Full Text 01

Evaluation of Asphalt Field Cores with Simple
Performance Tester and X-ray Computed

Tomography
Licentiate Thesis
Florentina Angela Farcaș
Division of Highway and Railway Engineering

Department of Transport Science
School of Architecture and the Built Environment
Royal Institute of Technology
SE-100 44 Stockholm
TRITA-TSC-LIC 12-002
ISBN 978-91-85539-82-6
Stockholm 2012
ABSTRACT
The importance of aggregate structure and air voids distribution for asphalt mixture rutting
and cracking performance has been well established on the basis of experience and is well
documented in the literature. Past and current investigations are limited to assessment of
performance based on macroscopic behavior due to the difficulty associated with the
quantitative measurement and analysis of the internal structure of asphalt mixtures. Lately,
technical advances in X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) and image processing and analysis
has made possible to bring the attention also to the internal structure of asphalt mixtures.
SPT results from asphalt field cores, including dynamic modulus (before and after loading)
and microstrain accumulation (flow number), exhibited significant variability; most likely,
induced by irregularities in the core shape. The analysis of aggregate structure and air voids
distribution performed trough X-ray CT, clearly identified segregation in the asphalt mixture
as a key factor that induced variability in SPT results.
X-ray CT provides fundamental resources to enhance understanding about role that

aggregate structure and air voids distribution of asphalt mixtures play on rutting and
cracking of asphalt mixtures; such valuable knowledge could eventually generate further
development of asphalt mixture design procedures and/or optimization of pavement
construction methods that ultimately may lead to long lasting and economical asphalt
pavements structures.
Keywords: asphalt mixture, dynamic modulus, flow number, simple performance tester, X-ray
computed tomography, air voids distribution.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express special thanks to my supervisor professor

Björn Birgisson for providing great assistance and encouragement during my
thesis.
I would also like to thank the following people:

• Co-supervisors: Dr. Alvaro Guarin and Dr. Denis Jelagin
• Guest professor: Manfred Partl
• Associate professor: Nicole Kringos
• Skanska: Kenneth Olsson
• NCC: Dr. Jonas Ekblad
• Colleagues: Agneta Arnius, Åsa Laurell Lyne, & others
• Family and Friends
• All others that I might have forgot to mention
Florentina Farcaș
Stockholm, March 27, 2012
i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................... 2
1.3 Scope ....................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................... 3
2.1 Simple Performance Tester .................................................................. 3
2.2 X-ray Computed Tomography ............................................................. 5
2.2.1 Microstructure Characterization .............................................................. 7
2.2.2 Air Void Distribution............................................................................. 10
2.2.3 Permeability analysis ............................................................................. 11
2.2.3.1 Microstructure Evolution and Damage during Loading .......... 12
Chapter 3 Laboratory Testing .................................................. 15
3.1 Field Cores ........................................................................................... 15
3.2 Testing Equipment .............................................................................. 16
3.2.1 Simple Performance Tester (SPT) ......................................................... 16
3.2.1.1 Dynamic Modulus .................................................................... 19
3.2.1.2 Flow Number ........................................................................... 21
3.2.2 X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT) System ........................................ 24
3.2.2.1 Warm up the system................................................................. 27
3.2.2.2 Scan the specimen .................................................................... 27
3.2.2.3 Calibrate the system ................................................................. 28
3.2.2.4 Reconstruction ......................................................................... 30
3.2.2.5 Post-processing ........................................................................ 31
Chapter 4 Test Results .......................................................... 33
4.1 Field Core Samples .............................................................................. 33
4.2 Simple Performance Tester Results ................................................... 34
4.2.1 Dynamic Modulus Test ......................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Flow Number Tests ............................................................................... 41
4.3 X-ray Computed Tomography Results .............................................. 45
4.3.1 Air Void Distribution............................................................................. 46
4.3.1 Aggregate Structure ............................................................................... 52
Chapter 5 Closure................................................................ 55
5.1 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 55
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................ 56
Bibliography ......................................................................... 57
Appendix ......................................................................... 73
A Simple Performance Tester (SPT) ......................................................... 73
B X-ray CT Results ................................................................................... 85
iii
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Gradation chart. ........................................................................................ 16
Figure 2. The IPC SPT machine. ............................................................................. 17
Figure 3. IPC SPT computer software running dynamic modulus test. ................... 17
Figure 4. Gauge Point Fixing Jig. ............................................................................ 18
Figure 5. SPT - sample setup. .................................................................................. 19
Figure 6. Dynamic Modulus - schematic loading. ................................................... 20
Figure 7. Flow Number Test - schematic loading. ................................................... 21
Figure 8. Cumulative Permanent Strain vs. Load Cycles. ....................................... 22
Figure 9. Repeated Load Test principle - schematic of flow number test loading... 24
Figure 10. The CT machine X-5000. ....................................................................... 25
Figure 11. Attenuation coefficients for different materials [90]. ............................. 26
Figure 12. General mechanism of X-ray tomography scanning. ............................. 26
Figure 13. X-ray CT - sample setup......................................................................... 28
Figure 14. The calibration rod. ................................................................................ 29
Figure 15. Images of the calibration tool. ................................................................ 30
Figure 16. Dynamic Modulus - sample rotation. ..................................................... 34
Figure 17. Dynamic Modulus - different loads and misalignment. ......................... 35
Figure 18. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Frequency [Hz]. ......................................... 36
Figure 19. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Frequency [Hz] - logarithmic scale. ........... 36
Figure 20. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Reduced Frequency [Hz]. .......................... 37
Figure 21. Phase Angle [deg] vs. Reduced Frequency [Hz]. ................................... 37
Figure 22. Master Curve comparison (Test results, Oscarsson and Nilsson). ......... 38
Figure 23. Phase Angle comparison- (Test results, Oscarsson and Nilsson). .......... 39
Figure 24. Comparison of Dynamic Modulus for different labs at a reference
temperature of 20°C. ....................................................................................... 40
Figure 25. Data comparison - stem-and-leaf. ........................................................... 40
Figure 26. Flow Number for different samples........................................................ 42
Figure 27. Flow Number Test Result for Sample FN2. ........................................... 42
Figure 28 Creep curve - test stages. ......................................................................... 43
Figure 29. Microstrain Samples CT1 to CT4........................................................... 44
Figure 30. Air voids distribution for sample CT1 before and after loading............. 47
Figure 34. Air voids size histogram before and after loading for samples CT1 and
CT4. ................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 35. Air voids size histogram before and after loading for samples CT2 and
CT3. ................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 36. X-ray CT image. ..................................................................................... 52
Figure 37. Distribution of aggregates in a 3D volume of interest of sample CT1. .. 53
Figure 38. Example of aggregate size classification in the 3D volume of interest. . 54
iv
Figure 39. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Reduced Frequency [deg] shifted - at
different temperatures. .................................................................................... 81
Figure 40. X-ray CT image - sample CT3............................................................... 85
Figure 41. Aggregates in the 3D volume of interest- sample CT1. ......................... 87
v
Index of tables
Table 1. Characteristics for Dynamic Modulus tests. .............................................. 21
Table 2. The samples. .............................................................................................. 33
Table 3. Flow Number - test results. ........................................................................ 41
Table 4. Samples CT1-CT4 – Dynamic Modulus and Load Cycles. ....................... 44
Table 5. Volume resolution. .................................................................................... 45
Table 6. Total air voids content for samples CT1-CT4 before and after loading. ... 49
Table 7. Flow Number Assumptions and SPT system features. .............................. 77
Table 8. Data quality statistics requirements for Dynamic Modulus measured with
SPT. ................................................................................................................. 77
Table 9. Statistical analysis of influence in sample rotation. ................................... 77
Table 10. The SPT results and Master Curve calculation. ....................................... 83
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Aggregates are a key constituent of asphalt mixtures, since they represent about
95% of the total weight of the mixture. Particle size distribution and air voids
distribution are factors that affect the most important properties of asphalt
mixtures, such as rutting and cracking resistance.
The SPT for Superpave mix design was developed as part of the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program NCHRP project 9-29 “Simple
Performance Tester for Superpave Mix Design”, from 2001 until 2011. Under
this project the Advanced Asphalt Technologies research agency proof-tested
SPT for permanent deformation and fatigue cracking in asphalt mix design. SPT
has been mostly used for laboratory-prepared asphalt samples; this project
evaluated the potential use of field cores for SPT
X-Ray Computerized Tomography (X-Ray CT) is a non-destructive technique
that allows visualizing the interior of solid objects by capturing digital
information on their 3-D microstructure. Several researchers have used this
equipment for construction materials to characterize internal structure,
determine air void distribution, quantify material permeability, and determine
the evolution of microstructure during loading.
This work was focused on evaluating the viability of using SPT for
characterization of asphalt field cores and the use of X-ray CT for evaluation of
the internal structure of asphalt mixtures e.g., aggregate structure and air voids
distribution.
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
The main purpose of this study was to investigate variability of SPT results
when asphalt field samples are evaluated; X-ray CT was also utilized to analyze
the internal structure (Aggregate structure and air voids distribution) of the
asphalt cores and possibly identify factors that may have induced variability of
SPT results. Detailed objectives of this research work were as follows:
Simple Performance Tester SPT
• Measure dynamic modulus
• Generate dynamic modulus master curve
• Evaluate variability of dynamic modulus
• Determine flow number
• Establish characteristic creep curve
X-ray CT
• Evaluate air void distribution along the vertical direction
• Assess air voids distribution before and after loading
• Compare aggregate structure from different samples
• Estimate particle size distribution
1.3 Scope
This study focused on the use of asphalt field cores to perform Simple
Performance Tester SPT and in the detection of elements that can induce
variability on SPT results. An X-ray CT system was employed for detailed
analysis of the internal structure of the asphalt mixture. All the field cores were
produced using a single asphalt base type (AG22) prepared with binder type
70/100.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Simple Performance Tester
Simple Performance Tester (SPT), also widely known as the Asphalt Mix
performance Tester, is a computer controlled hydraulic testing machine to
measure dynamic modulus and flow number of asphalt mixtures according to
the AASHTO TP79 specification.
A project sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration began in 1996 at
the University of Maryland to validate SPT for measurement of permanent
deformation and fatigue cracking. Three years later, National Cooperative
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 9-19 [1] targeted the finalization
of protocols for SPT to be incorporated in the Superpave volumetric mix design
method. A final report was prepared including updated test protocols for the
validated SPT and guidelines for their implementation and adoption by
AASHTO.
The SPT for Superpave mix design was part of the project NCHRP 9-29
“Simple Performance Tester for Superpave Mix Design”, [2] from 2001 until
2011. Under this project the Advanced Asphalt Technologies research agency
was assigned the task of designing, procuring, and evaluating an SPT for:
• Proof-testing for permanent deformation and fatigue cracking in HMA
mix design and
• Materials characterization for pavement structural design according to
the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG).
The phase I of NCHRP project 9-29 in 2002 [3], evaluated several tests for
permanent deformation, fatigue cracking, and low-temperature cracking. This
4 Chapter 2 Literature Review
report recommended three test-parameter combinations for further field

validation:
• Dynamic modulus, E*/sinφ,
• Flow time, Ft, determined from the triaxial static creep test; and
• The flow number, Fn, determined from the triaxial repeated load test.
The Phase II of the project generated NCHRP Report 513 [4] in 2003, that
analyzed the variability of dynamic modulus and flow number. The Phase III,
NHCRP Report 530, led to the production of a SPT machine capable of
accurately measuring dynamic modulus for calculation of master curves.
In 2004, the NCHRP report 530, “Evaluation of Indirect Tensile Test (IDT)
Procedures for Low-Temperature Performance of Hot Mix Asphalt” [5];
underlines the importance of understanding of low-temperature cracking
mechanisms in asphalt pavements and contributes to SPT development by
reducing test variability and improving its precision and reliability.
The Phase IV of the NCHRP project report 614, [6] “Reﬁning the Simple
Performance Tester for Use in Routine Practice” proposed a new standard
practice for developing the dynamic modulus master curve (frequency and
temperatures for testing) for a limited temperature range (from 4°C to 40°C).
Improvements for cooling capacity, load capacity, indicators were also
suggested.
NCHRP Phase V report 629 [7] “Ruggedness Testing of dynamic modulus and
flow number tests with the Simple Performance Tester”, describes a series of
experiments to be conducted and analyzed to assess the SPT equipment and test
procedures for the dynamic modulus and flow number tests. Phase V included
two major experiments:
• A formal ruggedness experiment in accordance with ASTM E1169,
Standard Guide for Conducting Ruggedness Tests.
• An experiment designed to investigate whether there are significant
differences in SPT data collected with equipment from the three
manufacturers: Interlaken Technology Corporation (ITC); IPC Global
(IPC); and Medical Device Testing Services (MDTS).
Phase VI (2011) NCHRP 702 report was available as, [8] “Precision of the
dynamic Modulus and flow number tests conducted with the asphalt mixture
performance tester”. An inter-laboratory study was designed to analyze:
• Dynamic modulus and phase angle,
• Unconfined flow and
• Permanent strain in confined flow number tests.
X-ray Computed Tomography 5
The findings of this project were multiple:

• Variability in the tests increases with decreasing specimen stiffness. The
variability of low stiffness dynamic modulus tests and the permanent
deformation in confined flow number tests is higher.
• Variability of unconfined flow number tests is unacceptable considering
current criteria for rutting resistance (NCHRP Project 9-33) [9].
• Specimen fabrication was found to be a major source of between-lab
variability in both the dynamic modulus and flow number tests.
Compactor type, air void content, and specimen age were evaluated, and
none were found to have a systematic effect on the study dynamic
modulus and flow number data.
• Gauge point drift was evident in the high-temperature dynamic modulus
test data from two of the participating laboratories out of 7.
• Differences in the fabrication and use of the greased latex end friction
reducers are likely a source of significant variability in the flow number
tests. Better control on the type, amount, and distribution of the grease is
needed.
The NCHRP Project 9-29 successfully devised tests, methods and specifications
for the development of a SPT machine. The project resulted in the development,
improvement and validation of SPT machines by several manufacturers.
2.2 X-ray Computed Tomography
X-Ray Computerized Tomography (X-Ray CT) is a non-destructive technique

that allows visualizing the interior of solid objects by capturing digital
information on their 3-D microstructure [10]. X-Ray CT consists generally of
an X-Ray source, a detector, and a turntable carrying the test specimen in
between the source and the detector. X-Rays intensities are measured before and
after they are emitted through the specimen in different directions for a full
rotation of the specimen. The intensity values are used to calculate the
distribution of the linear attenuation coefficient in order to generate a map
representing the density at every point in the microstructure. Brighter regions
correspond to dense objects such as aggregates, and dark regions correspond to
low-density objects such as voids. X-Ray CT systems are very sensitive to small
variation in density, which could be as low as 1% or smaller. This enables the
X-Ray CT system to characterize a wide spectrum of engineering materials (e.g.
[11], [12], [13], [14]).
For a long time, researchers have assumed that granular construction materials
such as asphalt and concrete are isotropic in developing continuum models. In
reality, these materials are complex composite structures of aggregates (rock)
and binder material consisting of bitumen and cement paste for asphalt and
concrete, respectively. There is a vital need to quantify the relationship between
microstructure characteristics that are known to influence the behavior of the
material and macroscopic properties of interest to engineers and designers [15].
X-Ray CT systems provide the ability to characterize the microstructure and its
evolution for asphalt and concrete as these materials are subjected to loading,
which is critical for a better understanding of the behavior of these composite
construction materials needed for the development of more realistic prediction
models of the performance of these materials. In fact, without a clear
understanding of the evolution of the microstructure, the understanding of the
deformation process is limited [16]. However, most of the available continuum
models for asphalt and concrete materials are developed without experimental
measurements of the microstructure distribution. This is due to the difficulties
associated with the quantitative analysis of the microstructure, which has
prevented continuum modeling from becoming a state-of-the-practice technique
for composite construction material engineering applications [17].
Recently, there have been several successful attempts to quantify the
microstructure of granular materials using imaging technology. Initial attempts
focused on two-dimensional (2-D) measurements conducted on cut sections of
the material (e.g. [12], [13], [18], [19], [20]). The 2-D measurements were
extended to 3-D using stereological principles [21]. The stereology approach to
quantify the microstructure was initiated by Hilliard in the 1960’s [22], [23] and
expanded to Cartesian tensor formulation by Kanatani in 1980’s [24], [25], who
presented a systematic approach using Buffon transform and microstructure
tensors to represent the distribution of microstructure quantities. However, this
approach is laborious, destructive, ineffective in capturing the evolution of the
microstructure, and provides an approximation of the actual 3-D distribution
from 2-D measurements.
X-Ray computed tomography (CT) is fast becoming a powerful tool to
accurately and non-destructively characterize the microstructure of many
granular materials. It has been successfully utilized to quantify the 3-D
microstructure of asphalt (e.g. [14], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33],
[34]), granular soils (e.g. [35], [36]), and cement concrete (e.g. [15], [37]). X-
Ray CT images can be processed using image processing techniques to digitally
reconstruct the 3-D microstructure of the scanned specimen. A key aspect of X-
Ray CT equipment is that it allows for further mechanical testing of the
specimen after initial loading and imaging, where one can relate the
microstructure to the mechanical response of the material.
X-Ray CT equipment has been used for construction materials to:

• Characterize their microstructure.
• Determine air void distribution.
• Quantify material permeability.
• Determine the evolution of microstructure during loading.
2.2.1 Microstructure Characterization
Synolakis et al. (1996 [26]) presented a new method for computing the
microscopic internal displacement fields associated with the permanent
deformation of 3-D asphalt cores while satisfying the small gradient
approximation of continuum mechanics. They computed the displacement field
associated with diametral loading of a cylindrical asphalt core using X-Ray CT
to collect 3-D images from sequences of 2-D images scanned before and after
loading. The pair of 3-D images was then used to compute the displacement
field by comparing their 3-D representation before and after the deformation.
Yue et al. (1995 [38]) showed the ability of image analysis techniques to
capture some aspects of the internal structure of asphalt. Masad et al. (1999
[27]) used this technology to measure the aggregate orientation and aggregate
gradation of asphalt. Images captured using X-Ray CT were used to analyze air
void distribution and images captured were used to study aggregate orientation
and segregation. Segregation refers to preferential separation of coarse and fine-
graded aggregates within the material, leading to reduced life and durability
problems. Segregation can be caused by the material design, improper handling,
or compaction. It is therefore important to be able to quickly determine the
presence of segregation through X-Ray CT scanning.
Hunter et al. (2004 [39]) studied the internal structure of asphalt formed by
different compaction methods including the gyratory compactor, vibratory, and
slab compaction by slicing the material into thin sections. They found that the
circumferential aggregate orientation increased with increasing particle size in
the gyratory compactor and vibratory compactors. Aggregate segregation was
also found to differ using different compaction methods. They also conducted a
repeated load axial test and found that the gyratory compactor and vibratory
compacted specimens showed higher resistance to permanent deformation than
slab compacted specimens.
Tashman et al. (2001 [40], [41]) and Birgisson et al. (2005 [42]) developed
automated image processing algorithm to isolate the aggregates from the other
phases in a digital image and separate those that are in contact. The algorithm
significantly improved the accuracy of the image analysis to determine the
orientation, segregation, and gradation of aggregates. In their study, Tashman et
al. (2001 [13]) conducted a comparison between the microstructure

measurement of laboratory compacted specimens and field cores from asphalt
pavements. The study showed significant difference in terms of aggregate
orientation, segregation, and air void distribution, i.e., laboratory prepared
asphalt specimens did not simulate the field condition in terms of the
microstructure distribution. Segregation was noticed in laboratory compacted
specimens. Aggregates had a more preferred orientation towards the horizontal
direction (perpendicular to the applied load) in field cores than in laboratory
compacted specimens. This has a major impact on interpreting experimental
results from laboratory prepared asphalt specimens to predict field performance.
In addition, it was found that laboratory compacted specimens exhibited axi-
symmetric aggregate distribution, where the aggregates had a preferred
orientation in sections cut vertically but had random distribution when the
sections were cut horizontally.
The effects of anisotropy on modulus and strength of construction materials
need to be studied. Only few studies have been conducted to establish a
relationship between these key engineering properties and the material
microstructure. Masad et al. (2002 [43]) used image analysis techniques to
study the modulus anisotropy of asphalt mixtures within the framework of a
micromechanics-based model. They found that the stiffness in the vertical
(axial) direction is 30% more than that in the horizontal (lateral) direction. This
was consistent with the finding of Tashman et al. (2001 [13]) on the
axisymmetric distribution of asphalt microstructure.
Similarly, microstructure anisotropy causes a coupling between the volumetric
and deviatoric response. This coupling effect is an important feature in
modeling the behavior of granular materials, for which inelastic dilation is a
dominant effect [44]. Granular materials generally exhibit anisotropic
microstructure distribution so that a scalar quantity is not sufficient to
characterize it (i.e. [13], [18], [32], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50]). Therefore,
it is necessary to introduce microstructure quantities that can represent the
directional nature of the microstructure. These quantities are referred to as
“microstructure tensors” and are determined from measurements on the solid or
void phase.
Tomographic imaging systems have been used to evaluate existing
microstructure tensor formulations and possibly develop new formulations
based on the scanned images obtained from a wide range of asphalt and
concrete materials. The most popular microstructure quantities are the aggregate
contact normals, aggregate orientation, void/crack orientation, and branch
vectors (e.g. [25], [46], [48]). The contact normal is defined as the vector
normal to the tangent plane at the point of contact between aggregates. An
aggregate orientation is defined by the direction of its longest axis. A branch
vector is represented by a line joining the centers of mass of the contacting

aggregates. The directional distribution of voids is described by dividing the
void space into a number of “unit voids”, and assigning a vector to describe the
orientation of each unit void [51].
A continuum representation of the anisotropic distribution of the microstructure
is achieved by averaging the directional distributions of the different
microstructural quantities within a representative volume element. Kanatani
(1984 [24], 1985 [25]) presented a stereological-based approach using Buffon
transform and microstructure tensors to describe the directional distribution of
microstructure quantities, regardless of the quantity under consideration.
Kanatani (1985 [25]) and Muhunthan and Chameau (1997 [49]) showed that the
anisotropy of engineering materials can be approximated using only a second
order tensor.
Past efforts relied on destructive techniques that involved cutting specimens in
equally spaced sections parallel to three orthogonal planes and applying
stereological principles along with the assumption of randomness to obtain the
3-D distribution from the 2-D measurements (e.g. [19], [24], [25], [52]). Using
such an invasive technique restricted the applicability of the above procedure in
capturing the evolution of the microstructure during deformation. Its main
shortcomings are the large number of samples required for taking accurate
successive measurements and the bias introduced due to the randomness
assumption. The X-Ray CT offers a solution to such a problem through 3-D
measurements of the distribution function in order to determine the components
of the deviatoric microstructure tensor.
Characterizing the microstructure of asphalt and concrete requires the isolation
of the individual phases in the first place before conducting any image analysis.
These phases are the aggregates, air voids/cracks, and the binder for asphalt or
for concrete. The aggregate contact normal distribution is another important
microstructure quantity. Watson et al. (2004 [53]) used a new technique to
verify the voids in coarse aggregate (VCA) concept for defining stone-on-stone
contact in open graded friction coarse asphalt mixtures. The image analysis
technique had the advantage over the VCA method in that it can determine the
number of contact, which is related to stiffness, while the VCA method gives
only a “yes” or “no” answer to whether the stone-on-stone contact exists [53].
A statistical parameter (∆) that can be used to quantify the directional
distribution of aggregate orientation or contact normals was developed by
Curray (1956 [54]); theoretically, the value of ∆ ranges between zero and unity.
Zero value indicates the aggregates are completely randomly distributed, which
is analogous to isotropic materials, and a unity value indicates the aggregates
(or the contact normals) are all oriented in one direction.
Oda and Nakayama (1989 [47]) derived a microstructure tensor that describes
the aggregate orientation (or contact normal) in terms of a vector magnitude that
indicates that aggregate distribution in HMA is anisotropic and that the
aggregates have a preferred orientation toward the direction perpendicular to the
direction of the applied load. This was illustrated for two asphalt mixtures by
Tashman et al. (2001 [29]), who showed that ∆ ranges between 0.3 and 0.5 on
vertical sections of HMA, whereas it does not exceed a value of 0.1 on
horizontal (lateral) sections. X-Ray CT systems have been used to further
evaluate aggregate particle distribution for a wider range of asphalt and concrete
materials.
2.2.2 Air Void Distribution
Though air voids in concrete and asphalt possess no appreciable mechanical

strength, their distribution is important in determining the overall response of
the material [16]. Wang et al. (2001 [17]) stated that a statistical study of the air
void size and spatial distribution in asphalt would present valuable information
leading to a better understanding of the permanent deformation and fatigue
mechanisms of asphalt. In their work, Wang et al. (2001 [17]) studied the spatial
and size distribution of the air voids in different asphalt field specimens with
known permanent deformation performance. They used X-Ray CT imaging and
a virtual cutting technique to conveniently obtain the cross-sections in different
orientations.
Masad et al. (1999 [12]) found that air void distribution in gyratory compacted
laboratory asphalt specimens exhibit a “bath-tub” shape where more air voids
were present at the top and bottom parts of a specimen. This shape was more
pronounced at higher compaction efforts. They also found that specimens
prepared with different aggregate sizes were found to have noticeably different
air void sizes.
Masad et al. (2002 [31]) and Birgisson et al (2005 [42]) used X-Ray CT along
with image analysis techniques to characterize the statistical distribution of air
void sizes at different depths in asphalt specimens; they found that air voids
follow a Weibull distribution. About 40% of the total number of air voids was
found to concentrate at the top third of the sample. In the case of specimens
prepared using linear kneading compactor, air void content was found to
increase with depth. The effect of gradation was also well reflected on the air
void size; the coarser gradation showed larger air voids. In summary, the results
mean that different compactors used in current practice produce compact
asphalt that can have a significantly different microstructure and thus also a
different loading response. There is currently a strong need to better understand
the relationship between internal microstructure of asphalt and its: loading

response, durability under loading, extended environmental exposure.
2.2.3 Permeability analysis
One of the most promising implications of characterizing the 3-D air void
distribution in HMA is the ability to identify and distinguish the connected air
voids from the total air voids. This is very important for accurate
characterization of asphalt permeability as it is related to the connected air
voids, whereas the isolated air voids do not contribute to this phenomenon.
Al-Omari et al. (2002 [55]) developed an imaging algorithm that compares the
location of air voids in successive X-Ray images taken along the height of
asphalt specimens. The algorithm identifies if a void in an X-ray CT image
overlaps with another in the image underneath it. The algorithm retains the
overlapping voids and deletes the ones that are not, thus isolating the connected
air voids along the entire depth of the specimen. After the connected air voids
had been isolated, several information were obtained that were related to the
permeability characteristics including the total effective void content, specific
surface area of the voids, and tortuosity (from the center of masses of the
connected voids). These parameters were related using the Kozeny-Carman
equation to determine the permeability as in Walsh and Brace (1984 [56]).
Masad, Birgisson, Al-Omari, and Cooley (2004 [57]) used X-ray CT imaging to
establish air void and permeability gradients in ten field sections. Subsequently,
they used these gradients in an unsaturated flow finite element model to
evaluate the impact on the ingress and flow of water through these pavement
sections.
Tashman et al. (2003 [58]) developed a finite difference numerical simulation
for fluid flow in granular materials by solving the continuity equation and
momentum equations (x- and y- direction) for every pixel within the
microstructure using a non-staggered scheme arrangement. The non-staggered
scheme allows using the same finite difference grid for the continuity cells,
momentum cells in x-direction, and momentum cells in y-direction. Hence, each
pixel in the digital image of the microstructure represents the continuity cell as
well as the momentum cell in both directions.
Birgisson, et al. (2005 [42]) similarly developed a user-based subroutine within
a commercial 3-D finite element code to simulate the flow of water through
scanned images of asphalt specimens. This model was used by Birgisson, et al.
(2005 [42]) to evaluate a new moisture conditioning procedure developed for
the Florida Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway
Administration. Birgisson et al. (2005 [42]) and Castelblanco, Masad, and
Birgisson (2005 [59]) used X-Ray CT 3-D images of asphalt specimens with
known moisture damage potential, along with calculated permeabilities
determined from X-Ray CT imaging to illustrate the effect of aggregate
gradation on moisture damage.
2.2.3.1 Microstructure Evolution and Damage during Loading

Landis and Keane (1999 [15]) used a high-resolution X-Ray microtomography
to measure internal damage and crack growth in small mortar cylinders loaded
in uniaxial compression. In their experiment, small mortar cylinders were
inserted into a small loading frame that could be mounted directly on the X-Ray
rotation table. This was done in order to scan the specimens at varying strain
values so that the internal damage could be quantified and correlated with load
deformation information. Multiple tomographic scans were made of the same
specimen at different levels of deformation applied through a custom built
loading frame, and image analysis of the scanned images was used to measure
the internal crack growth during each deformation increment. They showed that
under monotonic loading of concrete, there was elastic deformation up to 30%
of peak load; beyond this point, cracking occurred at the cement-aggregate
interface. At about 70% of the peak load, these distributed cracks started to
localize and matrix cracking occurred, which macroscopically became large-
scale axial splitting. Post-peak response was characterized by additional matrix
cracking and frictional mechanisms in a relatively narrow band.
Tashman et al. (2004 [34]) conducted a study where asphalt specimens were
scanned initially then deformed to prescribed strain levels of 1%, 2%, 4%, and
8% in a triaxial test set-up. The test was stopped when the prescribed strain was
achieved, and the deformed specimens were imaged again. They found that the
asphalt specimens illustrated a clear localization behavior that appeared related
to the microstructure of the material used.
Using a particle representation approach Wang et al., (2003 [60]) studied the
evolution of the aggregate structure of asphalt subjected to a permanent
deformation test. Wang et al. (2005 [61]) quantified the particle displacement
through obtaining the differences of the particle mass center coordinates before
and after testing, which allowed the determination of the average strain in a
small element consisting of four adjacent particles. The strains in the
surrounding mastic were quantified assuming the aggregate particles have only
rigid motions. The study indicated that the strains at the microstructure level
deviate significantly from the strains computed through homogeneous
continuum theories, and that the strains in the mastic could be ten times larger
than the average strains. Nevertheless, the overall average of these strains
resulted in the same displacements observed at the boundaries. The
experimental observations from the limited study performed by Wang et al.
(2005 [61]) have two significant implications: a) the properties of the binder and
mastic at larger strains need to be characterized for a better description of the
mixture properties, and b) the binder and mastic properties at small strains may
not represent their behavior at larger strains.
In order to study plastic deformation it is necessary to define a yield surface for
granular materials; many plasticity models dealing with anisotropic materials
have been developed, especially for soils (e.g. [20], [46], [47], [48], [62], [63],
[64], [65]). One of the methods of incorporating the microstructure in a
continuum model for an anisotropic material is by replacing the stress tensor
with a combined tensor that consists of a stress tensor and a microstructure
tensor [45], [46], [66].
The material deformation represented by the shear strain rate tensor, which is
the deviatoric part of the strain rate tensor, can be related to the rate of change
of microstructure tensor considering that both are deviatoric through the use of a
tensor valued functional representation as in Boehler (1987 [67]). This approach
allows for the quantification of the changes in asphalt microstructure as
reflected by the deviatoric microstructure tensor Dij, and relates it to the
macroscopic strain of the material as it undergoes the deformation process.
The literature has shown that X-Ray CT is a powerful tool to characterize and
capture the damage within a material microstructure. Its power stems from the
fact that it is non-destructive; hence the tested specimen is still intact for further
mechanical testing where the captured microstructure can then be related to the
material’s macroscopic behavior. Kachanov (1958 [68]) introduced the concept
of effective stress theory, which has been successfully implemented to account
for the effect of microstructure damage on the mechanical response of a
damaged material within the framework of continuum damage mechanics (e.g.
[69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75]). In continuum damage mechanics,
damage is defined as a microstructural change that induces some deterioration
in the material. The effective stress theory postulates that the material damage
can be characterized mainly by the decrease in the load-carrying effective area
caused by the nucleation and growth of cracks and voids as Murakami (1988
[69]). The theory postulates that a damaged material subjected to a state of
stress can be represented by a perfect material subjected to a fictitious stress
called the effective stress. In order to quantify a damage tensor, which is
symmetric, the six independent components of the tensor need to be determined
based on measurements of the void fraction in the six directions [76]. The
damage tensor can be incorporated in a continuum model (e.g. [65], [73], [75]).
Chapter 3
Laboratory Testing
Asphalt field cores were tested with SPT in order to measure dynamic modulus
and flow number; moreover, an X-ray CT system was used for analysis of
aggregate structure and air voids distribution in the asphalt mixture.
3.1 Field Cores
The asphalt cores (100mm diameter x 180mm height) were obtained from a trial
field section built by Skanska as part of the construction of a road in
Katrineholm; no traffic loads were applied on the section. The required height
for the samples is not typical for Swedish roads and proved a challenge for the
laydown and compaction of the mixture. Through experimentation Skanska was
able to obtain a single layer of 18cm of HMA from which the samples were
cored.
For this project, Skanska used a common base mixture named AG22, which
was prepared according to the Trafikverket (Swedish Traffic Administration)
specifications; additional information about the asphalt mixture is presented
below:
• Binder Type: 70/100
• Binder content: 4.4%
• Air void: 5.6%
• Mixing temperature: 145-155°C [77], [78]
• Compacting temperature: 140-155°C
• Max specific Gravity: 2.512
• Bulk Specific Gravity: 2.372
16 Chapter 3 Laboratory Testing
The particles in the distribution of the mixture are shown in Figure 1. One can
see that the mixture meets the gradation requirements according to the Swedish
standard [77].
0.45 Power Gradation Chart
100
90
80
70
60
% Passing
50
40
30
20
10 Katrineholm AG22 Gradation

Standard AG22 Maxim Gradation
Standard AG22 Minim Gradation
0
0 0,0630,125 0,25 0,5 1 2 4 5.6 8 11.2 16 22.4
Sieve size 0.45 [mm]
Figure 1. Gradation chart.
3.2 Testing Equipment
3.2.1 Simple Performance Tester (SPT)
The IPC global SPT (Figure 2) utilized in this work, is a computer controlled
hydraulic loading machine designed to provide researchers and engineers with a
tool capable of conducting a range of tests to analyze the performance of HMA.
This device employs hardware technology and software that provides better
accuracy, repeatability and operator performance compared to other commercial
systems.
The equipment is controlled by a computer system which has installed a
software program (Figure 3) that can be used to perform various tests. The
system gathers the dynamic data from the Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) transducers attached to the specimen under test then
displays plots appropriate to each test type and the function mode, in real time
on the PC.
Testing Equipment 17
Figure 2. The IPC SPT machine.
Figure 3. IPC SPT computer software running dynamic modulus test.

The machine is composed of an electrically powered hydraulic loading system,

a confining pressure system, an environmental chamber, and appropriate control
systems. For confined tests air pressurization (up to 210kPa) is used as the
confining medium. This confining technology is a clean approach for the
technician compared to other systems based on oil or water. The test control
system is computer based, using sensors on the machine for feedback (load and
confining pressure) signals. The hydraulic system uses a bottom loading
actuator system with feedback loop control and a run time adaptive control that
adjusts the command signal on the fly during testing.
The temperature inside the environmental chamber is changed by a unit outside
the triaxial cell controlled by a temperature sensor present inside the chamber.
The machine can change the temperature inside the chamber from negative to
positive values (temperatures ranging from -4°C to 60°C) via a small
refrigeration unit or a heater unit. Thermally conditioned and pressurized air can
be provided to the triaxial cell upon command by the operator, thus providing
thermal equilibrium within a three minute time limit.
The studs, where the LVDTs are mounted, can be attached with glue (usually
epoxy) to the samples using a tool called gauge point fixing jig (Figure 4). The
parallel brass studs are glued 100-mm apart and located approximately 25 mm
from the top and bottom of the specimen.
Figure 4. Gauge Point Fixing Jig.

The gauges are attached on the sample (Figure 5) in between the studs which
are placed vertically on diametrically opposite sides of the specimen.
Figure 5. SPT - sample setup.

The LVDTs sensors measure the deformation in sample when a load is applied.
SPT aims to relay asphalt mix design to the performance in the field. Asphalt
mixture can be characterized in the laboratory by measuring permanent
deformation resistance, fatigue life, tensile strength, stiffness, and moisture
susceptibility. Specifically for SPT, the common laboratory test methods for
evaluating HMA are: dynamic modulus, flow number (dynamic creep test) and
flow time (static creep test).
The tests performed on SPT are detailed below. The procedures for running the
tests to ensure proper testing are presented in Appendix, section A.1.
3.2.1.1 Dynamic Modulus

The dynamic modulus is a relevant property of HMA and has several
applications in asphalt pavement technology:
• Visco-Elastic Analysis of asphalt mixtures (laboratory and field)
• Mixture Design and Rutting Resistance: high temperature (fast load rate
for freeways, slow loading rate for intersections), plant aged condition,
air voids percentage in the mix.
• Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design (Stiffness, Rutting Model,
Fatigue Cracking Model).
Dynamic Modulus is the ratio of the stress to the strain for asphalt concrete
subjected to sinusoidal loading. In the Dynamic Modulus Test while
maintaining a specific test temperature the sample is subjected to a controlled
sinusoidal (haversine) compressive stress (load) at various frequencies. The
applied stress and resulting axial strains are measured as a function of time and
used to calculate the dynamic modulus and phase angle (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Dynamic Modulus - schematic loading.

The dynamic modulus is calculated using the following equation:
σo Ti
E* = φ= (360)
εo Tp
where:
E * = dynamic modulus
φ = phase angle, degree
σ o = applied stress
ε o = measured strain
Ti = time lag between stress and strain
Tp = period of applied stress
The dynamic modulus data generated by SPT at different frequencies is
organized in the form of arrays, one for time and one for each transducer. The
load is measured when applied and the LVDT sensors register the specimen
deformation. The analysis has been devised to provide complex modulus in
units of Pascals (1 Pa = 1 N/m2) and phase angle in units of degrees.
The general approach used here is based upon the least squares fit of a sinusoid,
as described by Chapra and Canale in Numerical Methods for Engineers [79]
and also includes provisions for estimating drift of the sinusoid over time by
including another variable in the regression function. The regression approach
also lends itself to calculating standard errors and other indicators of data
quality.
The requirements for data quality from the statistical standpoint are given in the
Appendix (Table 8). To meet these requirements one must run several repeated
tests until the results are between the specified limits. In order to cause
minimum damage to the samples while measuring the dynamic modulus and
phase angle the tests should be conducted by increasing temperature and
decreasing frequency. Two samples were used in each test. The Table 1
summarizes the temperature and frequencies specified for the tests.
Table 1. Characteristics for Dynamic Modulus tests.
Temperatures (°C) Loading frequencies (Hz)
-5 20,10,1,0.5,0.1
4 20,10,1,0.5,0.1
20 20,10,1,0.5,0.1
30 20,10,1,0.5,0.1
3.2.1.2 Flow Number

Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently
under the influence of stresses. The creep curve is created by loading the sample
until it fails. The repeated load (dynamic) creep test is used to determine asphalt
permanent deformation parameters and also to estimate or predict rutting [80],
[81]. Tigdemir, M. [82] concluded that repeated loading axial permanent
deformation test can satisfactorily be used for evaluating asphalt concrete
mixtures permanent deformation and fatigue characteristics.
Figure 7. Flow Number Test - schematic loading.

The flow number test is a uniaxial repeated load test in which a HMA sample is
subjected to cyclic axial load, then the cumulative permanent deformation as a
function of the number of load cycles is measured (Figure 7). Flow Number has
been defined as “The number of load cycles corresponding to the minimum rate
of change of permanent axial strain during a repeated load test.”
Results are usually presented in terms of cumulative permanent strain vs. load
cycles. The test can be conducted with or without a confining pressure; the
dynamic creep test usually better correlates with real field loading conditions
and performance than the static creep test [83].
Fujie, et. al. [84] studied the relationship between the number of load repetitions
and permanent deformation and defined three distinct stages, namely the
primary, secondary and tertiary stages.
Figure 8. Cumulative Permanent Strain vs. Load Cycles.

The three major zones (Figure 8) can be detailed as following:
• Primary. Strain rate decreases with loading time.
• Secondary. Strain rate is constant with loading time.
• Tertiary. Strain rate increases with loading time.
Primary stage has high initial level of rutting, with a decreasing rate of plastic
deformations, predominantly associated with volumetric change. Secondary
stage has small rate of rutting exhibiting a constant rate of change of rutting that
is also associated with volumetric changes; however, shear deformations

increase at increasing rate. While the tertiary stage has a high level of rutting
predominantly associated with plastic (shear) deformations under no volume
change conditions [85]. . While the sample remains at relatively constant
volume a large increase in cumulative strain occurs within the tertiary zone.
This large increase is due to shear deformation and the number of load cycles.
The number of cycles at which the sample reaches this large increase - called
flow number (FN) – indicates rutting resistance [3] of a HMA mixture. Larger
permanent deformation in the field is inverse proportional to the value of flow
numbers (the lower the flow numbers the higher the deformation in the field).
Because of this correlation a minimum acceptable flow number requirement can
be established for asphalt mixtures.
The secondary zone appears in the linear portion of the cumulative strain curve
which is modeled by an equation of the form:
𝜀𝑝 = 𝑎𝑁𝑏
where: εp = cumulative permanent strain
N = number of loading cycles
a = y-intercept of total cumulative strain curve
b = slope of total cumulative strain curve
The values of “a” and “b” are usually calculated and reported for each mixture.
As mentioned before, the flow number is the number of test cycles required
until tertiary flow starts in the mixture. The higher the flow number, the longer
the time until the tertiary flow in the mixture stars. The flow number varies with
the change in the asphalt content and percentage of air voids in the HMA [86].
Rutting has been considered the most serious distress in flexible pavement and
is caused by the accumulation of the permanent deformation (NCHRP 9-33-
Tentative criteria, “Mix design manual for hot mix asphalt”) [9].
The flow number test is based on the result from repeated loading and
unloading of HMA sample and the deformation of the specimen is recorded as a
function of load cycles [87]. The Simple Performance Test machine records the
strain during the repeated loading. For 0.1 seconds a load is applied to the
sample and then is followed by 0.9 seconds of rest time (dwells) is applied to
the specimen [13], [88].
The flow number test will be performed at a high pavement temperature
representative of the project location and pavement layer depth to evaluate the
rutting resistance of the mixture. For the specific mixture used in this thesis
project (AG22), the Swedish standard recommends a testing temperature of no
more than 40°C [89]. Figure 9 illustrate Flow number loading.
DEFLECTION, mm
CYCLE 1 CYCLE 2
δP(1) δP(2)
CONTACT DEVIATOR STRESS +/- 2%

STRESS, kPa
REPEATED DEVIATOR STRESS +/- 2%

CONFINING PRESSURE +/- 2%
0.1 0.9
TIME, SEC
Figure 9. Repeated Load Test principle - schematic of flow number test loading.
A major assumption in the flow number test is that the stresses are distributed
uniformly over the specimen. Friction between the loading platen and the
specimen produces shear stresses which result in a deviation from this
assumption. The effects of friction can be minimized by using long specimens.
The test specimen size for the simple performance tests was determined in an
extensive specimen size and geometry study conducted in Project 9-19. The
specimen diameter of 100 mm was selected to provide flow data that are
independent of specimen size. The height to diameter ratio of 1.5 was selected
to provide dynamic modulus and flow data that are independent of specimen
height. The reduction of end friction in these tests was a significant factor in the
recommendation for specimen size.
3.2.2 X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT) System
An X-View™ X5000-CT Computed Tomography System (Figure 10), owned

by the Royal Institute of Technology KTH, was utilized during this project. The
system is a seven-axis universal X-ray imaging system designed for the
inspection of large objects with a flat panel digital plate. The 5000 Series has an
innovative top load cabinet design for easy part loading. It can accommodate a
variety of part shapes, sizes and weights and its scanning X-ray energy range
intensity can be selected from two energy sources: 225kV and 450kV.
Figure 10. The CT machine X-5000.

When X-ray penetrates into the asphalt mixture, the ray intensity becomes
attenuated due to the absorption of atoms in the material. The grey levels in a
CT slice image correspond to X-ray attenuation which is the proportion of
X-rays scattered or absorbed as they pass through the sample. Different
materials attenuate X-ray at different rate (Figure 11); materials with higher
density have larger attenuation coefficients. In order to determine the internal
structure of the specimen, one should calculate the attenuation coefficient via a
process of computerized tomography.
5
Linear Attenuation Coefficients for different materials
10
Aggregate
Bitumen
Air
Attenuation in 1/cm
0
10
-5
10
-3 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10
Photon Energy in MeV
Figure 11. Attenuation coefficients for different materials [90].

The main components of an X-ray tomography image system are:
• X-ray sources
• A series of detectors that measure X-ray intensity along multiple beam
paths (linear or planar detector)
• A rotational specimen manipulator
• A collimator (used for linear detector array)
Figure 12. General mechanism of X-ray tomography scanning.

In the simplest approach, the source generates X-Ray radiation with certain
intensity that passes through the specimen along different paths in several
directions and a set of CT images is produced. The intensity of the X-Rays is
measured before they enter the specimen and after they penetrate through it.
The intensities of the transmitted X-Rays are recorded on the detectors placed at
the other side of the specimen. The scanning of a slice is completed after
collecting the intensity measurements for a full rotation of the specimen. The
specimen is then shifted vertically by a fixed amount (the slice thickness) and
the entire procedure is repeated to generate additional slices.
The intensity values are used to calculate the distribution of the linear
attenuation coefficient within a specimen. The resulting X-Ray CT image is a
map of the spatial distribution of the linear attenuation coefficient. In this map,
brighter regions correspond to higher values of the coefficient. Higher values of
the attenuation coefficient correspond to regions with higher density. Therefore,
since the linear attenuation coefficient at each point depends directly on the
density of the specimen at that point it is feasible to distinguish the different
features of HMA.
As mentioned before, the ability of the X-rays to differentiate materials depends
on their respective linear attenuation coefficients [91]. Materials with mass
attenuation coefficient can be obtained to determine the energy level that is
most appropriate for the asphalt concrete sample scanning.
The X-ray scanning process includes warm-up the system, scan the specimen,
calibrate the system, and reconstruct the element. An industrial computed
tomography software called efX CT was used for visualization, calibration and
reconstruction. After reconstruction, Avizo Fire, a 3D Analysis Software for
Materials Science was used for obtaining and visualizing advanced qualitative
and quantitative information on material structure images.
3.2.2.1 Warm up the system

Run the fxe-control application to start the warming process; place the beam
blocker in front of the X-ray source to protect the detector from the unfiltered
X-rays generated during the warming up procedure.
3.2.2.2 Scan the specimen

This step should not be rushed as the quality of the CT depends on the quality
of the acquisition. Ensure that there are no saturations in any area of interest at
every degree of rotation, by selecting an appropriate voltage and current
configuration. Additionally, try to have the gray level values of all areas of
interest in the area of 15 to 75 percent of the total available gray levels of the
operating bit depth.
The quantities of images used for the scan vary on part geometry (inside and
out) and resolution sought. Use more images for higher detail and complex
parts. Rectangular parts, for example, where the gray level values are border
line when imaged through the thickest region, should have more images used
during acquisition so that there will be more data for reconstruction, from the
images of the thinner region. The typical number of images captured for CT
scan is 360, 720, and 1440.
Figure 13. X-ray CT - sample setup.

The number of frames per second (fps) used are directly related to how much
detail one wants to capture during the scan. A number of 2fps is usually ideal
for small objects, but a greater value is recommended objects like asphalt cores.
There is a tradeoff between scanning-speed and scan quality when considering
the number of frames per second.
The process of re-alignment of the detector, X-ray source and the scanning
platform can be monitored using the CCTV monitor outside the scanning
chamber; there are four cameras installed in the scanning chamber (Figure 13).
3.2.2.3 Calibrate the system

Calibration routine includes two steps: capturing images of a calibration block
and capturing images of the background.
Calibration Block Radiographs

The calibration block radiographs are used to create an accurate 3D rendering of
the part. It also establishes the relationship between voxels and units of
measurement enabling the user to take accurate measurements from the volume
data. The calibration block shall be imaged at the exact same geometry settings
as the part. The X-ray tube energies can be varied though. In fact, they should
be varied to maximize the contrast sensitivity between the calibration spheres
and the surrounding material. The typical number of images used for this step is
60 [91].
It is imperative that no movements be made with the exception of the rotational
axis. If the calibrations tool needs elevation it is recommended that it is place on
a stable object. Capturing of these images can be done before or after capturing
of the inspection radiographs. Additionally, the energies and filters used during
acquisition may be altered for the calibration images. The idea is to maximize
the contrast between the calibration spheres and the background. Several tests
were run to be able to set the required filters for scanning the samples.
Figure 14. The calibration rod.

For this work, the 15mm calibration rod was selected; the Figure 15 shows the
calibration process by using efX CT software. Positioning the calibration tool
will require a degree of trial and error. The ideal situation will be to have the
calibration tool travel from edge to edge of the image during a single 360 degree
of rotation. The balls of the calibration tool must be at least 1 ball diameter from
the edge of the image. It is also beneficial but not necessary to have the
calibration tool reach from the bottom of the detector to the top. If the tool does
not span from the top to the bottom, place the tool so that one portion of it
reaches the top or bottom. This allows the creation of larger ellipses during
rotation and better data for the software to build the volume off.
Figure 15. Images of the calibration tool.

The accuracy of the software in interpreting the geometric positioning of the
X-ray tube, detector, and manipulator is given by the number of calibration
spheres that are visible.
Background Radiograph
The background radiograph is an optional step that can improve the quality of
the 3D rendering. The background image is captured at the same geometry
settings and energies as the part even if the background is being saturated
during acquisition. This image is used by the software as a means to improve
quality by subtracting that image from every part radiograph.
Artifacts such as beam hardening, ring artifacts, etc. generated by defective
pixels which affect the quality of the acquired scanned image may be corrected
during the detector calibration stage.
3.2.2.4 Reconstruction
Reconstruction is done via mathematical process that converts the raw data into
image slices. During this process the intensity data in the sinogram are mapped
to CT values that have a range determined by the computer system (16 bit, 32
bit, 64 bit, etc.). For most industrial scanners, these values map to the grayscale
in the image files produced by the systems.
The size of the reconstruction matrix is determined by the number of views and
the number of measurements per view. Spatial resolution in an image can be
improved by reducing the pixel size. However, after a certain limit smaller
pixels do not increase the spatial resolution anymore and can induce artifacts in
the image. Reconstructing with smaller pixels, under certain circumstances can
be a useful technique.
After scanning the machine is shut down and the reconstruction phase begins.
The reconstruction program runs for around half an hour and constructs the
image of the sample. The image is then further adjusted by using a histogram to
achieve the best contrast and visibility of the sample mixture.
3.2.2.5 Post-processing
The Avizo Fire software package was used to perform analysis on the X-ray CT
images. Avizo Fire has a broad range of software tools for obtaining and
visualizing advanced qualitative and quantitative information on material
structure images. The following techniques were applied to analyze aggregate
structure and air void distribution:
• Data import from CT-scans
• Scaling, calibration, conversion, re-sampling
• Image enhancement, comprehensive filtering and convolution
• Thresholding and auto-segmentation, object separation, automatic
labeling
• Skeletonization
• Direct volume visualization
• Automatic or interactive segmentation
• 3D geometry reconstruction
• Orthogonal, oblique, cylindrical, and curved slicing
• Quantification and analysis
• Results viewer with spreadsheet tool and charting
• Automatic individual feature measurements, 3D localization, and
spreadsheet selection
• Automated statistics, distributions graphs
Chapter 4
Test Results
4.1 Field Core Samples
A total of twelve specimens were tested in this project; their correspondent

identifications (IDs), tests performed and specific test objective are presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. The samples.

Sample Code Test performed Analysis
T1 Dynamic modulus Effects of sample dimensions
T2 Dynamic modulus Effects of sample dimensions
D1 Dynamic modulus Dynamic modulus Master curve
D2 Dynamic modulus Dynamic modulus Master curve
FN1 Flow Number Microstrain and failure point
CT1 Loading 600 Cycles X-ray CT before and after loading
34 Chapter 4 Test Results
4.2 Simple Performance Tester Results
This section presents and discusses the results obtained from SPT. All tests
were performed on unconfined samples. The dynamic modulus test was
measured on samples T1, T2 to study the effects of the sample geometry. The
dynamic modulus master curve was created using samples DM1 and DM2 to
analyze the HMA. The flow number test was performed in samples FN1 to FN4
to record the microstrain accumulation during loading; Flow Number was
afterwards used to calculate the range of the secondary stage of dynamic creep
curve so that two interest loading points could be selected for further sample
analysis using X-ray CT.
4.2.1 Dynamic Modulus Test
The SPT software reports the average dynamic modulus for the specimen at
each temperature and frequency tested. At lower temperatures, when stiffness is
higher the load had to be increased from 0.06 to 6 kN. Several tests were run to
find an adequate load to use. The contact stress was adjusted automatically
when the load was changed.
6000
5325
5000 5029
Dynamic modulus (Mpa)
4019
4000
3733
3000 2930
2000
1475
1000 1069 Third measurement
738,7 Second measurement
First Measurement
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 16. Dynamic Modulus - sample rotation.

Simple Performance Tester Results 35
To analyze the effects of the sample geometry (irregularities in the specimen

induced during coring) several tests were performed with the sample rotated
vertically, switching transducers (rotating sample 120°). A statistical analysis
(regression) can be found in Table 9, section A.2 of Appendix; Dynamic
modulus test was performed at 20°C three times by rotating sample T1 120° for
each test to see if there are large differences in the results (Figure 16).
Dynamic modulus at 20°C was also measured applying different loads (2KN
and 6KN) on sample T2; also dynamic modulus was obtained when the same
sample was deliberately misaligned (not centered) during testing; the results are
presented in Figure 17. The variation of dynamic modulus in these cases is
smaller than 10%, e.g. meeting SPT standards [4].
6000
5350
5000
D ynamic modulus (MPa)
4642
4069
4000
3147 3488
3000
2631
2000
Specimen loaded- 6kN
1497
1209 Specimen loaded- 2 kN
1000
649
Misaligned specimen
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 17. Dynamic Modulus - different loads and misalignment.

During the dynamic modulus test several temperatures and load frequencies
were set according to the actual road environment. For Sweden weather
conditions, dynamic modulus should be measured at low temperature. Hirsch
model [92], (see also Appendix, section 0) was developed to estimate the
dynamic modulus at low temperatures from the master curve calculated at
higher temperatures.
In general, to generate the dynamic modulus master curve, several steps must be
followed:
• Measure dynamic modulus for minimum two samples.
• Plot the measured dynamic modulus values on a logarithmic scale.
• Choose a reference temperature.

• Use superposition principle and calculate shift coefficients.
• Generate fitting curve according to the shift coefficients found.
The procedure followed to calculate the dynamic modulus master curve for the
asphalt mixtures evaluated in this project is showed in Figure 18 and Figure 19.
As expected, one can see that dynamic modulus increases when the loading
frequency increases; also dynamic modulus decreases with the increase in
temperature.
3500
3000
Dynamic modulus (ksi)
2500
2000
1500
-5°C
1000 1°C
10°C
500 20°C
35°C
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 18. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Frequency [Hz].
10000
1000
Dynamic modulus (ksi)
100
-5°C
10 1°C
10°C
20°C
35°C
1
0,1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 19. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Frequency [Hz] - logarithmic scale.
From the results at different temperatures the master curve is created by using
the superposition principle and choosing a reference temperature; in this thesis
20°C was selected.
As part of a research project for evolution SPT, an Excel workbook capable to
solve the specific modified version of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement
Design Guide master curve equation was developed [93]. This Excel workbook
containing the Mastersolver developed by NCHRP to obtain the Witczak (Shift)
coefficients and the master curve was used (All the calculations for the master
curve can be found in Appendix, Table 10). The obtained dynamic modulus
master curve is presented in Figure 20 and Figure 39.
10000
-5°C
1°C
1000 10°C
Fit
20°C
E*, ksi
100 35°C
10
1
1,E-03 1,E-01 1,E+01 1,E+03 1,E+05
Reduced Frequency, Hz
Figure 20. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Reduced Frequency [Hz].
45
-5°C
40
1°C
35
Phase Angle, Degree
10°C
30
20°C
25
35°C
20
15
10
5
0
1,E-06 1,E-04 1,E-02 1,E+00 1,E+02 1,E+04 1,E+06
Figure 21. Phase Angle [deg] vs. Reduced Frequency [Hz].
The phase angle measures how quickly HMA can recover from strain. A phase
angle of 0 degrees is for elastic materials and one of 90 degrees corresponds to
viscous materials; consequently HMA falls in between as a viscous-elastic
material. The phase angle at reduced frequency is presented in Figure 21. The
results are typical for HMA where the phase angles decreases with lower
temperature and increases with higher temperature. For high temperatures the
phase angle increases when the frequency is increased because the sample is
more elastic than at low frequencies.
The Federal Highway Administration from USA in cooperation with asphalt
researchers and manufacturers developed knowledge containing typical
dynamic modulus results for several frequently used mixtures. In Sweden such
information is not yet available; although some projects were started to develop
it. One Swedish project [94] aimed to verify if the dynamic modulus results
produced by different laboratories, using the same asphalt mixture are
comparable; they found significant variability for the laboratories evaluated.
The variability for dynamic modules may have several reasons: different
machines, different environmental condition, different loads, different testing
procedures, etc; these conclusions highlighted how complex and sensitive
dynamic modulus test on asphalt mixtures can be.
As a reference; the dynamic modulus master curve calculated from this project,
was compared with test results produced in other two studies: Richard Nilsson’s
project sponsored by SBUF [95], and Eric Oscarsson’s Licentiate Thesis, Lund
University [96]. The comparison is presented in Figure 22 and Figure 23.
10000
1000
100
E*, ksi
Fit curve
10
Fit curve Oscarsson
Fit curve Nilsson

1
1,E-03 1,E-01 1,E+01 1,E+03 1,E+05
Figure 22. Master Curve comparison (Test results, Oscarsson and Nilsson).
This thesis test results at 35°C and the results from Nilsson (at 30°C) are rather
similar with small differences at lower frequencies and high temperature. They
might also have used a lower load, or because the dynamic modulus tests were
unconfined (Nilsson’s curve is similar when the difference between confined
and unconfined tests is taken into account as underlined in NCHRP 547 [97]).
There are large differences between this thesis test results and the results of
Oscarsson. These differences can have several reasons: not enough data detail
available, different testing machine, different air voids, different compaction
methods, different temperatures, etc. Similar conclusions can be drawn from
phase angle comparison, as can be seen in Figure 23.
50
45
40
Phase Angle, Degree
35
30
25
20
Results
15
10 Oscarsson Results
5 Nilsson Results
0
1,E-06 1,E-04 1,E-02 1,E+00 1,E+02 1,E+04 1,E+06
Figure 23. Phase Angle comparison- (Test results, Oscarsson and Nilsson).
Additionally, statistical analyses were performed; Figure 24 and Figure 25 show
a statistical comparison (regression analysis for the test of effects between
subjects) for a reference temperature (20°C) calculated with the IMB SPSS
statistic suite version 19.
The statistical analysis provides a better visualization of the differences between
thesis test results for dynamic modulus and the data from Nilsson and
Oscarsson. In Figure 24 an estimation of 95% confidence interval was used for
the three data sets: thesis data, Nilsson, Oscarsson. One can see that the median
for thesis data is very close to the median for Nilsson, while as expected from
previous discussion the mean from Oscarsson is not similar.
Another statistic analysis based on stem-and-leaf comparison is presented in
Figure 25 for different frequencies. All results have the same trend and thesis
data and Nilsson’s are close together. One can conclude that the results in the
thesis are similar enough to other field data, considering the complexity and
variability of dynamic modulus test.
Figure 24. Comparison of Dynamic Modulus for different labs

at a reference temperature of 20°C.
Figure 25. Data comparison - stem-and-leaf.

4.2.2 Flow Number Tests
The resistance of asphalt mixtures to permanent deformation is measured by

flow number (dynamic creep test). In response to creep loading, both static and
cyclic, asphalt concrete materials develop permanent deformation which
accumulates with time or number of load repetitions. This accumulated
permanent deformation is the cause of rutting in asphalt pavements. In this
thesis the flow number (dynamic creep tests) was performed to determine after
how many load cycles the typical sample used in this thesis is damaged
(cracked).
According to the Swedish test recommendations the creep test should be
conducted at maximum 40°C for this specific mixture (AG22); for this work, all
the flow number tests were conducted at this temperature [77].
Flow number test results for each sample are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Flow Number - test results.
Sample Code Micro(µ)Strain Loading Cycles Minimum Strain Rate
FN1 34067 1498 20.3
FN2 35035 1505 21.4
FN3 24077 1390 18.2
FN4 30641 1520 16
Flow number was measured for five samples (FN1 to FN4 and DM1); these
results are plotted in Figure 26. Sample DM1 was used before for dynamic
modulus measurements that means that the sample has been previously
subjected to different temperatures and small loads which may explain the its
low strain; it is recommended to use new samples for different tests.
The average failure point for the asphalt mixture was estimated to be around
1400 load cycles, according to the Flow Number test performed according to
the NCHRP specification. An example of the results of the Flow Number test
for sample FN2 can be seen in Figure 27.
In order to analyze the aggregate structure and air voids distribution of the
specimens with the X-ray CT system, two reference loading points were
selected; these loading points were specifically chosen such that the sample is
not in the failing stage (tertiary stage of the creep curve).
50000
Sample FN2
45000
Sample FN1
40000 Sample FN4
35035
35000 Sample FN3 34067
30000 30641
MicroStrain
Sample DM1
25000 24077
20000
15000
11836
10000
5000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Cycles
Figure 26. Flow Number for different samples.
50000 250
Accumulated Permanent Strain- Sample FN1
45000 Flow Number
Strain Rate
40000 200
35000
Flow Number = 1 505
30000 150
Micro Strain
Rate Strain
25000
20000 100
15000
10000 Minimum strain rate = Flow number 50
5000
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Cycle Number
Figure 27. Flow Number Test Result for Sample FN2.
Knowing the approximate number of the cycles when the sample breaks
(approximately 1400 load cycles), the reference point 1 (Figure 28) was
selected to be close to the limit between primary and secondary stages (around
600 load cycles); while the reference point 2 was intended to be close to the
limit between the secondary and tertiary stages, without reaching failure
(around 1200 load cycles) [2].
Figure 28 Creep curve - test stages.

The dynamic modulus results for all CT samples before and after loading, as
well as number of load cycles and microstrain are presented in Table 4 and
Figure 29.
One can see from Table 4 and Figure 29 that there are big differences between
sample sets:
• CT1 and CT2 have similar dynamic modulus and big difference in
microstrain accumulation. Interestingly enough,
• CT3 and CT4 have similar dynamic modulus (Lower that CT1 and CT2)
and big difference in microstrain accumulation.
• CT1 and CT3 have similar microstrain accumulation, knowing that CT3
was subjected to higher number of load cycles. CT2 and CT4 show
similar trend.
• CT1 and CT2 have normal behavior in dynamic modulus as it decreases
after loading but, unexpectedly, for CT3 and CT4 the dynamic modulus
increases after loading. This behavior could eventually be explained by
higher segregation in the CT3 and CT4 set. From visual inspection, it
was concluded that samples CT1 & CT2 looked coarser and had
smoother external surfaces, than samples CT3 & CT4.
18000
16000
14000
12000
Microstrain
10000
8000
6000 Sample CT2

4000 Sample CT1
2000 Sample CT4
Sample CT3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Cycles
Figure 29. Microstrain Samples CT1 to CT4.
Table 4. Samples CT1-CT4 – Dynamic Modulus and Load Cycles.
Sample Load Dynamic modulus (MPa) MicroStrain

Code Cycles accumulation
before loading after loading
CT1 600 6195 5582 12159
CT2 600 6109 4726 16114
CT3 1200 4951 6204 10645
CT4 1200 4626 6062 15705
The main finding from SPT was that significant variability in dynamic modulus
(before and after loading) and microstrain accumulation from flow number test
was identified; most likely, induced by irregularities in the sample geometry
(wall surface) and segregation in the field cores.
X-ray Computed Tomography Results 45
4.3 X-ray Computed Tomography Results
As mentioned before, the main objective of using X-ray CT was to evaluate

aggregate structure and air void distribution for each sample before and after
SPT loading; voxel size and resolution for each reconstructed volume are
presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Volume resolution.
Sample Code Voxel size (microns) Resolution (voxels)
CT1 Before Loading 91.000 x 91.000 x 91.000 1453x1843x1414
CT1 After Loading 93.000 x 93.000 x 93.000 1297x1778x1314
During the Post-processing stage, beam hardening which is the most

commonly encountered artifact in CT scanning was detected, regardless the use
of 5mm cupper filtering plates during testing. Beam hardening causes the edges
of an object to appear brighter than the center, even if the material is the same
[98] throughout. The artifact derives its name from its underlying cause: the
increase in mean X-ray energy or "hardening" of the X-ray beam as it passes
through the scanned object. Because lower-energy X-rays are attenuated more
readily than higher-energy X-rays, a polychromatic beam passing through an
object preferentially loses the lower-energy parts of its spectrum. The end result
is a beam that, though diminished in overall intensity, has a higher average
energy than the incident beam.
In X-ray CT images of sufficiently attenuating material, this process generally
manifests itself as an artificial darkening at the center of long ray paths, and a
corresponding brightening near the edges. In objects with roughly circular cross
sections this process can cause the edge to appear brighter than the interior.
Beam hardening can be a pernicious artifact because it changes the grey level of
a material depending upon its location in an image. Thus, the attempt to utilize a
single CT number range to identify and quantify the extent of a particular
material can become problematic. One measure that is sometimes taken is to
remove the outer edges of the image and analyze only the center. Although this
technique removes the worst part of the problem, the artifact is continuous and
thus even subsets of the image are affected. Furthermore, if the cross-sectional
area of the object changes from slice to slice, the extent of the beam-hardening
artifact also changes, making such a strategy prone to error.
In this thesis work, when beam hardening was detected, it was decided to crop
1.5 cm form the top and from the bottom of each sample in order to minimize
the beam hardening effect.
4.3.1 Air Void Distribution
It is known that the air void distribution strongly influences the mechanical
response of HMA mixtures [99], [100]. Considering that the samples for this study
are field cores; then uneven air void distribution induced during the construction
process may be expected [101]. Nilsson reported that a reduction in air void content
caused an increase in asphalt mix stiffness. Air voids in the center of a field core
may be significantly lower than those of the entire cylinder (about 0.2% to 1.5%,
depending on the type of mix) [102] [103].
The distribution of air voids in the sample CT1 along the vertical direction,
before and after loading, is illustrated in Figure 30. The air voids distribution is
relatively homogeneous between 0-40mm (top), has a high and low peak
between 40mm and 60mm (middle) and has a wide increase between 60mm and
120mm (bottom). After loading, the overall air void content of the sample
slightly decreased although locally it varies from low at the top to larger at the
bottom.
The concentration of air voids before and after loading for sample CT2 is given
in Figure 31. The air void of CT2 has a different distribution compared to
sample CT1 and varies widely between 8% and 16%. This non-homogenous air
void distribution might be caused by irregularities during the construction
process. The trial error process during construction to obtain an 18 cm thick
asphalt layer seems to be the main factor for the significant variation of air void
content among samples. Furthermore, air void distribution before and after
loading does not change; this implies that no re-accommodation of particles
may be attributed to the applied load.
0,1
0,09
0,08
0,07
Air Voids (%)
0,06
0,05
0,04
0,03
0,02 Sample CT1 Before Loading
0,01
Sample CT1 After Loading
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Depth (mm)
Figure 30. Air voids distribution for sample CT1 before and after loading.
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
%Air Voids
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Depth (mm)
0,12
0,1
0,08
Air Voids (%)
0,06
0,04

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Depth (mm)
0,12
0,1
0,08
Air Voids (%)
0,06
0,04

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Depth (mm)
Sample CT3 air voids distribution, presented in Figure 32 has an increasing air
void content from top to bottom with almost double content at the bottom. After
loading the air void content at the top decreased while on the bottom increased;
a small overall increase in air voids through the whole sample was load-
induced.
The air voids distribution for sample CT4 shown in Figure 33 exhibited higher
air void content at top and bottom; also, an increase of air voids content after
loading can be observed.
The average air voids content for all the samples is presented in Table 6. One can
see that the air void content of sample CT1, which strain level, is close to one
percent, decreases after loading. This could be explained according to Tashman
et al (2004 [104]); they reported that “At initial stage of deformation, the air
voids tended to contract and the existing microcracks tended to close up as
indicated by the negative percent change in the void content at one percent
strain” during triaxial compression tests of asphalt mixtures at high
temperatures.
Table 6. Total air voids content for samples CT1-CT4 before and after loading.
Sample Code CT1 CT2 CT3 CT4

Before loading (%) 4.7 10.5 4.7 5.3
After loading (%) 4.2 10.5 5 5.9
For sample CT2 the air void content before and after loading stayed constant;
this behavior appears due to variation in air void content with the sample height
and because some of the air voids compact and some increase as presented in
Figure 31.
Samples CT3 and CT4 (loaded with 1200 cycles) present an increase in air void
content, probably induced by the movement of aggregates under higher
cumulative load.
One of the options available in Avizo Fire suite is to measure and classify the
dimension of the air voids. The air voids histogram, before and after loading
sample CT1, is shown in Figure 34 (top). After loading sample CT1 the air
voids from class [7535-75357] decrease and migrate to all other classes but
mostly to class [735-7535] which grew more than twice. This suggests that
densification of the material due to re-accommodation of particles has occurred.
Air voids dimension classification histogram before and after loading for
sample CT4 is presented in Figure 34 (bottom). Interestingly enough, one can
also see that sample CT4 has no middle size air voids.
0.02
Sample CT1 Before loading

0.018
Sample CT1 After loading
0.016
0.014
0.012
(%)
total
0.01
Av/V
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0- 0.75 0.75- 7.5 7.5- 75 75- 753 753- 7535 7535- 75357
Size void classification (mm3)
0.05

0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
(%)
total
0.025
Av/V
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0- 0.75 0.75- 7.5 7.5- 75 75- 753 753- 7535 7535- 75357
Size void classification (mm3 )
Figure 34. Air voids size histogram before and after loading for samples
CT1 and CT4.

0.1

0.09
0.08
0.07
(%)
0.06
total
Av/V
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0- 0.75 0.75- 7.5 7.5- 75 75- 753 753- 7535 7535- 75357
Size void classification (mm3)
0.02
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
(%)
total
0.01
Av/V
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0- 0.75 0.75- 7.5 7.5- 75 75- 753 753- 7535 7535- 75357
Size void classification (mm3 )
Figure 35. Air voids size histogram before and after loading for samples
CT2 and CT3.
The air voids histograms for CT2 (top) and CT3 (bottom) can be observed in
Figure 35. There is a tendency for smaller air voids classes to migrate to larger
ones in all the samples except CT1.
4.3.1 Aggregate Structure
In order to verify if segregation played a role in the variation of SPT results, the
X-ray CT system was utilized to analyze the field cores.
As a reference, Figure 36 shows raw images corresponding to CT1 and CT4
samples; it can be noticed that CT1 has less air voids, bigger particles, and
better aggregate interlock than CT4. In addition, segregation was detected in
sample CT4 (fine aggregates localized at the bottom) and concentration of
bigger air voids in the middle. Sample CT4 looks like a two-layer system;
having a coarse layer on the top and a fine-medium layer at the bottom.
a) Sample CT1. b) Sample CT4.
Figure 36. X-ray CT image.

A 3D reconstruction of the sample CT1 was done by using Avizo Fire; some
beam hardening was detected (Figure 36) and consequently the volume had to
be cropped. Avizo Fire suite was also used to segment the aggregate particles
and create the shown 3D cube for further analysis (Figure 37).
Figure 37. Distribution of aggregates in a 3D volume of interest of sample CT1.

Finally, the corresponding particle size distribution was calculated for the 3D
volume of interest (Figure 38) to better analyze the internal structure of the
asphalt mixture. The 3D volume of interest presents uneven sizes of aggregates:

a larger number of small-to-medium size than medium-to-large size ones.
0.5
Gradation Example
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
(%)
cub total
0.25
V
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1- 1000 1000- 2000 2000- 3000 3000- 4000 4000- 5000
Size aggregates classification (mm3)
Figure 38. Example of aggregate size classification in the 3D volume of interest.

The application of X-ray CT and complex 3D image analysis are very powerful
applications and it could eventually provide a non-destructive tool for
verification of gradation of asphalt mixtures.
Chapter 5
Closure
5.1 Conclusions
SPT results from asphalt field cores, including dynamic modulus (before and
after loading) and microstrain accumulation (flow number), exhibited
significant variability; most likely, induced by irregularities in the core shape.
The analysis of aggregate structure and air voids distribution performed trough
X-ray CT, clearly identified segregation in the asphalt mixture as a another key
factor that induced variability in SPT results.
SPT Dynamic modulus values measured during this work are comparable with
data obtained from other research projects that investigated typical Swedish
asphalt mixtures.
Significant variability in flow number results was found; in consequence the
number of cycles to failure was not enough to induce failure of the sample. Not
even visible damage was induced under the applied number of load repetitions.
Beam hardening was detected during the reconstruction process, regardless the
use of 5mm cupper filtering plates during scanning; this increased the difficulty
of key post-processing tasks including quantification of air voids and
segmentation of aggregate particles.
The X-ray CT technology provides valuable information about the internal
structure of asphalt mixtures, including aggregate particle size distribution and
analysis of air voids structure (size, distribution and connectivity). In summary,
X-ray CT is a very powerful and promising technology that allows enhancing
understanding of asphalt mixture failure mechanisms, which may eventually
generate further development of asphalt mixture design procedures and/or
optimization of pavement construction methods.
56 Chapter 5 Closure
5.2 Recommendations
Research should continue to further develop and refine the promising X-ray CT
analysis; this technique may generate fundamental knowledge about the effects
of internal structure of asphalt mixtures on asphalt field performance; this could
eventually lead to the design and construction of rutting and cracking resistant
asphalt mixtures.
Specifically, the following areas also need further development:
• X-ray CT scanning technique.
• X-ray CT reconstruction software
• X-ray CT post-processing
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Appendix
The appendix contains important information that complements the thesis.
A Simple Performance Tester (SPT)
A.1 SPT- test procedures
General procedure steps for SPT

To ensure the tests and the results are ran properly, the following checklist
should be followed:
1. Run a dummy samples to ensure the machine is properly calibrated and
installed.
2. The compressed air pressure supplied to the machine has to be in the
required ranges; Use a air pressure gauge to verify.
3. Check the sample dimensions using high accuracy measuring instruments to
verify the angles and to inspect wall surface weaviness. These verifications
are very important as imperfect samples will highly affect the tests results.
4. Careful choose the glue (epoxy) used works yours materials, it hardens
quickly (approximately 5 minutes) and resists at the temperatures to be used
during the testing.
5. The horizontal faces of the studs have to be parallel when glued (so that the
supports for holding the LVDTs are parallel and the LVDT is perfectly
vertical).
6. When fixing the LVDT sensors check that the cables do not touch the
chamber or the sample because otherwise errors can be introduced.
7. The LVDTs have to be adjusted properly for each test (close to zero or close
to maximum range). This can be achieved via the screws in the sensors. One
has to be careful as they are rather sensitive.
74
Dynamic Modulus test procedures

For Dynamic modulus tests these steps should be followed:
1. Ensure that the sample is perfectly centered on the loading plates on both
sides.
2. The metallic ball has to be centered and aligned with the upper plate.
3. Place and adjust the LVDTs using the ranges shown in the Dynamic
Modulus software. Make sure all the LVDT sensors are as close as possible
to 0. If you run into issues you can rotate the sample and try to switch
between places in which you mount the sensors. When you are finished you
should set the sensor readings from the software GUI to zero.
4. Make sure you properly condition the sample to the test temperature (for
temperatures > 10°C, approximately 2 hours; for temperatures bellow 0°C
minimum 8 hours in the environmental chamber).
5. The sample diameter and height must be precisely measured in several
locations (6 diameter measurements and 3 for height) with a precision of
0.01 millimeters.
6. To ensure proper function of the equipment the sample has to be
conditioned in the SPT environmental chamber for at least 20 minutes
before starting the tests. In this time the operator can setup the test.
7. In the software give proper names and comments to the tests you are
running, including the sample code or number, the date and time, the test
specifics, etc.
8. Choose the frequencies you require from the machine in the GUI.
9. Run the test.
10. Inspect the results and verify that they are meeting the specifications
75
Flow Number (repeated load test) procedures

For this test, the following steps should be followed:
1. The tests have to be run at a temperature range between 30°C and 40°C. It is
recommended that the samples are placed in the external environmental
chamber for at least 4 hours.
2. Experience might help to determine the needed deviatoric stress and the
contact stress. In this project trial tests were performed to establish the
appropriate stresses (30kN for deviatoric stress and 70kN for contact stress).
3. End friction reducers should be placed above and below the specimen.
Usually, latex membranes sheets separated by silicon grease are used.
4. Because the samples are heated they start to soften and one has to make sure
that they use the proper amount of glue so that the studs do not move. Try to
rotate the sample so that the studs are glued to aggregates in the mix and as
little as possible to the mastic
5. The LVDTs must be setup at maximum negative range (-0.5mm)
6. Setup parameters in the software interface (contact and deviator stress and
termination settings: maximum microstrain or test duration)
7. Run the test and make sure you observe it because if the sample breaks the
LVDTs fall and can be damaged. In case of emergency stop the test.
76
77
A.2 SPT- Settings
Table 7. Flow Number Assumptions and SPT system features.

Assumption SPT System Feature
100 mm diameter
Representative volume element
h/d ratio of 1.5
Load standard error
Consistent pulse loading
Tolerance on maximum load
Consistent rest period Computer control
Specimen size, h/d=1.5
Uniform Stress state Smooth parallel ends and loading platens
Friction reducer
Table 8. Data quality statistics requirements for Dynamic Modulus measured

with SPT.
Data Quality Statistics Limit
Deformation Drift In direction of applied load
Peak to Peak Strain 75 to 125 µstrain unconfined tests
85 to 115 µstrain confined tests
Load standard error 10 %
Deformation standard error 10 %
Deformation uniformity 30 %
Phase uniformity 3 degrees
Table 9. Statistical analysis of influence in sample rotation.
ANOVA
Variationsursprung KvS fg MKv F p-värde F-krit
Mellan grupper 44563.01 2 22281.51 0.01 0.98 3.88
Inom grupper 21360323.55 12 1780027
Totalt 21404886.57 14
Because F is much smaller then F-crit value, the differences between measurements is
not statistically significant.
78
79
A.3 Dynamic Modulus Master Curve equations
In the following, the workbook equations developed by NCHRP is presented

and the parameters and master curve are obtained. The workbook is used in
conjunction with the Simple Performance Test System to develop dynamic
modulus master curves. It has the capability to solve a modified version of the
Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide master curve equation, Equation 1.
log E * = log( Min) +

(log(Max) − log(Min) ) (1)
1 + e β +γ log ωr
where:
E* = dynamic modulus

ωr = reduced frequency, Hz
Max = limiting maximum modulus, ksi
Min = limiting minimum modulus, ksi
β, and γ = fitting parameters
The reduce frequency is computed using the Arrhenius equation, Equation 2.
∆E a  1 1 
log ω r = log ω +  − 
19.14714  T Tr 
(2)
where:
ωr = reduced frequency at the reference temperature

ω = loading frequency at the test temperature
Tr = reference temperature, °K
T = test temperature, °K
∆Ea = activation energy (treated as a fitting parameter)
Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1 yields the form of the master curve
equation that is fitted using this workbook.
log E * = log(min) +
(log(Max) − log(Min) )

 ∆Ea   1   1    (3)
β +γ  log ω +    −   
 19.14714   T   Tr   
1+ e  
80
The shift factors for each temperature are given by Equation 4.
∆E a  1 1 
log[a (T )] =  − 
19.14714  T Tr 
(4)
where:
a(T) = shift factor at temperature T

Tr = reference temperature, °K
T = test temperature, °K
∆Ea = activation energy (treated as a fitting parameter)
The maximum limiting modulus is estimated from mixture volumetric
properties using the Hirsch model and a limiting binder modulus of 1 GPa
(145,000 psi), Equations 5 and 6.
  VMA   VFA x VMA  1 − Pc

| E* | max = Pc 4,200,0001 −  + 435,000  +
  100   10,000    VMA  
 1 − 100  
 + VMA

 4,200,000 435,000( VFA) 
 
 
(5)
where:
0.58
 435,000(VFA ) 
 20 + 
Pc =  VMA  (6)
0.58
 435,000(VFA) 
650 +  
 VMA 
E*max = limiting maximum mixture dynamic modulus

VMA = Voids in mineral aggregates, %
VFA = Voids filled with asphalt, %
The resulted master curve is presented in Figure 39.

81
Figure 39. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Reduced Frequency [deg] shifted - at
different temperatures.
82
83
Table 10. The SPT results and Master Curve calculation.

Project: Licentiate Thesis
Mix AG22, 70/100
Date: 2011-10-22
Technician: Florentina Farcas
Samples Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Average
VMA Volume, % 13,48 14,14 13,8
VFA Volume, % 58,11 60,39 59,3
Ref. Temp 20 °C
Conditions Sample DM1 Sample DM2 Average Average DM1 DM2

Phase Phase
Temp. Freq. Modulus Angle Modulus Angle Modulus Phase Modulus
°C Hz Ksi Degree Ksi Degree Ksi Degree MPa MPa

-5 0.1 1568.9 16.04 1794.0 15.53 1681.4 15.8 10817 12369
-5 0.2 1759.3 14.50 1984.9 14.00 1872.1 14.3 12130 13685
-5 0.5 2010.5 12.56 2242.2 12.09 2126.4 12.3 13862 15459
-5 1 2200.1 11.27 2452.5 10.72 2326.3 11.0 15169 16909
-5 2 2379.4 10.13 2651.0 9.69 2515.2 9.9 16405 18278
-5 5 2605.2 8.79 2920.2 8.36 2762.7 8.6 17962 20134
-5 10 2761.7 7.95 3126.3 7.56 2944.0 7.8 19041 21555
-5 20 2919.2 7.25 3288.9 7.08 3104.1 7.2 20127 22676
-5 25 2949.8 6.77 3355.1 7.17 3152.4 7.0 20338 23132
1 0.1 1068.1 22.08 1144.9 22.09 1106.5 22.1 7364 7894
1 0.2 1263.2 20.33 1303.3 20.37 1283.2 20.4 8709 8986
1 0.5 1531.2 18.03 1529.0 18.01 1530.1 18.0 10557 10542
1 1 1740.2 16.45 1712.5 16.35 1726.3 16.4 11998 11807
1 2 1959.1 14.96 1902.2 14.78 1930.6 14.9 13507 13115
1 5 2247.8 13.05 2158.8 12.90 2203.3 13.0 15498 14884
1 10 2466.7 11.65 2351.2 11.68 2409.0 11.7 17007 16211
1 20 2679.0 10.35 2544.9 10.72 2612.0 10.5 18471 17546
1 25 2732.8 9.68 2596.5 10.10 2664.7 9.9 18842 17902
10 0.1 393.3 33.62 463.5 31.72 428.4 32.7 2712 3196
10 0.2 501.8 31.47 588.1 29.63 545.0 30.6 3460 4055
10 0.5 673.9 28.39 773.9 26.76 723.9 27.6 4646 5336
10 1 811.4 26.14 934.1 24.77 872.7 25.5 5594 6440
10 2 963.4 24.04 1100.4 22.80 1031.9 23.4 6642 7587
10 5 1190.1 21.29 1329.1 20.33 1259.6 20.8 8205 9164
10 10 1371.6 19.40 1521.5 18.62 1446.6 19.0 9457 10490
10 20 1569.3 17.57 1725.7 16.88 1647.5 17.2 10820 11898
10 25 1633.4 17.12 1791.4 16.72 1712.4 16.9 11262 12351
20 0.1 72.9 38.90 153.3 32.69 113.1 35.8 503 1057
20 0.2 108.1 39.00 197.1 34.12 152.6 36.6 746 1359
20 0.5 175.4 38.64 284.0 34.69 229.7 36.7 1209 1958
20 1 245.4 37.41 366.4 34.06 305.9 35.7 1692 2526
20 2 340.1 35.65 462.5 32.60 401.3 34.1 2345 3189
20 5 487.8 32.94 625.1 30.46 556.4 31.7 3363 4310
20 10 621.8 30.78 772.3 28.59 697.1 29.7 4287 5325
20 20 764.9 28.57 930.7 26.66 847.8 27.6 5274 6417
20 25 801.8 28.68 985.7 26.63 893.7 27.7 5528 6796
35 0,1 10.1 27.83 13.4 28.51 11.8 28.2 70 93
35 0.2 13.1 31.80 18.0 31.49 15.6 31.6 90 124
35 0.5 19.9 36.40 27.5 35.35 23.7 35.9 137 190
35 1 28.8 39.23 38.8 38.50 33.8 38.9 199 268
35 2 42.8 41.73 61.1 39.24 51.9 40.5 295 421
35 5 81.4 40.87 111.9 38.68 96.7 39.8 562 771
35 10 125.3 40.55 169.8 38.11 147.5 39.3 864 1171
35 20 184.2 40.37 248.0 37.65 216.1 39.0 1270 1710
35 25 207.7 40.34 276.7 38.31 242.2 39.3 1432 1908
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B X-ray CT Results
Figure 40. X-ray CT image - sample CT3.

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Figure 41. Aggregates in the 3D volume of interest- sample CT1.

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Evaluation of Asphalt Field Cores with Simple

Performance Tester and X-ray Computed

Florentina Angela Farcaș

Division of Highway and Railway Engineering

X-ray CT provides fundamental resources to enhance understanding about role that

First of all, I would like to express special thanks to my supervisor professor

I would also like to thank the following people:

2.1 Simple Performance Tester

report recommended three test-parameter combinations for further field

The findings of this project were multiple:

2.2 X-ray Computed Tomography

X-Ray Computerized Tomography (X-Ray CT) is a non-destructive technique

X-Ray CT equipment has been used for construction materials to:

2.2.1 Microstructure Characterization

al. (2001 [13]) conducted a comparison between the microstructure

vector is represented by a line joining the centers of mass of the contacting

2.2.2 Air Void Distribution

Though air voids in concrete and asphalt possess no appreciable mechanical

the relationship between internal microstructure of asphalt and its: loading

2.2.3 Permeability analysis

2.2.3.1 Microstructure Evolution and Damage during Loading

3.1 Field Cores

10 Katrineholm AG22 Gradation

Figure 1. Gradation chart.

3.2 Testing Equipment

3.2.1 Simple Performance Tester (SPT)

Figure 2. The IPC SPT machine.

Figure 3. IPC SPT computer software running dynamic modulus test.

The machine is composed of an electrically powered hydraulic loading system,

Figure 4. Gauge Point Fixing Jig.

Figure 5. SPT - sample setup.

3.2.1.1 Dynamic Modulus

Figure 6. Dynamic Modulus - schematic loading.

3.2.1.2 Flow Number

Figure 7. Flow Number Test - schematic loading.

Figure 8. Cumulative Permanent Strain vs. Load Cycles.

is also associated with volumetric changes; however, shear deformations

CONTACT DEVIATOR STRESS +/- 2%

REPEATED DEVIATOR STRESS +/- 2%

3.2.2 X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT) System

An X-View™ X5000-CT Computed Tomography System (Figure 10), owned

Figure 10. The CT machine X-5000.

Figure 11. Attenuation coefficients for different materials [90].

Figure 12. General mechanism of X-ray tomography scanning.

3.2.2.1 Warm up the system

3.2.2.2 Scan the specimen

Figure 13. X-ray CT - sample setup.

3.2.2.3 Calibrate the system

Calibration Block Radiographs

Figure 14. The calibration rod.

Figure 15. Images of the calibration tool.

4.1 Field Core Samples

A total of twelve specimens were tested in this project; their correspondent

Table 2. The samples.

4.2 Simple Performance Tester Results

4.2.1 Dynamic Modulus Test

Figure 16. Dynamic Modulus - sample rotation.

To analyze the effects of the sample geometry (irregularities in the specimen

Figure 17. Dynamic Modulus - different loads and misalignment.

• Choose a reference temperature.

Figure 20. Dynamic Modulus [ksi] vs. Reduced Frequency [Hz].

Fit curve Nilsson

Figure 24. Comparison of Dynamic Modulus for different labs

Figure 25. Data comparison - stem-and-leaf.