Lecture 18:

Feedback

Gu-Yeon Wei
Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Harvard University
guyeon@eecs.harvard.edu

Wei 1
 Overview

• Reading
– S&S: Chapter 8.1~8.8
– S&S: Appendix B (Two-Port Network Parameters)
• Background
– Negative feedback for amplifiers was invented in 1927 by Harold Black to
stabilize the gain and correct the distortion of amplifiers used in long-
distance telephone networks. Negative feedback (as well as positive
feedback) is widely used in analog circuits today. In fact, we used negative
feedback when we constructed op amps with gain set (fixed) using
resistors. Throughout the next lecture, we will investigate the general
theory of feedback and look at four basic feedback topologies for four types
of amplifier topologies. We will return to concepts of feedback covered in
Chapter 8 of S&S after taking investigating how to build single- and two-
stage Op amps. We will return to material in Chapter 8 to study stability of
amplifiers, and see how “compensation” can be utilized.
– S&S has several examples of circuits with feedback using BJTs. These
lecture notes give MOS circuit examples (many from Razavi’s textbook).

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 2

 General Feedback Structure

Let’s start with the basic structure of a feedback amplifier. To make it general, the figure
shows signal flow as opposed to voltages or currents (i.e., signals can be either current or
voltage).
xi xo
Source Σ A Load
xs

xf
β

The open-loop amplifier has gain A Æ xo = A*xi

• Output is fed back through a feedback network which produces a sample (xf) of the output
(xo) Æ xf = βxo
– Where β is called the feedback factor
• The input to the amplifier is xi = xs – xf (the subtraction makes feedback negative)
– Implicit to the above analysis is that neither the feedback block nor the load affect the
amplifier’s gain (A). This not generally true and so we will later see how to deal with it.
• The overall gain (closed-loop gain) can be solved to be:
x A
Af ≡ o =
xs 1 + Aβ
• Aβ is called the loop gain and 1+Aβ is called the “amount of feedback”

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 3

 Finding Loop Gain

• Generally, we can find the loop gain with the following steps:
– Break the feedback loop anywhere (at the output in the ex. below)
– Zero out the input signal xs
– Apply a test signal to the input of the feedback circuit
– Solve for the resulting signal xo at the output
• If xo is a voltage signal, xtst is a voltage and measure the open-circuit voltage
• If xo is a current signal, xtst is a current and measure the short-circuit current

xi x f = β xtst
xs=0 Σ A
xi = 0 − x f
xo = Axi = − Ax f = − βAxtst
xf xo
β loop gain = − = βA
xo xtst
xtst

– The negative sign comes from the fact that we are apply negative feedback

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 4

 Negative Feedback Properties

• Negative feedback takes a sample of the output signal and applies it to the input
to get several desirable properties. In amplifiers, negative feedback can be
applied to get the following properties
– Desensitized gain – gain less sensitive to circuit component variations
– Reduce nonlinear distortion – output proportional to input (constant gain
independent of signal level)
– Reduce effect of noise
– Control input and output impedances – by applying appropriate feedback
topologies
– Extend bandwidth of amplifier
• All of these properties can be achieved by trading off gain

• Let’s investigate a couple of these properties in a little more detail using the
general structure described in the previous slide

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 5

 Gain Desensitivity

• Feedback can be used to desensitize the closed-loop gain to variations in the

basic amplifier. Let’s see how.
• Assume β is constant. Taking differentials of the closed-loop gain equation
gives…
A dA
Af = dA f =
1 + Aβ (1 + Aβ )2
Take derivative of
both sides
– Divide by Af
dA f dA 1 + Aβ 1 dA
= =
Af (1 + Aβ ) A
2
1 + Aβ A

• This result shows the effects of variations in A on Af is mitigated by the feedback

amount. 1+Aβ is also called the desensitivity amount

• We will see through examples that feedback also affects the input and
resistance of the amplifier (increases Ri and decreases Ro by 1+Aβ factor)

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 6

 Bandwidth Extension

• We’ve mentioned several times in the past that we can trade gain for bandwidth.
Finally, we see how to do so with feedback…
Consider an amplifier with a high-frequency response characterized by a single
pole and the expression:
AM
A(s ) =
1 + s ωH

Apply negative feedback β and the resulting closed-loop gain is:

A(s ) AM (1 + AM β )
A f (s ) = =
1 + βA(s ) 1 + s ω H (1 + AM β )

• Notice that the midband gain reduces by (1+AMβ) while the 3-dB roll-off
frequency increases by (1+AMβ)

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 7

 Basic Feedback Topologies

• Depending on the input signal (voltage or current) to be amplified and form

of the output (voltage or current), amplifiers can be classified into four
categories. Depending on the amplifier category, one of four types of
feedback structures should be used (series-shunt, series-series, shunt-
shunt, or shunt-series)
– Voltage amplifier – voltage-controlled voltage source
• Requires high input impedance, low output impedance
• Use series-shunt feedback (voltage-voltage feedback)
– Current amplifier – current-controlled current source
series-shunt
• Use shunt-series feedback (current-current feedback)
– Transconductance amplifier – voltage-controlled current source
• Use series-series feedback (current-voltage feedback)
– Transimpedance amplifier – current-controlled voltage source
• Use shunt-shunt feedback (voltage-current feedback)

shunt-series

shunt-shunt series-series

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 8

 Examples of the Four Types of Amplifiers

iOUT iOUT
RD RD

vOUT vOUT
vIN Vb vIN Vb

iIN iIN

Voltage Transimpedance Transconductance Current

Amp Amp Amp Amp

• Shown above are simple examples of the four types of amplifiers. Often, these amplifiers
alone do not have good performance (high output impedance, low gain, etc.) and are
augmented by additional amplifier stages (see below) or different configurations (e.g.,
cascoding).
iOUT iOUT
RD RD RD RD

vOUT Vb vOUT v Vb
vIN IN

iIN iIN

lower Zout lower Zout higher gain higher gain

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 9

 Sense and Return Mechanisms

• Adding a feedback loop consists of sensing the output signal and returning (a fraction) of the
result to the summing node at the input.
– Given the inputs and outputs can be either voltages or currents, there are four types of
feedback: voltage-voltage, voltage-current, current-voltage, and current-current
• where the first part denotes the quantity sensed at the output and the second denotes the type
of signal returned

• Examples of sensing voltage and current:

iout iout

vout RL RL
Rsense
voltmeter
vsense
current meter

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 10

 Sense and Return Cont’d

• Here are some circuit examples of sensing and returning voltages and currents:

vin vout vin vin

R2 iout iout
vf vf vf

R1 R1 R1

vout vout vout

vin R2 vin R2 R2
vf
vf vf
Voltage return R1 R1 vin R1

Iin IF Iin IF
Current return
RF

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 11

 Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Voltage Feedback)
• Samples the output voltage and returns a feedback
voltage signal
– Ideal feedback network has infinite input
impedance and zero output resistance
• Find the closed-loop gain and input resistance
V f = β Vo
Vi = Vs − V f
Vo = A(Vs − β Vo )
Vo A
Af ≡ =
Vs 1 + β A
Vs V V V + β AVi
Rif = = s = Ri s = Ri i = Ri (1 + Aβ )
I i Vi Ri Vi Vi
– The output resistance can be found by applying a
test voltage to the output
Ro
Rof =
1 + βA
• So, increases input resistance and reduces output
resistance Æ makes amplifier closer to ideal VCVS

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 12

 Circuit Example

• Feedback can be constructed out of capacitors

• Find the open-loop gain M3 M4
vout
– At low frequency, cap loads negligible C1
– Break feedback and zero out input to feedback vin M1 M2 f
C2
– Assume Vf is at some DC bias equal to the DC value of vin
A = g m (ro 2 || ro 4 )
• Find the loop gain, closed-loop gain, and closed-loop Rout
C1
Note
Notecorrection:
correction: vo = − g m1 (ro 2 || ro 4 )vtst
vov and not vf
and not v
C1 + C2
o f M3 M4
v C1
βA = − o = g m1 (ro 2 || ro 4 ) vo
vtst C1 + C2 M1 M2
f itst
A g m1 (ro 2 || ro 4 ) C1
vtst
Af = =
1 + βA 1 + C1
g m1 (ro 2 || ro 4 ) C2
C1 + C2
ro 2 || ro 4  C1  1
Rout ,closed = ≈ 1 +  Circuit to solve loop gain
C1 C + C 2  g m1
1+ g m1 (ro 2 || ro 4 )  1
C1 + C2

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 13

 Series-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Voltage FB)
• For a transconductance amplifier (voltage input, current
output), we must apply the appropriate feedback circuit
– Sense the output current and feedback a voltage signal.
So, the feedback current is a transimpedance block that
converts the current signal into a voltage.
Io A Io
Af ≡ = A≡ (also called Gm )
Vs 1 + Aβ Vi
• To solve for the loop gain:
– Break the feedback, short out the break in the current
Iout
sense and applying a test current
I out Gm ZL
Loop Gain = Aβ = − = Gm R f
I tst
• To solve for Rif and Rof
Itst
V Vi + V f Ri I i + β I o Ri I i + Aβ Vi
Rif = s = = = = Ri (1 + Aβ )
Ii Ii Ii Ii
Vf RF
– Apply a test voltage Vtst across O and O’

Vtst (I tst − AVi )Ro (I tst + Aβ I tst )Ro

Rof = = = = (1 + Aβ )Ro
I tst I tst I tst

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 14

 Circuit Example

• Source degeneration (with RF) is a form of current-voltage FB

– Voltage across the resistor is the feedback voltage
• VF subtracts from Vin to reduce Vgs of the nMOS Iout
– Without the feedback R, iout/vin = gm Æ A = gm
– RF is the feedback circuit that senses the output current Vin
and subtracts a voltage from the input
• VF = βIout Æ β = RF VF RF

iout = g m v gs = g m (vin − iout RF )

iout (1 + g m RF ) = g m vin gmvgs
iout A gm vin vgs ro Iout
Af ≡ = =
vin 1 + Aβ 1 + g m RF
RF

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 15

 Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Current FB)
• When voltage-current FB is applied to a
transimpedance amplifier, output voltage is
sensed and current is subtracted from the input
– The gain stage has some resistance
– The feedback stage is a tranconductor
Vo
A=
Ii
Vo
+ βVo
I s = Ii + I f =
A
V A
Af ≡ o =
I s 1 + Aβ

– Input and output resistances (Rif and Rof) Rif = Ri (1 + Aβ )

follow the same form as before based on
values for A and β Ro
Rof =
(1 + Aβ )

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 16

 Circuit Example

• Transimpedance gain stage is through M2 (a common-base RD

amplifier) and feedback is thru the capacitor divider and M1
(transconductor). Solve for A, Aβ, and Af. Vout
C1 M2
Vb
– vgs is whatever voltage necessary for iin
vout iin RD
A= = = RD M1
Iin
iin iin C2
– Loop gain is found by breaking loop and applying Vtst
C1 vout
vF = vtst gm vgs
C1 + C2 vgs RD

i1 = g m vF
vout = -i1 RD iin Small-signal
circuit to
vout − g m RD C1 (C1 + C2 ) vtst C1 solve for A
Aβ = − =− = g m RD
vtst vtst C1 + C2 Circuit to
find Aβ RD

– Closed-loop gain is just

Vout
Vtst C1 M2
vout A RD Vb
Af ≡ = =
iin 1 + Aβ 1 + g R C1 M1
m D
C1 + C2
C2

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 17

 Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Current FB)

• A current-current FB circuit is used for current

amplifiers
– For the β circuit – input resistance should
be low and output resistance be high

Iout
• A circuit example is shown RD
– RS and RF constitute the FB circuit
• RS should be small and RF large
– The same steps can be taken to solve for
Iin
A, Aβ, Af, Rif, and Rof
• Remember that both A and β circuits are
current controlled current sources RF
RS

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 18

 Effects of Loading

• So far, we have assumed that the feedback circuit does not load the feedforward (open-
loop) amplifier at the input or the output. In reality, this is not the case. Loading may not be
negligible and complicate analysis.
• In order to properly model loading effects, we should first review models of two-port
networks. The feedback circuit can be considered to be a two-port network that senses and
produces currents or voltages. The following are four types of linear two-port networks using
Z, Y, or H or G (impedance, admittance, or hybrid) models
I1 Z11 Z22 I2 I1 I2

Z12I2 Y12V2
V1 V2 V1 Y11 Y22 V2
Z21I1 Y21V1

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2 I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2

V2 = Z 21 I1 + Z 22 I 2 I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2

I1 H11 I2 I1 G22 I2

H12V2 G12I2
V1 H22 V2 V1 G11 V2
H21I1 G21V1

V1 = H11 I1 + H12V2 I1 = G11V1 + G12 I 2

I 2 = H 21 I1 + H 22V2 V2 = G21V1 + G22 I 2

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 19

 Loading in Series-Shunt (Voltage-Voltage) FB

• Which is the best model to use? Iin

– Ideally, want infinite input resistance and zero Zout

Vin Ve Zin AVe Vout
output resistance Æ G-model
– G12I2 contribution to Vout is small compared to
amplification A so ignore G12 current source
• reverse transmission thru the FB circuit is made I2 G22 I1
purposely small G21Vout
• Computer the closed-loop gain… V2 G11
Z in G12I2
Ve = (Vin − G21Vout )
Z in + G22
~0
−1
Z in G
−1
A −1
11
Z in G Vout Z in + G22 G11 + Z out
Vout = (Vin − G21Vout ) A −1 11
⇒ =
Z in + G22 G11 + Z out Vin Z in G11−1
1+ A G21
• In the limit (ideal case), 1/G11=∞ and G22=0 then Z in + G22 G11−1 + Z out
equation reduces to…
A A
Af = =
1 + Aβ 1 + AG21 • We can retain this form for closed-loop gain by
solving for the open-loop gain that takes loading
into account

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 20

 Open-Loop Gain with Loading

• For the previous example, proper method for

including loading to calculate the open-loop gain
is shown Iin

Zout
• Conceptually, the approach is… Vin Ve Zin AVe Vout

Vin A Vout

G22 G11
β β

G22 1/G11 I1 V2
G11 = and G22 =
– add load both sides (input and output) with V1 I 2 =0
I2 V1 = 0
the feedback circuit
– short the input of the β circuit that loads the
input of the amplifier
– leave the output unconnected for the β
circuit that loads the output of the amplifier
– Calculate the open-loop gain

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 21

 Summary of FB Types and 2-Port Models

• There is an appropriate 2-port model to use for each of the

feedback types (in table) Feedback Type 2-port Model
• A conceptual summary of solving for the open-loop gain with Series-Shunt
G Model
feedback loading effects are as follows (Voltage-Voltage)
– Attach separate feedback circuits to both input and Series-Series
output (individually) as it would normally be connected Z Model
(Current-Voltage)
– For the feedback circuit attached to the input (of the Shunt-Shunt
amplifier), zero out the other side of the feedback circuit Y Model
(Voltage-Current)
(input port)
Shunt-Series
• If input port to β circuit is a voltage, attach to a 0-Volt source H Model
(Current-Current)
• If input port to β circuit is a current, attach to a 0-Amp source
– For the feedback circuit attached to the output (of the
amplifier), leave the other side disconnected
• If output port of β circuit is a voltage, leave as open circuit
• If output port of β circuit is a current, short output to ground

• Let’s look at some examples of how to break the feedback

and determine the open-loop gain that includes the effects of
feedback.

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 22

 Loading in Series-Shunt (Voltage-Voltage) FB Example

Vin A Vout Vin A Vopen

β β β

G22 1/G11

RD1
RD1
Vin Vout M2

β circuit RF Vin M1
RF RF Vopen
RS RD2 RS RS RD2

• The open-loop gain (with loading) can be calculated to be

Vopen − RD1
Aopen −loop = = {− g m 2 [RD 2 || (RF + RS )]}
Vin RF || RS + 1 g m1

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 23

 Loading in Series-Series (Current-Voltage) FB Example

A = Iout/Ve
Ve Iopen
Vin A Vin A
Iout

β β β
Z22 Z11

RD1 RD1
Iout M2 Iopen
Vin Vin M1 M3
RD2 RD2

RF RF

RF RS1 RS3 RS1 RS3

RS1 RS3
β circuit

• The open-loop gain (transconductance) can be solved to be:

I open − RD1 − g m 2 RD 2
Aopen −loop = =
Vin (RF + RS 3 ) || RS1 + 1 g m1 (RF + RS1 ) || RS 3 + 1 g m3
Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 24
 Loading in Shunt-Shunt (Voltage-Current) FB Example

A = Vout/Ie
Ie
Iin A Vout Vin A Vopen

β β β
1/Y22 1/Y11

RD RD
β circuit RF
RF Vout RF Vout

Iin RS Iin RS

• The open-loop gain (transimpedance) can be solved to be:

Vopen
Aopen −loop = = − g m (RS || RF )(RD || RF )
I in

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 25

 Loading in Shunt-Series (Current-Current) FB Example

A = Iout/Ie
Ie
Iin A Iin A
Iout Iopen

β β β
1/H22 H11

RD Iout RD Iopen

Iin Iin

RF RS RF RS RF RS
β circuit

• The open-loop (current) gain be solved to be:

I open 1
Aopen −loop = = − g m (RS + RF )RD
I in RF || RS + 1 g m 2

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 26

 Next Time

• Reading
– S&S Chapter 10.7~10.8

• What to look forward to…

– We will shift gears a little bit and look at a few approaches for building
CMOS Operational Amplifiers. We will begin with single-stage op amps and
the proceed to two-stage op amps and some of their advantages and
disadvantages.
– The investigation of op amp designs with multiple poles forces us to then
deal with stability issues. The final lecture will cover stability and
compensation in amplifier design. Reading for the final lecture is S&S
Chapter 8.8~8.11.

Wei ES154 - Lecture 18 27