Lyceum of the Philippines University – Cavite

College of Engineering, Computer Studies, and Architecture

Department of Architecture

Building Technology 5

Cooling Systems

Distribution Systems

Septic Systems

Submitted to:

Ar. Eugene Aguilar, uap

Submitted by:

Abaño, Shiela Louisianne Mari H.

2018 – 2 – 03276

Arch 401

November 2021
Cooling system

An apparatus employed to keep the temperature of a structure or device from

exceeding limits imposed by needs of safety and efficiency. If overheated, the oil in a
mechanical transmission loses its lubricating capacity, while the fluid in a hydraulic coupling
or converter leaks under the pressure created. In an electric motor, overheating causes
deterioration of the insulation. The pistons in an overheated internal-combustion engine may
seize (stick) in the cylinders. Cooling systems are employed in automobiles, industrial
plant machinery, nuclear reactors, and many other types of machinery. (For a treatment of
cooling systems used in buildings, see air-conditioning.)

The cooling agents customarily employed are air and a liquid (usually water or a
solution of water and antifreeze), either alone or in combination. In some cases, direct
contact with ambient air (free convection) may be sufficient; in other cases, it may be
necessary to employ forced-air convection, created either by a fan or by the natural motion of
the hot body. Liquid is typically moved through a continuous loop in the cooling system by a
pump.

Different Types of Cooling Systems (according to www.hivacair.com):

1. Central Air Conditioner

The most common type of air conditioner is the central cooling system. Central
cooling systems use a network of ducts to supply air throughout the house. These are
usually two-part systems with an outdoor unit that contains the compressor and condenser
coils, and an indoor unit with evaporator coils. Refrigerant lines link the two together.
For central air conditioning to work efficiently, your HVAC technician should
conduct a load calculation on your home to determine the correct size of the system to
install. Make sure this step is not overlooked when installing a central air conditioner. An
undersized unit won’t adequately cool your home. An oversized unit won’t dehumidify
the home properly, leaving you to suffer the discomfort of Florida humidity.

2. Ductless Mini-Split Systems

Ductless systems are ideal for homes and apartments. These systems also have
outdoor and indoor units; however, they require less space inside and are faster to install
 than central systems. The indoor air handlers are mounted on the walls or ceiling of the
rooms you choose to install them in.
The benefits of ductless air conditioners include quieter operation, even temperature
distribution, and zoned temperature control. With individual units in different areas in the
house, you can save energy by switching off units in rooms that are not in use. In addition,
each family member can personalize the temperature in the room they are occupying,
keeping everyone in the family happy and comfortable.
Because they’re ductless, you’ll also enjoy better air quality without the dust and dirt
that builds up in ductwork. This also means less maintenance, as no duct cleaning is
necessary.

3. Heat Pumps
If you’re looking for an alternative to central cooling, a heat pump may suit your
needs. In winter, heat pumps extract heat from the air or, in the case of geothermal heat
pumps from the ground, to distribute through the house. This makes them a great energy-
efficient choice. In summer, they work in reverse by removing heat from the air inside the
home and transferring it outside.
Heat pumps are better suited to the southern states of the United States that enjoy
moderate winters.

4. Evaporative Air Conditioners

Evaporative coolers, also called swamp coolers, are less common than refrigerant air
conditioners. They are, however, a low-cost and energy-efficient way to cool a home.
Evaporative coolers work best in hot dry climates, such as the Southwest regions of the
United States. Areas like Florida contain too much humidity for this type of system to
function effectively. Evaporative coolers use a fan to draw in outside air and pull it
through moist pads where the air is cooled by evaporation and then circulated through the
house. This simple process produces air that is 20-30 degrees cooler.
Basic Types of Liquid Cooling Systems (according to Airbestpractices.com):

1. Liquid-to-Liquid Cooling Systems

In this type of system your plant has an abundance of some type of cooling liquid
already available, but you do not want to provide this coolant to the compressor. For
example: you have well water available, but you do not want to put the well water through
your new compressor because the water quality is very poor (lots of dissolved solids like
iron and calcium etc.), and you have had trouble with the well water fouling your heat
exchanger/s in the past.
A liquid-to-liquid cooling system is an ideal fit for this situation. It uses the well
water on one side of an intermediate heat exchanger and a coolant such as glycol and
water on the other side of the intermediate heat exchanger in a closed loop to cool the
compressor. The heat is exchanged through the intermediate heat exchanger without
fouling the heat exchanger/s. Fouling of the intermediate heat exchanger will likely
happen on the well-water side, however, if the intermediate heat exchanger is selected
properly, it can be taken apart easily and cleaned. The most common intermediate heat
exchangers are either plate and frame or shell and tube type. Coolant temperatures of 5
degrees above the plant cooling “water” are possible with a liquid-to-liquid type system.
In the well water example above if the well water is available at 55 F the liquid-to-liquid
cooling system can supply 60 F coolant to the load.
The strength of a liquid-to-liquid cooling system is that it is relatively inexpensive to
purchase and install. The components can be installed inside or outside. The system is
inexpensive to operate with only the closed loop pump using any additional energy.
Maintenance is relatively simple demanding only a periodic inspection, lubrication, and
cleaning of the heat exchanger as necessary.
2. Closed-Loop Dry Cooling Systems
A closed-loop dry cooling system is very much like the radiator in your car. The
system uses an air-cooled fluid cooler to transfer the heat from the closed-loop coolant
fluid pumped through rows of finned tubes that have ambient air blown/drawn across
them. The basic components to a closed-loop dry cooling system are the fluid cooler,
which contains the air to liquid heat exchanger with the fan/s, the pump and control skid,
the coolant, and the field installed system piping. The closed-loop dry cooling system
fluid cooler will be located outside and use the ambient air to reject the heat. Coolant
temperatures of 5 to 10 F above the ambient dry bulb temperature are possible with a
closed-loop dry cooling system. The system is relatively inexpensive to operate with only
the coolant pump and the fluid cooler fan/s using energy. The fan/s are thermostatically
controlled to regulate the temperature of the cooling fluid so that the load is not over or
under-cooled. Periodic cleaning of the fluid cooler may be necessary due to dirty
atmospheric conditions at the site location. Fouling of the fluid cooler is typically caused
by dirt, leaves, cotton-wood seeds, etc.
3. Closed-Loop Dry System with Trim Cooling
A closed-loop dry system with a trim cooler is the same as the closed-loop dry
system but adds a supplemental fluid cooler. This system is typically used in a location
that has too high of a dry bulb in the summer to provide the proper coolant temperature to
the load. With an added liquid-to-liquid trim cooler the customer can use a water source
to trim the temperature to the desired set point. Many times, closed-loop dry system with
a trim cooler is used to reduce the reliance on city water as a coolant. City water is
becoming expensive to buy and to dispose of. These systems may be employed to
eliminate the city water usage most months in a year, thus reducing the plant’s operating
costs. The system must have a supply of free clear air and a regulated supply of plant
coolant or city water as with a liquid-to-liquid cooling system.
The strength of the closed-loop dry system with a trim cooler is that it can provide
coolant temperatures below that of a closed-loop dry system alone. The system will
reduce the amount of plant/city water usage during the colder months. The weaknesses of
the closed-loop dry system with a trim cooler include all of those listed for the closed-
loop dry system. Also, it now requires some secondary coolant during warmer times of
the year. Additional piping will be required for the trim coolant to/from the skid. Both the
trim cooler and the air-cooled fluid cooler will require periodic maintenance and
cleaning.

4. Open-Loop Evaporative Cooling Systems

The next system, an open-loop evaporative cooling system is completely different

than the first three listed above. This system can use the design wet bulb as the basis for
the outlet temperature of the cooling water. For example, if the design dry bulb for the
location is 95 F and the design wet bulb is 75 F, the system can provide approximately 82
F water to the load.

The open-loop evaporative cooling system cascades water through the honeycomb
PVC fill material in the tower along with ambient air blown or drawn through the fill to
evaporate the water. During the evaporation, the remaining water is cooled to as close as
7 F or higher above the wet bulb temperature. The evaporated water is replaced with
some type of make-up water system like a float valve. The remaining water and the
make-up water are collected in a basin and then pumped to the load and the cycle repeats.
On average an open-loop evaporative cooling system requires 4 GPM of makeup and
blow down water per 1,000,000 Btu/hr of heat rejected.
 The advantage of this system is that the equipment is typically inexpensive. The
systems can be simple to employ in warmer climates but may require more controls in
colder climates.

The weaknesses of this type of system are that they normally require an extensive
water treatment system. The water treatment system uses expendable chemicals to keep
the calcium and dissolved minerals in suspension. The chemical treatment is necessary to
ensure that the cooling tower, piping, and heat exchangers do not become fouled. An
inherent issue with the open tower evaporative system is that the water that flows through
the tower is also the heat transfer fluid that is pumped through the load. This water meets
the dirty atmosphere. It picks up pollutants such as dust, vegetation, etc. These
contaminates end up in the heat exchangers and piping and can cause significant
maintenance issues.

5. Closed-Loop Evaporative Cooling Systems

A closed-loop evaporative system is a hybrid system. The closed loop evaporative

system is an open tower with a closed-loop heat exchanger built into the tower. The tower
water stays outside in the tower and does not circulate through the coolant piping. The
coolant piping is a closed loop, with a glycol/water solution flowing from the tower to the
load and back. The separate tower water is pumped from the basin to the top of the tower
and sprays across the heat exchanger (normally an array of tubes) with air blown or
drawn through the tower across the heat exchanger where evaporation of the water
transfers the heat from the closed coolant loop to the ambient air. The remaining tower
water falls to the basin where it is again pumped up to the top of the tower and repeats the
 process. The closed-loop evaporative system tower water requires make-up water,
chemical treatment, a drain, cold weather basin heater, and blow-down just like the open-
loop evaporative system discussed above.

The advantage of the closed-loop evaporative system is that it can deliver closed
loop coolant to the load at approximately 7 to 10 F above the wet bulb temperature. The
closed-loop coolant remains free of contaminates and allows the equipment heat
exchanger and piping to remain clean. Any contaminates from the atmosphere will stay
outside with the tower. Fewer water treatment chemicals will be used because they are
only treating the open water in the tower and not the coolant in the piping and system
heat exchangers.

The drawbacks of a closed-loop evaporative system are that you will need water
treatment, blow-down, and make-up water for the tower water side of the system. The
system will require a drain and heat-traced and insulated piping for cold weather
applications. There is a basin heater required to prevent freezing of the basin in cold
weather off-time operation. The system requires an additional pump connected to the
tower which circulates the basin water.

6. Chilled Water-Cooling Systems

The last type of cooling system we will discuss is the chilled water system. A chiller
normally has a mechanical compression device that converts energy into compressed
refrigerant by using some type of compressor. The compressed refrigerant is piped to a
condenser that rejects the heat from the refrigerant to the atmosphere or some type of
liquid coolant. The compressed refrigerant changes state from a gas to a liquid in the
condenser and is piped to an evaporator where it is metered or expanded in the evaporator.
The expansion of the high-pressure liquid refrigeration reduces the temperature of the
evaporator. The liquid to be cooled is pumped through the evaporator heat exchanger and
heat is transferred to the refrigerant. The low-pressure vapor is carried back to the
compressor and the cycle begins again for the refrigerant. The coolant flows from the
evaporator heat exchanger to the load where the heat is transferred to the coolant in the
load heat exchanger and then returns to the evaporator to repeat the cycle.

The strengths of a chiller are that it can produce coolant temperatures far below the
design wet bulb or dry bulb. It is not as dependent on the ambient temperature for the
outlet coolant temperatures.

The weaknesses of a chiller are that it is a complex piece of machinery. Chillers cost
more than all other forms of cooling equipment. They require specialized periodic
maintenance and trained certified repair technicians for proper operations. Chillers
themselves introduce additional heat loading from the compressors that must also be
removed in the condenser. The power required to operate a chiller is much higher than the
other types of cooling systems discussed above. Cold weather operation of chillers
requires special additional components on the chiller. Load variations may require special
controls and/or multiple chiller circuits for efficient operation all adding to the overall cost
of the equipment.
Water Distribution System

Water Distribution System comes under the water supply system. A domestic water
supply system is a provision to deliver water from source to household with appropriate
quality, quantity, and pressure by public utilities, usually by a system of pumps and pipes.
Water distribution systems are extensive, readily accessible, and generally
unprotected. Although the probability of the intentional contamination of drinking water is
relatively low, the impact of such an event in terms of physical, financial, and
psychological damage could be significant. Therefore, they are considered easy targets for
terrorists (Mays, 2004).

Different Water Distribution Systems (according to civiconcepts.com)

1. Dead-End or Tree Distribution System

In these types of water distribution system, one main pipeline runs through the
center of the building, and the sub-mains branch lines off from both sides. The sub-main
lines are then divided into several branch lines from which service connections are
provided for houses.
 Advantages of Dead-End Distribution System

 The design of pipe laying is simple and easy.

 A smaller number of cut-off valves are required, and the operation and
maintenance cost are low.
 Pipe laying is simple, and no skilled labor is required.

Disadvantages of Dead-End Distribution System

 The system is less successful in maintaining satisfactory pressure in high-rise

buildings and is therefore not favored in modern waterworks practice.
 Only one pipe provides the water to the entire building which is quite risky.
 The head loss is relatively high, requiring a larger pipe diameter and need pumping
units.
 The discharge available during firefighting is limited due to high head loss in the
piping system.
 The water pressure available is also lower which requires a pumping system.

2. Gridiron Distribution System

In this, the main supply lines run through the center of the building, and sub mains
branch off in perpendicular directions. The branch interconnects the sub-mains. The
distinguishing features of this system are that all the type of pipes are interconnected and
there are no dead ends. Water can reach at the given point of withdrawal from many
directions, which allows more flexible operation, particularly when repairs are required.
 Advantages of Gridiron Distribution System

 This system enables the free circulation of water, without any stagnation or
sediment deposit.
 Because of the fewer interconnections water is available at every point with
minimum loss of head.
 Adequate water is available with pressure for firefighting requirements from the
various branch lines.
 During repair, only a few houses are affected.

Disadvantages of Gridiron Distribution System

 In this system, more cut-off valves are required.

 This system requires longer pipe lengths with larger diameters.
 The analysis of discharge, pressure, and velocity in the pipes is difficult and
cumbersome.
 As more pipes are required, ultimately increases the cost of the distribution system.

3. Circular or Ring Distribution System

In these types of water distribution system, the supply mains form a ring around the
area. The branch pipes are connected crosswise to the mains and to each other. This
system is most reliable for several buildings located in the same area planned locations.
 Advantages of Circular or Ring Distribution System

 The number of interconnections is less with minimum loss of head.

 The discharge is also higher when compared to other methods of distribution.
 Fewer consumers are affected at the time of repairs as separate main lines available
for each household.

Disadvantages of Circular or Ring Distribution System

 The length of pipe laying is more which ultimately leads to higher cost.
 Several valves are required to control the flow and discharge of water.

4. Radial Distribution System

In these types of water distribution system, the whole buildings are divided into
several distribution areas. Each building has a centrally located elevated reservoir from
where distribution pipes run radially towards the periphery of the distribution areas. This
system gives swift service, without much loss of head. The design of the pipe laying
system is much simpler.
Advantages of Radial Distribution System

 Generally, in high-rise buildings, a radial system is used for the water distribution
system.
 In this system, water is available with higher discharge and with minimum head
loss.
 Fewer numbers of the consumer are affected while repairing.

Disadvantages of Radial Distribution System

 The design of the pipe laying system is complicated.

 More length of pipe is required as the connection is more in this system.

Septic Tanks
Septic systems are underground wastewater treatment structures, commonly used
in rural areas without centralized sewer systems. They use a combination of nature and
proven technology to treat wastewater from household plumbing produced by
bathrooms, kitchen drains, and laundry.

A typical septic system consists of a septic tank and a drain field, or soil absorption
field. The septic tank digests organic matter and separates floatable matter (e.g., oils and
grease) and solids from the wastewater. Soil-based systems discharge the liquid (known
as effluent) from the septic tank into a series of perforated pipes buried in a leach field,
chambers, or other special units designed to slowly release the effluent into the soil.

Alternative systems use pumps or gravity to help septic tank effluent trickle
through sand, organic matter (e.g., peat and sawdust), constructed wetlands, or other
media to remove or neutralize pollutants like disease-causing pathogens, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and other contaminants. Some alternative systems are designed to evaporate
wastewater or disinfect it before it is discharged to the soil.

How a typical conventional Septic System works:

1. All water runs out of your house from one main drainage pipe into a septic tank.
 2. The septic tank is a buried, water-tight container usually made of concrete, fiberglass,
or polyethylene. Its job is to hold the wastewater long enough to allow solids to settle
down to the bottom forming sludge, while the oil and grease floats to the top as scum.
Compartments and a T-shaped outlet prevent the sludge and scum from leaving the
tank and traveling into the drain field area.
3. The liquid wastewater (effluent) then exits the tank into the drain field.
4. The drain field is a shallow, covered, excavation made in unsaturated soil. Pretreated
wastewater is discharged through piping onto porous surfaces that allow wastewater
to filter though the soil. The soil accepts, treats, and disperses wastewater as it
percolates through the soil, ultimately discharging to groundwater.
If the drain field is overloaded with too much liquid, it can flood, causing sewage to
flow to the ground surface or create backups in toilets and sinks.
5. Finally, the wastewater percolates into the soil, naturally removing harmful coliform
bacteria, viruses, and nutrients. Coliform bacteria are a group of bacteria
predominantly inhabiting the intestines of humans or other warm-blooded animals. It
is an indicator of human fecal contamination.

Types of Septic Systems (according to epa.gov):

1. Septic Tank
A buried, watertight tank designated and constructed to receive and partially
treat raw domestic sanitary wastewater. Heavy solids settle to the bottom of the tank
while greases and lighter solids float to the top. The solids stay in the tank while the
wastewater is discharged to the drain field for further treatment and dispersal.
2. Conventional System
A decentralized wastewater treatment system consisting of a septic tank and a
trench or bed subsurface wastewater infiltration system (drain field). A conventional
septic system is typically installed at a single-family home or small business.

The gravel/stone drain field is a design that has existed for decades. The name
refers to the construction of the drain field. With this design, effluent is piped from
the septic tank to a shallow underground trench of stone or gravel. A geofabric or
similar material is then placed on top of the trench, so sand, dirt, and other
contaminants do not enter the clean stone.

Effluent filters through the stone and is then further treated by microbes once it
reaches the soil below the gravel/stone trench. Gravel/stone systems are relatively
large in overall footprint and may not be suitable for all residential sites or conditions.

3. Chamber System
Gravel less drain fields have been widely used for over 30 years in many states
and have become a conventional technology replacing gravel systems. They take
 many forms, including open-bottom chambers, fabric-wrapped pipe, and synthetic
materials such as expanded polystyrene media. The gravel less systems can be
manufactured with recycled materials and offer a significant savings in carbon
footprint.

An example of a gravel less system is the chamber system. The chamber

system serves as an alternative design to the gravel/stone system. The primary
advantage of the chamber system is increased ease of delivery and construction. They
are also well suited to areas with high groundwater tables, where the volume of
influent to the septic system is variable (e.g., at a vacation home or seasonal inn), in
an area where gravel is scarce, or in areas where other technologies such as plastic
chambers are readily available.

This type of system consists of a series of connected chambers. The area

around and above the chambers is filled with soil. Pipes carry wastewater from the
septic tank to the chambers. In the chambers, the wastewater meets the soil. Microbes
on or near the soil treat the effluent.

4. Drip Distribution System

The drip distribution system is a type of effluent dispersal that can be used in
many types of drain fields. The main advantage of the drip distribution system is that
 no large mound of soil is needed as the drip laterals are inserted into the top 6 to 12
inches of soil. The disadvantage of the drip distribution system is that it requires a
large dose tank after the septic tank to accommodate the timed dose delivery of
wastewater to the drip absorption area. Additional components, such as electrical
power, are necessary for this system, requiring an added expense and increased
maintenance.

5. Aerobic Treatment Unit

Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) use many of the same processes as a
municipal sewage plant, but on a smaller scale. An aerobic system injects oxygen into
the treatment tank. The additional oxygen increases natural bacterial activity within
the system that then provides additional treatment for nutrients in the effluent. Some
aerobic systems may also have a pretreatment tank and a final treatment tank
including disinfection to further reduce pathogen levels. The benefits of this system
are that it can be used in homes with smaller lots, inadequate soil conditions, in areas
 where the water table is too high, or for homes close to a surface water body sensitive
to contamination by nutrients contained in wastewater effluent. Regular life-time
maintenance should be expected for ATUs.

6. Mound Systems

Mound systems are an option in areas of shallow soil depth, high groundwater,
or shallow bedrock. The constructed sand mound contains a drain field trench.
Effluent from the septic tank flows to a pump chamber where it is pumped to the
mound in prescribed doses. Treatment of the effluent occurs as it discharges to the
trench and filters through the sand, and then disperses into the native soil. While
mound systems can be a good solution for certain soil conditions, they require a
substantial amount of space and periodic maintenance. 

7. Recirculating Sand Filter System

Sand filter systems can be constructed above or below ground. Effluent flows
from the septic tank to a pump chamber. It is then pumped to the sand filter. The sand
filter is often PVC-lined, or a concrete box filled with a sand material. Effluent is
pumped under low pressure through the pipes at the top of the filter. The effluent
leaves the pipes and is treated as it filters through the sand. The treated wastewater is
then discharged to the drain field.
 Sand filters provide a high level of treatment for nutrients and are good for
sites with high water tables or that are close to water bodies, but they are more
expensive than a conventional septic system.

8. Evapotranspiration System
Evapotranspiration systems have unique drain fields. The base of the
evapotranspiration system drain field is lined with a watertight material. After the
effluent enters the drain field, it evaporates into the air. Unlike other septic system
designs, the effluent never filters to the soil and never reaches groundwater.

Evapotranspiration systems are only useful in specific environmental

conditions. The climate must be arid and have adequate heat and sunlight. These
systems work well in shallow soil; however, they are at risk of failure if it rains or
snows too much. 
9. Constructed Wetland System
A constructed wetland mimics the treatment processes that occur in natural
wetlands. Wastewater flows from the septic tank and enters the wetland cell. The
wastewater then passes through the media and is treated by microbes, plants, and
other media that remove pathogens and nutrients. The wetland cell typically consists
of an impermeable liner, and gravel and sand fill, along with the appropriate wetland
plants, which must be able to survive in a perpetually saturated environment. A
wetland system can work via either gravity flow or pressure distribution. As
wastewater flows through the wetland, it may exit the wetland and flow into a drain
field for further wastewater treatment into the soil.

10. Cluster / Community System

 A decentralized wastewater treatment system under some form of common
ownership that collects wastewater from two or more dwellings or buildings and
conveys it to a treatment and dispersal system located on a suitable site near the
dwellings or buildings. It is common to find cluster systems in places like rural
subdivisions.

References:

 Hivacair.com. (August 2018). 4 Different Types of Cooling Systems. Retrieved from:

https://www.hivacair.com/article/4-different-types-of-cooling-systems
 Williams, B. (n.d.). The Six Basic Types of Liquid Cooling Systems. Retrieved from:
https://www.airbestpractices.com/technology/cooling-systems/six-basic-types-liquid-
cooling-systems#:~:text=There%20are%20six%20basic%20types%20of%20liquid
%20cooling,5%20Closed-loop%20evaporative%20system%206%20Chilled
%20water%20system
 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Cooling System. Retrieved from:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/cooling-system
 Mahajan, B. (n.d.) 4 Types of Water Distribution System | Advantages &
Disadvantages Water Supply Distribution System. Retrieved from:
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-water-distribution-system
 Epa.gov. (n.d.). How your Septic System Works. Retrieved from:
https://www.epa.gov/septic/how-your-septic-system-works
 Epa.gov. (n.d.). Types of Septic Systems. Retrieved from:
https://www.epa.gov/septic/types-septic-systems