environments are interpreted for part of the John
Henry Member on the basis of outcrop investigation. Using a newly
designed drillhole minipermeameter probe, permeability was measured
for two of the facies within this unit: lower-shoreface bioturbated sand-
stone and upper-shoreface cross-bedded sandstone. Approximately 500
permeability measurements at a sample spacing of 15 cm were made
along four vertical profiles and three horizontal transects on a 6 m 3
21 m outcrop.
Permeability ranges from 41 to 1,675 millidarcies (md) in the bio-
turbated sandstone facies, which is massive-bedded, moderately to
well-sorted, and very fine- to fine-grained. In contrast, permeability
ranges from 336 to 5,531 md in the moderately to moderately well
sorted, fine- to medium-grained, cross-bedded sandstone facies. A high
degree of variability in permeability of the cross-bedded facies is
caused by small-scale variations in grain size and structure related to
depositional processes. The geometric mean permeability in the bio-
turbated sandstone is 253 md, compared with 1,395 md in the cross-
bedded facies.
While the facies-dependent differences in permeability (k) are ap-
parent and related to depositional and biological processes, fractal-
based statistical analysis of the horizontal ln(k) increments yields near-
ly identical results for the bioturbated facies and the cross-bedded fa-
cies, possibly suggesting an underlying statistical commonality in the
formation of both facies. Increment distributions from both facies ap-
pear similar with peaking around the mean. Ln(k) increments from
the smaller vertical data set appear similar also, but with a variance
approximately 3.7 times larger than the horizontal value. Variance
scaling analyses of horizontal and vertical data both yield a Hurst co-
efficient near 0.26, which is characteristic of negative spatial correla-
tion of the increments. The methodology developed herein offers a po-
tential high-resolution alternative to existing methods for understand-
ing and characterizing subsurface properties.
INTRODUCTION
Objectives and Significance
The objectives of this investigation are to interpret the sedimentology of
a portion of the John Henry Member of the Straight Cliffs Formation (Up-
per Cretaceous) near Escalante in southern Utah (Figs. 1, 2) and to char-
acterize the nature of small-scale permeability variations. An understanding
of the permeability distribution in sedimentary facies and the relationship
to depositional processes are key to predicting subsurface flow patterns and
the occurrence of hydrocarbons and groundwater, as has been emphasized
* Present address: Tetra Tech, Inc., 2110 Powers Ferry Road, Suite 202, Atlanta,
Georgia 30339, U.S.A.
** Present address: Southwest Research Institute, Center for Nuclear Waste Reg-
ulatory Analyses, San Antonio, Texas 78238, U.S.A.
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 74, NO. 2, MARCH, 2004, P. 270–284
Copyright q 2004, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/04/074-270/$03.00
in recent studies (e.g., Weber 1982; Weber and van Geuns 1990; Hurst and
Rosvoll 1991; Kerans et al. 1994; White and Barton 1999). However, the
small-scale variation (at a sample spacing of approximately 20 cm or less)
of permeability is not well understood. This study examines the character-
istics of small-scale permeability variation along horizontal and vertical
transects through two sandstone facies that differ both depositionally and
lithologically.
Collection of field permeability data in the context of a sedimentological
understanding aids in conditioning computer models to outcrop data, which
can improve subsurface characterization and flow simulation. Several pre-
vious studies have reported values of permeability measured from outcrops
(e.g., Stalkup and Ebanks 1986; Goggin 1988; Tyler et al. 1991; Goggin
et al. 1992; Davis et al. 1993; Fisher et al. 1993; Barton 1994; Liu et al.
1996; Dutton and Willis 1998; Willis 1998; Willis and White 2000). Data
from these outcrop investigations have confirmed the importance of un-
derstanding sediment depositional processes in predicting and modeling the
permeability distribution. However, some of the previous methods used to
measure outcrop permeability can introduce problems in data quality
caused by a poor seal between the instrument and the outcrop surface.
These problems are summarized by Dinwiddie (2001). In order to obtain
permeability values of sufficiently high quality for the current investigation,
a new field permeameter, called the drillhole minipermeameter, was de-
signed and built (Dinwiddie et al. 2000; Dinwiddie 2001; Molz et al. 2002;
Dinwiddie et al. 2003). This instrument was used successfully to collect
the field permeability data for our study.
Geologic Setting
The study area is located approximately 10 km northwest of the town
of Escalante, Utah, where the Straight Cliffs Formation crops out along the
northeastern margin of the Kaiparowits Plateau. The Straight Cliffs For-
mation is underlain by the Upper Cretaceous Tropic Shale and overlain by
the Upper Cretaceous Wahweap Formation (Peterson 1969). A wide range
of fluvial to marine depositional settings, including both wave-dominated
and tide-dominated environments, are represented within the Straight Cliffs
Formation (Peterson 1969; Shanley and McCabe 1991, 1993; Shanley et
al. 1992; Hettinger et al. 1993; Hettinger 1995; Hettinger et al. 1996; Ste-
phen and Dalrymple 2002). In general, alluvial and coastal-plain deposits
in the formation grade eastward into marine deposits (Shanley et al. 1992;
Hettinger et al. 1996).
The Straight Cliffs Formation represents deposition near the western
edge of the Western Interior seaway, which covered most of modern-day
central and midwestern North America during Middle to Late Cretaceous
time (Peterson 1969; Jordan 1995). Foreland basin subsidence in this area,
which is east of the Sierra Nevada arc and the Sevier Thrust belt, was
caused by flexural loading in response to uplift associated with subduction
of the Pacific plate under the North American plate and with compression
caused by extension in eastern North America (Jordan 1981, 1995).
The Straight Cliffs Formation is divided into four members (Peterson
1969): the Tibbet Canyon Member, Smoky Hollow Member, John Henry
Member, and Drip Tank Member (Fig. 2). The Early Coniacian to Late
Santonian John Henry Member, which includes the interval studied, con-
tains coal-bearing continental strata to the west that grade eastward into
nearshore-marine deposits, including shoreface sandstones (Shanley and
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH
McCabe 1991; Hettinger et al. 1996). The John Henry Member is underlain
by coal-bearing coastal-plain and braided-river deposits of the Smoky Hol-
low Member and overlain by fluvial sandstone of the Drip Tank Member
(Peterson 1969, Hettinger 1995).
On the basis of correlation with outcrops studied by Hettinger et al.
(1993) several kilometers to the south, the interval of our study corresponds
271
FIG. 1.—Location map.
to the informal stratigraphic unit called the ‘‘B sandstone’’ by Hettinger et
al. (1996). The base of this unit in some of the previously studied outcrops
is marked by a pebble bed interpreted as a transgressive lag on a maximum
flooding surface (Shanley et al. 1992; Hettinger et al. 1993; Hettinger
1995). Because of the lateral continuity and excellent quality of outcrops,
the flooding surface can be traced into our study area from the outcrops to
FIG. 2.—Stratigraphic divisions of the Straight
Cliffs Formation for the study area, eastern part
of Kaiparowits Plateau. The ‘‘A sandstone’’
through ‘‘G sandstone’’ represent informal
stratigraphic units after Hettinger et al. (1996).
Position of age boundaries is approximate. After
Peterson (1969), Eaton (1991), Shanley and
McCabe (1991), Hettinger et al. (1993), and
Hettinger et al. (1996).
272
TABLE 1.—Depositional features in outcrops studied.
Depositional
Environment Thickness Lithology
Foreshore 9–14 m Horizontally laminated, moderately
well sorted fine- to medium-grained
sandstone
Upper Shoreface 6–8 m Cross-bedded, moderately to moderate-
ly well sorted fine- to medium-
grained sandstone
Transition-Lower Shoreface 10–15 m Moderately to well sorted, very fine- to
fine-grained sandstone; overall up-
ward increase in grain size
Offshore 9–12 m Interlaminated to thinly interbedded
shale, siltstone, and very fine- to
fine-grained sandstone
the south studied by Hettinger et al. (1993). Above this surface, Hettinger
et al. (1993) interpreted offshore marine shale coarsening upward to shore-
face sandstone. These marine strata represent the lowermost part of the
highstand systems tract of the A-sequence in the John Henry Member (Het-
tinger et al. 1993; Hettinger et al. 1996).
Methods
Approximately 425 m of outcrop section were described from 14 sites
within the study area. Gamma-ray profiles were obtained from each outcrop
using a hand-held scintillometer. On the basis of the sequences of grain
size and sedimentary structures, along with comparison to modern and
ancient analogs, depositional environments were interpreted.
One of the outcrops, with a flat, nearly vertical face measuring approx-
imately 21 m across and 6 m high, was selected for study of small-scale
variation in permeability. A total of 515 permeability measurements from
two sandstone facies were made in triplicate at a sample spacing of 15 cm
along three horizontal transects (380 measurements) and four vertical pro-
files (135 measurements). To obtain an approximation of the mineralogy
and fabric in each of the two sandstone facies, thin sections were prepared
and examined from 32 measurement points. Sodium cobaltinitrite was ap-
plied to each thin section as a stain to aid in the petrographic identification
of potassium feldspar. Each thin section was point-counted (300 points
each) for detrital mineral content, matrix, cements, and porosity. Secondary
porosity was identified following the criteria proposed by Schmidt and
McDonald (1979). Grain size was estimated by measuring the maximum
length of grains of approximately average size in each thin section. Sorting
was estimated following methods of Beard and Weyl (1973) and Longiaru
(1987).
A newly designed drillhole minipermeameter probe (Dinwiddie et al.
2000; Dinwiddie 2001; Molz et al. 2002; Dinwiddie et al. 2003) was used
for the in situ measurement of permeability. The averaging volume of the
probe is highly localized, and is thus amenable to determining small-scale
permeability variations (Molz et al. 2003). The probe was built for insertion
into cylindrical holes drilled with a standard 5/8 inch (1.59 cm) masonry
drill bit to a depth of 10.16 cm. The equipment used includes a nitrogen
tank, flowmeter, pressure transducer, leak-proof tubing, and the probe. A
commercially available mini-permeameter control system can be used with
the new probe to detect flow rate and pressure and to interface with a
portable computer that performs various tasks such as data acquisition,
transducer calibration, and permeability computation.
In preparation for testing, a cylindrical hole was drilled into the outcrop
surface beyond the zone of weathering and perpendicular to the rock face.
The drillhole was vacuumed to remove any dust or loose sand that remained
in the hole after drilling. The distal end of the probe was inserted into the
hole, and a torque wheel was turned to expand a rubber sleeve to provide
J.W. CASTLE ET AL.
Physical Features Biological Features
Common horizontal lamination; minor low-angle cross- Minor to common shell fragments; rare burrows
bedding and planar-tabular cross-bedding in lower part in interval, becoming more com-
mon upward (Skolithos, Planolites, and possi-
bly Psilonichnus)
Common trough cross-bedding and low-angle cross-bed- Common plant fragments and common shell
ding; minor horizontal lamination and planar-tabular fragments on bedding planes; rare horizontal
cross-bedding; lower contact is erosional and laterally and vertical burrows
continuous
Massive, bioturbated intervals; minor, resistant sandstone Abundant horizontal and vertical burrows includ-
interbeds (15–100 cm thick) containing low-angle ing Ophiomorpha, Planolites, and Thalassino-
cross-bedding and hummocky cross-stratification ides; minor Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, and
Skolithos in hummocky cross-stratified beds;
minor plant fragments; minor shell fragments
Minor ripple cross-lamination, lenticular bedding, and Common, small plant fragments; minor, small
flaser bedding horizontal and vertical burrows; minor shell
fragments
a seal between the probe and the sides of the hole. Pressurized nitrogen
was then injected into the formation. Once steady-state conditions were
reached, the in situ permeability was calculated from injection pressure,
flow rate, and knowledge of the system geometry (Dinwiddie 2001; Din-
widdie et al. 2003). As soon as measurements were completed, the seal
was broken by turning the torque wheel and the probe was removed. Three
steady-state measurements were performed at different gas pressures for
each drillhole.
Advantages of the approach described above include the reduction of
questionable permeability measurements caused by weathering of the out-
crop surface, a superior sealing mechanism around the air-injection zone,
and the potential for making measurements at multiple depths below the
outcrop surface.
LITHOLOGY AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Offshore
Description.—The lower 9–12 m of the interval studied consists of in-
terlaminated to thinly interbedded shale, siltstone, and very fine- to fine-
grained sandstone (Table 1; Figs. 3, 4). Because of the low resistance of
this shaly interval to weathering, it tends to form vegetated slopes and is
poorly exposed in most of the study area. Common, small plant fragments
and minor, small, horizontal and vertical burrows are present in the shale
and siltstone. The sandstone beds contain minor ripple lamination and mi-
nor shell fragments. Minor lenticular bedding and flaser bedding are pre-
sent.
At the base of this interval, a pebble-conglomerate lag directly overlies
the marine flooding surface at the lower contact of the ‘‘B sandstone.’’
The pebble conglomerate, which ranges in thickness from 7 to 25 cm in
the study area, contains poorly sorted pebbles in a fine-grained sandstone
matrix. Rare to minor shell fragments and plant fragments are present in
the sandstone matrix.
Interpretation.—On the basis of comparison with studies of modern
sediments and ancient examples (Leithold 1989; Swift et al. 1991; Davis
and Byers 1993; Johnson and Baldwin 1996), the lower interval of inter-
laminated to thinly interbedded shale, siltstone, and very fine-grained sand-
stone is interpreted as representing deposition in an offshore marine envi-
ronment. The thin sandstone beds and laminae are interpreted as the bases
of storm deposits, which may be analogous to laminated ‘‘storm-sand lay-
ers’’ that have been described from modern shelf muds (Reineck and Singh
1972). The intervening shale and siltstone beds are thought to represent the
muddy top of the underlying storm-deposited sand combined with mud
deposited from events too weak to transport sand out from the nearshore
environments.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH
FIG. 3.—Outcrop description at location 1. A sedimentologic profile, natural gam-
ma radiation curve, and interpretation are shown. The gradual upward decrease in
gamma radiation reflects the decrease in clay content relative to sand. The lower
part of the interval studied is poorly exposed because of slope-forming shale. The
marine flooding surface, which has been interpreted as the maximum flooding sur-
face of the A-sequence of the John Henry Member (Shanley et al. 1992; Hettinger
1995), was traced into our study area from outcrops studied by Hettinger et al.
(1993) to the south. The top of the interval studied is above the top of the outcrop
at this location. The rectangle on the location map corresponds to the outline of the
study area shown on Figure 1.
273
FIG. 4.—Outcrop description at location 5. The upward coarsening suggests shore-
line progradation. The marine flooding surface that corresponds to the base of the
interval studied (Fig. 2) is present below the exposure at this location. The rectangle
on the location map corresponds to the outline of the study area shown on Figure
1. See Figure 3 for legend.
Transition–Lower Shoreface
Description.—Approximately 10–15 m of moderately to well sorted,
very fine- to fine-grained sandstone gradationally overlies the offshore fa-
cies of the interval studied (Table 1; Figs. 3, 4, 5). Massive-bedded, bio-
turbated intervals alternate with much thinner interbeds of hummocky
cross-stratified sandstone. Overall, grain size gradually increases upward
within this interval.
Abundant horizontal and vertical burrows (Fig. 6A) are present within
the bioturbated intervals, which contain minor clay. Diameter of the bur-
rows, which are identified as Ophiomorpha and Planolites, ranges from
approximately 0.5 to 1.5 cm, with lengths up to 15 cm. Most of the burrows
are gently curving to sinuous, and some are lined with pellets. Similarly
sized, branching burrows that occur in clusters near bedding contacts are
identified as Thalassinoides (Fig. 6B).
Rare mud clasts and minor fragments of plant and shell material are
present within the bioturbated intervals. However, internal sedimentary
structures are not apparent within most of the burrowed sand, probably
274 J.W. CASTLE ET AL.
because of destruction by burrowing. Rare ripple cross-lamination is pre-
sent, particularly near the tops of beds.
As many as eight stratified sandstone beds, each 15–100 cm in thickness,
are present within the transition–lower shoreface interval. These beds are
clearly defined by sharp upper and lower contacts and by generally lighter
color than the bioturbated sandstone, particularly on weathered surfaces
(Fig. 6C). The lower contact is erosional into the underlying sandstone.
The beds contain a very low content of clay and, because of carbonate
cement, tend be more resistant to weathering than the bioturbated sand-
stone. Internal stratification is horizontal to hummocky, with minor ripple
cross-lamination. Rare to minor vertical and horizontal burrows, including
Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, and Skolithos are present in the hummocky
cross-stratified beds. Some of the hummocky beds can be traced laterally
along the outcrop for more than 2,700 m as they pinch out and then re-
appear in the same stratigraphic position.
Interpretation.—The presence of hummocky cross stratification (HCS)
suggests that deposition was influenced by storm waves (Harms et al. 1975;
Dott and Bourgeois 1982; Swift et al. 1983; Walker 1984; Brenchley 1985;
FIG. 5.—Outcrop description at location 2.
Locations of the horizontal transects along which
permeability was measured are indicated (X, H,
D). The marine flooding surface, which is
present at the base of the interval studied, is
covered at this location. The rectangle on the
location map corresponds to the outline of the
study area shown on Figure 1. See Figure 3 for
legend.
Duke 1985; Walker and Plint 1992). In a study of modern beach to offshore
deposits along the California coast, Howard and Reineck (1981) described
bioturbated sediments with parallel lamination, which they interpreted as
probable hummocky bedding. Ancient examples containing HCS have been
interpreted as forming between storm wave base and fair-weather wave
base in the upper offshore to lower shoreface zone (e.g., Krassay 1994;
Colquhoun 1995; Castle 2000). The upward increase in grain size in the
interval that we studied suggests possible shoreline progradation. In a pro-
grading upward-coarsening shoreline succession in Upper Cretaceous strata
of the Spanish Pyrenees, Ghibaudo et al. (1974) described similar shoreface
deposits of bioturbated sandstones with remnant sandstone beds having
preserved lamination resembling HCS.
Deposition in a lower shoreface setting is consistent with occurrence of
the trace fossils Ophiomorpha, Planolites, and Thalassinoides (Frey and
Pemberton 1985; Pemberton et al. 1992; Pemberton and MacEachern 1995;
Pemberton et al. 2001). Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, and Skolithos have
been reported in other hummocky cross-stratified Upper Cretaceous sand-
stones interpreted as storm deposits (Frey 1990; Frey and Howard 1990).
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH 275

FIG. 6.—Outcrop photographs. A) Burrows (predominantly Ophiomorpha) in lower-shoreface bioturbated sandstone. Much of this facies is extensively bioturbated, with
individual burrow structures commonly indistinct. From outcrop section 5, 14 m (Fig. 4). B) Thalassinoides burrows near base of sandstone bed in lower-shoreface
bioturbated sandstone. Width of exposure shown is 38 cm. From outcrop section 5, 13 m (Fig. 4). C) Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone bed within the lower shoreface
interval. Skolithos burrows (vertical) and Palaeophycus burrows (inclined) are present. Length of scale 5 6 cm. From outcrop section 5, 18 m (Fig. 4). D) Cross-bedded
upper-shoreface sandstone. From 1 m above base of upper-shoreface sandstone exposed 300 m north of outcrop section 1 (Fig. 3). Length of scale near left edge of
photograph is 5 cm.

Except for within the hummocky cross-stratified beds, most of the original
sedimentary structures, including interbedding between mud and sand, in
the transition–lower shoreface interval were probably obliterated by bio-
turbation. In the lower-shoreface and transition zone, the extent of biotur-
bation, and hence the preservation of storm-generated beds, depends on the
magnitude and frequency of storms and the overall rate of sedimentation
(Reading and Collinson 1996). The hummocky cross-stratified beds pre-
served between the massive bioturbated intervals in our study area may
record wave processes that were more intense than during deposition of
the bioturbated beds.
Upper Shoreface
Description.—Cross-bedded, moderately well sorted, fine- to medium-
grained sandstone sharply overlies the lower shoreface interval (Table 1;
Figs. 3, 4, 5). Intervals of trough cross-bedded sandstone 1–1.5 m thick
(Fig. 6D) alternate with beds of low-angle cross-bedded sandstone 0.1–0.3
m thick. Minor horizontal lamination, minor planar-tabular cross-bedding,
and rare ripple cross-lamination are also present. Common shell debris and
plant fragments occur on bedding planes, and rare horizontal to vertical
burrows are present within the sandstone beds. In the outcrops studied, this
interval ranges in thickness from 6 to 8 m.
The basal contact with the underlying lower-shoreface interval is sharply
defined and laterally continuous throughout the study area. The contact is
erosional, showing approximately 1.5 m of relief among the outcrops stud-
ied. The contact is directly overlain by trough cross-bedded, horizontally
laminated, or low-angle cross-bedded sandstone. Lag deposits were not
observed on the contact.
Interpretation.—This interval is interpreted as upper shoreface, with the
abundant trough cross-beds representing subaqueous migration of dunes.
Grain size and sedimentary structures are similar to those of modern, cross-
stratified shoreface deposits (Howard and Reineck 1981; Heron et al. 1984;
Shipp 1984; Greenwood and Mittler 1985; Swift et al. 1991) and to ancient
upper-shoreface deposits (Swift et al. 1987; Walker and Plint 1992; Col-
quhoun 1995; Johnson and Baldwin 1996). The previous studies demon-
strated that sand deposition in this setting is controlled by a combination
of storm and fair-weather processes. The sharp basal contact of the upper-
shoreface facies is interpreted as a surf diastem, which is defined by Swift
et al. (2003) as a surface cut by repeated storm scour in the surf zone and
identified in outcrop as the erosional base of the lowest high-angle cross-
bed set in a shoreface succession.
Foreshore
Description.—An interval of predominantly horizontally laminated,
moderately well sorted fine- to medium-grained sandstone, approximately
276 J.W. CASTLE ET AL.
FIG. 7.—Locations of vertical profiles and horizontal transects along which permeability was measured by drilling into the outcrop face, section 2 (Figure 5). The strike
of the outcrop face is approximately parallel to strike of the paleoshoreline, which has been interpreted previously as northwest–southeast (Peterson 1969). Each dot on
the diagram corresponds to a permeability measurement. Approximate positions of rock overhang and soil cover are shown.
9–14 m thick, overlies the upper shoreface interval (Table 1; Figs. 3, 5).
Minor low-angle cross-bedding and planar-tabular cross-bedding are pre-
sent. Typically, beds of horizontally laminated and low-angle cross-bedded
sandstone 0.3–3.0 m thick alternate with beds of planar tabular cross-bed-
ded sandstone 0.15–0.3 m thick. A few beds within this interval contain a
concentration of common to abundant shell fragments, and minor shell
fragments are present on cross-bed foresets in other beds. In most outcrops
studied, grain size shows a slight upward decrease; minor shale interbeds
are present in the upper part of the interval in some outcrops.
Although burrows are rare in the horizontally laminated medium-grained
sandstone of this interval, minor to common vertical and horizontal burrows
are present in the upper, finer-grained part of the interval. The burrows,
which are identified as Skolithos, Planolites, and possibly Psilonichnus, are
approximately 0.5–1.0 cm in diameter and up to 4 cm long.
The basal contact of this interval varies from sharp to gradational. The
upper contact, which marks the top of the interval studied, is sharp and
overlain by medium-grained sandstone containing abundant oyster shells
and fragments and abundant mud clasts. This bed ranges from about 0.75
to 1.5 m in thickness.
Interpretation.—Horizontally laminated and low-angle cross-bedded
sandstone of this interval is interpreted as representing beach-face deposi-
tion in a foreshore setting. The occurrence of horizontal lamination, low-
angle cross-bedding, shell fragments, upward fining, and burrows are con-
sistent with descriptions of modern and ancient foreshore deposits (Clifton
et al. 1971; Hill and Hunter 1976; Hunter et al. 1979; Howard and Reineck
1981; Heron et al. 1984; Short 1984; Clifton 1988; Reading and Collinson
1996).
Internal structures, finer grain size, and burrowing in the upper part of
this interval indicate lower-energy deposition than represented by the un-
derlying horizontally laminated foreshore deposits. From position in the
overall succession and from comparison with other examples (e.g., Swift
et al. 1991; Walker and Plint 1992), the upper part of this interval may
represent backshore deposition. Bioturbated sediments, similar to those in
the upper part of the interval studied, have been described from modern
backshore environments (Hill and Hunter 1976; Frey et al. 1984; Frey and
Pemberton 1987). On the basis of comparison with similar contacts and
associated lithologies from other ancient successions (Bergman and Walker
1987; Pattison and Walker 1992; Bergman 1994; Arnott et al. 1995), the
sharp upper contact is interpreted as a wave-cut surface overlain by a lag
of reworked material.
PERMEABILITY STRUCTURE
Data
Intrinsic permeability was measured in two facies at outcrop section 2
(Fig. 5): lower-shoreface bioturbated sandstone and upper-shoreface cross-
bedded sandstone. In the bioturbated sandstone, 353 measurements of per-
meability were made along two horizontal transects and in the lower parts
of four vertical profiles (Fig. 7). For the cross-bedded facies, 162 perme-
ability measurements were made along one horizontal transect and in the
upper parts of the four vertical profiles. The permeability values for all
measurement points were reported by Current (2001) and are shown graph-
ically in Figures 8, 9, and 10.
Permeability values range from 41 to 1,675 millidarcies (md) in the
bioturbated sandstone facies. The arithmetic mean permeability value in
this facies is 276 md, and the geometric mean is 253 md. The range of
permeability variation in this facies along both the horizontal transects and
the vertical profiles is generally less than one order of magnitude. Grain
size in the bioturbated facies also shows little variation laterally and ver-
tically.
Permeability in the cross-bedded facies ranges from 336 to 5,531 md,
with an arithmetic mean permeability equal to 1,746 md and a geometric
mean of 1,395 md. Permeability variation exceeding 1,000 md is not un-
common among nearby sample locations. At a vertical position of 5 to 7
sample locations above the contact between the bioturbated facies and the
cross-bedded facies, a high-permeability peak can be correlated among the
vertical profiles (Fig. 8). Permeability at this position ranges from 1,924
md in profile V-2 to 5,126 md in profile V-3.
Geologic Controls
Compared to the bioturbated facies, permeability values are greater in
the cross-bedded facies because of coarser grain size, greater primary po-
rosity, and smaller percentages of clay matrix and cement (Table 2). On
the basis of petrographic observation, primary pores are larger and better
connected in the cross-bedded facies than in the bioturbated sandstone,
which is related to coarser grain size in the cross-bedded facies. Small
amounts of grain-moldic secondary porosity have formed by dissolution of
feldspar grains in both sandstone facies. Although the percentage of moldic
porosity is greater in the bioturbated facies than in the cross-bedded facies,
its contribution to permeability is small because of low connectivity among
grain-moldic pores. The growth of minor, pore-lining chlorite cement has
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH 277

FIG. 8.—Vertical permeability profiles. Most permeability values in the cross-bedded sandstone are greater than values in the bioturbated sandstone. Intersections of
horizontal transects D, H, and X are shown.

FIG. 9.—Horizontal permeability transects.

Permeability values vary over a greater range in
the cross-bedded sandstone (transect X) than in
the bioturbated sandstone (transects H and D).
Intersections of vertical profiles V1, V2, V3, and
V4 are shown.
278 J.W. CASTLE ET AL.

FIG. 10.—Horizontal permeability transects H

and D (bioturbated sandstone) plotted at an
expanded scale. Intersections of vertical profiles
V1, V2, V3, and V4 are shown.

reduced permeability in both sandstone facies. From qualitative petrograph-
ic observations from both facies, the individual samples with the highest
permeability values contain the largest amount of porosity and the least
amount of matrix and cement.
Field permeability measurements from lower-shoreface bioturbated sand-
stone and upper-shoreface cross-bedded sandstone demonstrate facies-de-
pendent variations in permeability. Because of lithologic homogenization
by extensive burrowing, the bioturbated sandstone exhibits a small range
of permeability variation over a scale of several meters. In contrast, per-
meability in the cross-bedded facies varies by more than an order of mag-
nitude over distances as small as 30 cm, which is caused predominantly
by variations in grain size and sorting related to the depositional processes
(Current 2001). The primary textural properties are preserved better in the
cross-bedded facies than in the bioturbated facies, where they have been
modified by burrowing.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF PERMEABILITY STRUCTURE
Like virtually all small-scale permeability (k) data collected during the
past decade (Painter 2001; Lu et al. 2002), the k or ln(k) data from our
study appear irregular and spatially nonstationary in a statistical sense. Ir-
regular means that the slope of k versus distance changes abruptly in a
variable ‘‘saw-tooth’’ fashion (a discontinuous first derivative; Fig. 10),
and nonstationary means that statistical parameters computed from the data,
such as mean and variance, depend on position. For example, if each of
the four plots shown in Figure 8 is divided into a top half and a bottom
half, then one can calculate a mean (m) and variance (s 2) for each half.
Proceeding from V-1 to V-4 across the top half and averaging the results,
one computes a m of 1,237 md and a s 2 of 901,356 md 2. Similar analysis
of the bottom half of the data yields m 5 336 md and s 2 5 52,544 md 2.
As apparent from visual inspection of the data, these values differ signif-
icantly, so the statistical parameters are not unique, but rather are a function
of vertical position. The same observation applies to the horizontally dis-
tributed data shown in Figure 10. Dividing these data sets into a left half
and right half yields m 5 330 md and s 2 5 17,628 md 2 for the left half,
but m 5 222 md and s 2 5 7,393 md 2 for the right half, again indicating
dependence of statistical parameters on position. Strictly speaking, it is not
appropriate to perform a statistical analysis of spatial data that are not
stationary in space or temporal data that are not stationary in time. Even
though means, variances, and (possibly) other parameters come out of such
analyses, what they represent is not clear, because the results depend on
the spatial or temporal variable in an unknown way. So how should one
proceed?
A traditional approach is to attempt to detrend the data (e.g., Gelhar
1993). Using this procedure, one attempts to identify the large-scale trends
in the data and remove them, so that what is left is stationary. Then sta-
tistical analyses are performed on the detrended data. This approach is often
not satisfactory, however, because the detrending process is highly subjec-
tive. A more rigorous approach, increasingly supported by measurements,
is to accept the fact that most data from natural sedimentary systems are
nonstationary, and to make use of the theory of nonstationary stochastic
processes with stationary increments (Lu et al. 2002). The mathematical
basis for this theory was developed during the first half of the past century
(Feller 1971, and earlier editions) and first applied to petroleum geology
during the late 1980s (Hewitt 1986) and to hydrogeology during the early
1990s (Neuman 1990; Molz and Boman 1993).
In the following analysis of the data collected in our study, the basic
property will be ln(k), which was measured at a number of points a known
distance apart. Then each pair of points defines an increment of ln(k) [
Dhln(k) 5 ln(k(x 1 h))—ln(k(x)) that is associated with the constant mea-
surement separation, h. Thus n points along a transect where ln(k) is mea-

TABLE 2.—Texture, composition, and fabric of facies tested for permeability in the John Henry Member. Data are averaged from petrographic counting of 300 points
per sample.

**Proportion of Detrital Proportion of Fabric Components (%)

Framework Grains (%)
Number of Mean Grain *Mean Lithic Framework Clay Calcite Chlorite Primary Secondary
Facies Samples Size (mm) Sorting Quartz Feldspar Fragments Grains Matrix Cement Cement Porosity Porosity
Upper Shoreface 12 0.23 3.4 65. 2.4 32. 67. 1.0 3.0 2.3 25. 1.8
(Cross-bedded Sandstone)
Lower Shoreface 20 0.11 4.8 80. 3.5 16. 65. 2.9 5.2 2.5 21. 3.3
(Bioturbated Sandstone)
* Mean sorting estimated using the methods of Beard and Weyl (1973) and Longiaru (1987): 1 5 very poor; 2 5 poor; 3 5 moderate; 4 5 moderately well; 5 5 well; 6 5 very well.
** Feldspar mineralogy is orthoclase. Lithic grains are predominantly chert, with minor sedimentary and volcanic rock fragments. The higher proportion of detrital quartz to lithic grains in the bioturbated sandstone than
in the cross-bedded sandstone is probably related to grain size difference between the two facies.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH 279

FIG. 11.—Empirical frequency distribution for the horizontal ln(k) increments (‘‘Sample Frequency’’) along with that of the best fitting Gaussian distribution (‘‘Normal
Distribution’’). The data are from horizontal transects D and H in the bioturbated sandstone facies. The empirical distribution was obtained by first computing a cumulative
distribution function and then differentiating this curve numerically. A Chi-Square test made on the empirical data directly suggested that the Gaussian fit was significant
at only the 51% confidence level, with apparently non-Gaussian peaking observed around the mean.

sured define n-1 ln(k) increments. All statistical analyses are then performed
on the increment distributions, the set of values of Dhln(k), and not on the
ln(k) distributions directly. According to theory, such distributions should
have a mean of zero that is independent of h and a variance that increases
with h as a power function (Molz et al. 1997). Traditionally, this power-
law dependence is written as s 2(h) 5 s 2(1)h 2H, with H being called the
Hurst coefficient. Furthermore, property distributions that are constructed
from sets of stationary increments, with and without correlation of the
increments, display scaling properties characteristic of a group of self-affine
stochastic processes (to distinguish from self-similar when H 5 ½) known
as stochastic fractals (Molz et al. 1997). The basic analysis procedure then
is to:
(1) compute Dhln(k) frequency distributions for a variety of h values;
(2) assuming that such distributions are Gaussian, compute the mean
(should be zero) and variance for the various Dhln(k) sets;
(3) plot s 2 versus h on double logarithmic paper; and
(4) if the plot is a straight line, determine the slope of the line, which
enables one to calculate H.
In practice, the variance calculation is highly sensitive to the relatively
small number of data points for the larger lags, so a lot of noise is produced.
This has led to the development of less data-sensitive techniques such as
rescaled range analysis and dispersional analysis (Lu et al. 2002). These
latter two techniques are simply mathematical surrogates for the use of
direct variance scaling plots to determine H, which is discussed later.
When such analyses were applied previously, most scaling requirements
were met (Painter 2001), but the resulting frequency distributions for
Dhln(k) usually appeared non-Gaussian, with a distinct resemblance to the
Levy distribution, which has undesirable statistical properties (Painter
1995; Liu and Molz 1997). However, later studies showed that such dis-
tributions, while appearing Levy-like, did not exhibit true Levy behavior
in the tails of the distributions (Lu and Molz 2001; Painter 2001). This is
fundamental, because it is the tail behavior that gives Levy distributions
their famous property of infinite variance.
In order to explain the appearance of Levy distributions as possible ar-
tifacts of the data analysis-procedure, Lu et al. (2002) presented what they
called the ‘‘fractal/facies model,’’ which is a hypothesis that Dhln(k) fre-
quency distributions within a single facies will be Gaussian. The often
observed Levy-like distributions would then result because of mixing data
from several different facies, which would be equivalent to superimposing
several Gaussian distributions, in general of different variance. Thus, the
approach advocated by Lu et al. (2002) would require that data gathered
from each facies of a multi-facies structure be analyzed separately. To the
extent practical, this approach was followed in the analysis of the present
dual-facies data set.
As shown in Figure 11, the ln(k) increment frequency distribution from
the horizontal transects of the bioturbated sandstone displays some aspects
of a Gaussian distribution of mean 0.0013 and variance 0.122; however, a
chi-square test suggests that the hypothesis of a Gaussian fit is significant
at only the 51% confidence level. This result is likely due to the poor fit
in the vicinity of the mean, where one would expect the comparison to be
relatively good for a true Gaussian fit. The frequency distribution of the
smaller horizontal data set from the cross-bedded facies, shown in Figure
12, displays more noise, but behavior in the vicinity of the mean is similar.
In addition, the best-fit Gaussian has a mean of 0.0014 and a variance of
0.127, nearly indistinguishable from the bioturbated facies. This variance
result was unexpected, and it indicates that in a statistical ln(k) increment
sense the two facies are not distinguishable in terms of mean and variance,
at least in the horizontal direction. The combined increment data are shown
in Figure 13, which is a plot of all the horizontal Dhln(k) with h 5 15 cm.
Having a mean of 0.0013 and a variance of 0.123, this combined plot is a
good example of the appearance of a spatially stationary stochastic process,
as required by theory.
Analysis of all the vertical Dhln(k) data resulted in the frequency distri-
bution and best-fit Gaussian shown in Figure 14, with the qualitative result
not unlike that shown in Figure 12. Here the mean is 0.033 and the sig-
nificantly larger variance is 0.454. The individual means to two decimal
places are 0.03 for both facies, with a variance of 0.33 for the cross-bedded
sandstone and 0.46 for the bioturbated sandstone. Thus in the vertical di-
rection there is a significant difference in variance between facies. In sed-
imentary deposits it is common for variability perpendicular to bedding to
differ from that along bedding, so the factor of 3.7 increase in the variance
280 J.W. CASTLE ET AL.

FIG. 12.—Empirical frequency distribution for the horizontal ln(k) increments from transect X in the cross-bedded sandstone facies. The best-fit Gaussian is essentially
the same as that for transects D and H (Fig. 11), indicating that ln(k) increments from both facies display similar statistical structure.

of the vertical increments compared to the horizontal increments is not
surprising, and can be viewed as a type of statistical anisotropy, as dis-
cussed in Lu et al. (2003).
When applied to individual data sets, direct variance scaling tests are
generally quite noisy (Mandelbrot and Wallis 1969), as mentioned previ-
ously. In addition, the results described in the previous paragraph indicate
that the two facies are nearly statistically indistinguishable in a Dhln(k)
sense in the horizontal direction. Therefore, we applied dispersional anal-
ysis to all of the horizontal data and all of the vertical data. The results
yielded Hurst coefficients of 0.24 and 0.28 for the horizontal and vertical
data, respectively. (It may be of interest to note that both results are near
0.25, a value inferred by Neuman (1990) on the basis of an analysis of
large-scale tracer tests and the resulting observation of scale dependence
of hydrodynamic dispersivity for a large variety of materials. Given the
limitations of our data set from the perspectives of size and rock type, this
may be a coincidence.) Straight lines of slopes 2H (half slopes of 0.24 and

FIG. 13.—Ln(k) increments for all of the horizontal data as a function of position. This plot provides a good example of the ‘‘appearance’’ of a portion of a spatially
stationary stochastic process. These numbers represent the statistically meaningful data extracted from the irregular, nonstationary, property distribution. That one should
be able to do this is the basis of the stochastic fractal theory.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FRACTAL ANALYSIS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, UTAH 281

FIG. 14.—Empirical frequency distribution for the vertical ln(k) increments (profiles shown in Fig. 8). Here the best-fit Gaussian has a variance that is 3.7 times larger
than the horizontal value (Fig. 13). This is a type of statistical anisotropy that was discussed by Lu et al. (2003).

0.28, respectively) were superimposed on the direct variance plots deter-
mined independently as shown in Figures 15 and 16 for the horizontal and
vertical data, respectively, with the result confirming that the H values
resulting from the dispersional analysis are reasonable. Magnitudes of H
in the vertical and horizontal directions are similar, although the ln(k) in-
crement variances are quite different. Very few data sets contain both hor-
izontally distributed and vertically distributed data, so additional measure-
ments are needed to see whether similar results hold for different sedi-
mentary formations. In particular, one would like to better understand the
peaking around the mean that seems to appear in all the computed ln(k)
increment frequency distributions and causes the plots to display an ap-
parent non-Gaussian shape.
CONCLUSIONS
From sedimentological study of strata within the ‘‘B sandstone’’ of the
John Henry Member, the following depositional environments are inter-
preted: offshore, transition–lower shoreface, upper shoreface, and fore-

FIG. 15.—Double natural logarithm plot of the variance of the increments (var) as a function of lag (h) for all horizontal data. The straight line was computed independently
of the variance using dispersional analysis (Lu et al. 2003). The Hurst coefficient (H) of 0.24 is one-half the slope of the line, and indicates that the increments are
negatively correlated.
282 J.W. CASTLE ET AL.
FIG. 16.—Double natural logarithm plot of the variance of the increments (var) as a function of lag (h) for all vertical data. The straight line was computed independently
of the variance using dispersional analysis (Lu et al. 2003). The Hurst coefficient (H) of 0.28 is one-half the slope of the line, and indicates negative increment correlation.
shore. Shoreline progradation is indicated by upward coarsening in grain
size and by the sequence of sedimentary structures, which indicate an up-
ward increase in wave energy. Closely spaced field permeability measure-
ments made in the lower-shoreface bioturbated sandstone and upper-shore-
face cross-bedded sandstone demonstrate facies-dependent variations and
similarities that are caused by lithologic differences related to depositional
processes.
As illustrated by our study of the John Henry Member, sedimentary
deposits are typically characterized by distinct facies that may change
abruptly in both the vertical and horizontal directions, with facies structure
relating to the depositional processes. Lu et al. (2002) proposed the fractal/
facies model as a new approach for quantifying the underlying structure of
geological heterogeneity on the basis of an understanding of facies. Rather
than using Levy probability density functions (PDFs) to describe ln(k) in-
crement distributions, the fractal/facies hypothesis proposes Gaussian
PDFs, with a (potentially) different PDF for each facies (Lu et al. 2002).
However, statistical analysis of data from the bioturbated and cross-bedded
sandstone facies of the John Henry Member, while providing evidence for
non-Levy behavior of ln(k) increments, particularly the tail behavior, yield-
ed similar Dhln(k) frequency distributions in both facies in the horizontal
direction. Variance scaling of Dhln(k), as determined by the value of the
Hurst coefficient, also appeared consistent across facies. These results may
suggest some type of underlying commonality in the formation of these
two facies that is not obvious from visual inspection. Additional data and
statistical analysis are needed to fully determine the applicability of the
stochastic fractal model (nonstationary stochastic functions with stationary
increments) as well as the fractal/facies hypothesis, because non-Gaussian
peaking in the vicinity of the mean appeared in all empirical frequency
distributions and Chi-square tests for a normal fit were not definitive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study would not have been possible without the unselfish contributions of
Bob Hettinger, who introduced us to the area, guided us in the field, and provided
valuable discussion. We thank Nicole McMahan and Joey Koon for their untiring
efforts in describing outcrops and tracing beds. Caitlin Current and Robert Bridges
assisted with collecting the outcrop permeability data. We gratefully acknowledge
the contribution of Chris Hepler, who diligently point counted the thin sections, and
Jinjun Wang, who performed the statistical calculations underlying Figures 11
through 16. We express our sincere appreciation to David Dominic, Donald Swift,
and Gary Weissmann, who reviewed the manuscript and provided many valuable
suggestions that significantly improved the paper.
This research was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Fossil Energy
Oil Technology Program, through the National Petroleum Technology Office under
contract number DE-AC26-98BC15119.
The work conducted by C.L. Dinwiddie as described in this article was initiated
and completed at Clemson University when she was a Ph.D. candidate, before the
beginning of her current employment with the CNWRA.
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Received 24 February 2003; accepted 28 August 2003.