Chapter 2 - Construction Equipments and Plants AAU

[CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT ] Lecture Notes
CHAPETR II
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND PLANTS:
PRODUCTIVITY OF EQUIPMENTS

2 Construction Equipments and Plants
The efficient and effective implementation of construction projects requires good
management of relationships for and among resources, activities and stakeholders as applied
to the context where such projects are implemented. Materials, Money, Manpower and
Machineries (the 4 M's) are usual resources recognized in most situations. Equipment types
used in a construction project is largely dependent on their

Direct input to unit prices or not
Type of work or trades
Scope of work
Mobility
System of control and
Availability

Generally equipment types can be classified into based on their direct input to unit prices into
two major categories. These are Productive and Support equipments. Productive equipments
are those units that alone or in combination lead to an end product which can be recognized
as a unit for payment; they described Support equipments to those equipments which are
required for operations related to the placement of construction such as movement of
personnel and materials, and activities that influence the placement of environment.
Accordingly, Productive Equipments include pavers, haulers, loaders, rollers and entrenchers;
and Support Equipments include represented hoists, lighting sets, vibrators, scaffolds and
heaters as typical support equipments

Another way of classifying construction equipments can also be based on whether the
construction is a heavy or light construction works or services. Generally, Road and Hydro
Power works, Large Irrigation schemes, Water Supply and Sewage plants and High Rise
buildings are categorized as heavy constructions because they involve large quantities of fluid
or semi fluid materials such as earth, concrete, asphalt to be moved, sprayed and placed
requiring use of large equipments. Such construction works are called equipment intensive to
refer to usage of heavy construction equipments.

Low rise buildings, water supply and sewerage lines, electric and telecommunication lines and
small irrigation schemes can be categorized as light construction where few use of
AAU, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department | Instructor: Abraham Assefa 3
[CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT ] Lecture Notes
equipments could be employed and largely focusing on tool utilizations and hence are called
labor intensive construction works or services.

For the purpose of this course three major classifications of equipments largely based on the
type of works involved are covered. These include Earth works equipments, Hauling and
Hoisting equipments and pumping equipment, and construction plants namely, aggregate
production plants, Asphalt mixing plant and Concrete Batching plants are considered.

Examples of equipments for each category include: ‐

1. Earth Work Equipments
• Bulldozers, Shovels, Clamshells and Draglines, Loaders, Graders, Scrappers, Rollers,
Drills, Grouting pumps, Pile driving and Hammers.
2. Hauling and Hoisting Equipments
• Tractors, Normal and Dump trucks, Hoists, Conveyors and Cranes.
3. Pumping Equipments
• Pumps, Hozes, Pipes, and Compressors.

Examples of construction plants with equipment types include: ‐

• Aggregate Production Plants
• Crushers, Screens, Conveyors, and Feeders.
• Concrete Batching Plants and
• Feeders, Mixers, and Silos.
• Asphalt Mixing Plans Works Equipments
• Aggregate Batchers, Bitumen Emulsifier, and Mixers.

2.1 Construction Equipments
Construction equipments can be broadly categorized into Earth works equipments, Hauling
and Hoisting equipments and Pumping equipments.

2.1.1 Earth Work Equipments

Earth work equipments are broadly classified into earth moving and compaction equipments.

2.1.1.1 Earth Moving Equipments

Definition: ‐Earth work is a process of moving soil or rock from one location to the other and
processing it, so that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density,
moisture content, etc.

General Soil Characteristics

As earth moving equipments are mostly related to woks related to soil, important aspects of
soil shall be reviewed. From the characteristics of soils trafficability, loadability and volume
change are vital for earth works. Accordingly,

• Trafficability ‐ property that shows the ability of soil to support repeated traffic loading
• Loadability ‐ property that tells the ease or difficulty of excavating and loading
• Soil Volume Change ‐ property that is related with volumes of soil samples on different
stress or compaction levels.

Soil Volume Change Characteristics

There are three principal conditions or states in which earth moving material may exist: bank,
loose, and compacted. The meanings of these terms are as follows:
• Bank State ‐ This is the state when the material is in its natural state i.e. before
disturbance. Often referred to as ‘’in – place’’ or “in situ.’’
o Unit‐ Bank cubic meter [Bm3]

• Loose State ‐ This is the state after the material is excavated or disturbed.
o Unit‐ Loose cubic meter [Lm3]

• Compacted State ‐ ‐This is the state after the material is compacted.
o Unit‐ Compact cubic meter [Cm3]

Relationships between the three states

Swell: ‐ an increase in volume of soil due to excavation

Swell (%) = Loose Volume – Bank Volume x 100
Bank Volume
= VL – VB x 100 = [VL/VB –1] x100
VB
Since,
γ = W/V γL = W/VL and γB = W/ VB

Swell (%) = [VL/VB –1] x100

= [W/γL ‐ 1] x100 = [γB/ γL ‐ 1] x100
W/γB
Shrinkage: ‐ this is a decrease in volume of soil due to compaction

Shrinkage (%) = Bank Volume – Compacted Volume x100
Bank Volume

= VB – VC x100 = [1‐ VC/VB] x100
VB

= [1‐ γB/ γC ] x 100

Load and Shrinkage Factors: ‐

In performing earthmoving calculations, it is important to convert all material volumes’ to
common unit of measure. Although the bank cubic meter is most commonly used for this
purpose, any of the three volume units may be used. A pay load is the volume unit specified
as the basis for payment in an earth moving contract. It is usually the bank volume. The factor
used to convert loose volume to bank is called the load factor and the factor converting bank
to compacted volume is called the shrinkage factor.

Load factor: ‐ is the ratio of bank volume to loose volume.

fL (load factor) =VB/VL

fL = 1__
1 + swell

Shrinkage factor: ‐ is the ratio of compacted volume to bank volume.

fs (shrinkage factor) = VC/VB

fs = [ 1‐ shrinkage ]

The common activities in earthwork are Excavating, hauling, loading, placing (damp &spread),
grading, compacting and finally finishing. Equipments used for this purposes are explained as
follows.

2.1.1.1.1 Excavating and Loading

These are construction equipments used to excavate and load earth materials for various
purposes. The major types of excavator equipments used in earth moving operations include
hydraulic excavators and the member of the cable – operated crane shovel family (Shovels,
draglines, hoes, and clamshells). Dozers, loaders and scrapers serve as excavators. Most of the
excavators and loaders are used as loading equipments in earth moving operations.

2.1.1.1.1.1 Crane shovel Family

The crane shovel family is a group of excavators having the following common features:
• Mounting ‐ they are mounted on crawlers, wheels or trucks. The crawler mounting
provides excellent on – site mobility, and its low ground pressure enables it to operate
in areas of low trafficability. Crawler mountings are widely used for drainage and
trenching work as well as for rock excavation. Truck and wheel mounting provide
greater mobility between job sites but are less stable than crawler mountings and
require better surfaces over which to operate. Though wheel mountings have a single
operator station to control both the carrier and the excavating mechanisms; truck
mountings have a modified chassis as a carrier and thus separate stations for
operating the carrier and the revolving superstructure.
• Super structure or Control Room
• Front end attachment

The equipments under this family include:
A. Face Shovel
B. Drag Line
C. Backhoe
D. Clamshell

A. Face Shovel

Face shovel is equipment used mainly in quarries, pits and on construction sites to excavate
and load blasted rock. These equipments are more effective for excavations above the wheel
or grade level.

Figure 2 ‐1 Crawler mounted power shovel
Basic parts and Operation of a Shovel

The basic parts of a power shovel include the mounting, cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper
(bucket), and hoist line. These parts are illustrated in figure shown below.

Figure 2 ‐2 Basic parts and operation of a power shovel

With a shovel is in the correct position, near the face of the earth to be excavated, the dipper
is lowered to the floor of the pit, with the teeth pointing into the surface. A crowding force is
applied through the shipper shaft, and at the same time tension is applied to the hoisting line
to pull the dipper up the face of the pit. If the depth of the face is just right, considering the
type of soil and the size of the dipper, the dipper will be filled as it reaches the top of the face.
If the depth of the face, referred to as the depth of cut, is too shallow, it will not be possible
to fill the dipper completely without excessive crowding and hoisting tension, and possibly not
at all. This subjects the equipment to excessive strains and reduces the output of the
equipment. If the depth of the face is grater than is required to fill the dipper, when operating
under favorable crowd and hoist, it will be necessary to reduce the depth of penetration of
the dipper into the face if the full face is to be excavated or to start the excavation above the
floor of the pit. The material left near the floor of the pit will be excavated after the upper
portion of the face is removed.

Optimum depth of cut: The optimum depth of cut is that depth which produces the greatest
output and at which the dipper comes up with full load without undue crowding. The depth
varies with the class of soil and the size of the dipper.

The output of a shovel is affected by numerous factors, including the following: Class of
material, depth of cut, angle of swing, job conditions, management conditions, size of hauling
units, skill of operator and physical condition of the shovel.

B. Drag Line

Draglines are used to excavate earth and load it into hauling units, such as trucks or tractors‐
pulled wagons, or deposit it into levees, dams and spoil banks near the pits from which it was
excavated. These equipments are more efficient for excavation below the grade level and
have the longest reach of all shovel equipments. A dragline can be used for dragging out
sediments and is efficient for under water construction. These equipments are weak while
excavating hard materials and have a lesser productivity that a face shovels.

Figure 2 ‐3 Crawler Mounted Dragline

Basic parts and Operation of Dragline

The basic parts of a dragline are illustrated in the figure show below.

Figure 2 ‐4 Basic Parts of a Dragline

Excavation is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging position, at the same time
slacking off the drag and the hoist cables. Separate drums on the basic unit are available for
each of these cables so that they may be coordinated in to a small operation. Excavating is
accomplished by pulling the bucket toward the machine while regulating the digging depth by
means of the tension maintained in the hoist cable. When the bucket is filled, the operator
takes in on the hoist line while playing out the drag cable. The bucket is so constructed that it
will not dump its contents until the desired. Hoisting, swinging, and dumping of the loaded
bucket follow in that order; then the cycle is repeated. Dumping is accomplished by releasing
the drag cable. An experienced operator can cast the excavated material beyond the end of
the boom.

The output of a dragline will vary with the following factors: Class of material, depth of cut,
angle of swing, size and type of bucket, length of boom, job conditions, management
conditions, method of disposal, size of hauling units, skill of the operator and physical
condition of the machine.

C. Back Hoe

Backhoes are used primarily to excavate below the natural surface of the ground on which the
machine rests. They are adapted to excavating trenches, pits for basements, and general
grading work, which requires precise control of depths. Because of their rigidity they are
superior to draglines in operating on close‐range work and dumping into trucks. Because of
the direct pull on the bucket, backhoes may exert greater tooth pressures than face shovels.

Figure 2 ‐5 Basic Parts of a Hoe

Output of backhoes: ‐ When a backhoe is used to dig at moderate depths, the output may
approach the output of a face shovel of comparable size digging in the same class of material.
However, as the depth is increased, the output of the hoe will decrease considerably. The
most effective digging action occurs when the bucket (dipper) stick is at right angles to the
boom. The greatest output will be obtained if digging is done near the machine, because of
the reduced cycle time, and because the material rolls back into the bucket better when the
dipper is pulled upward near the machine.

D. Clamshell

Clamshells are used primarily for handling loose materials such as sand, gravel, crushed stone,
coal, etc. and for removing materials from inside cofferdams, pier foundations, sewer
manholes, sheet‐lined trenches, etc. They are specially suited to vertically lifting materials
from one location to another, as in charging hoppers and overhead bins. The limits of vertical
movements may be relatively large when they are used with long crane booms.

Figure 2 ‐6 Feeding a batching plant with a clamshell

Comparison between the shovel family members:
No. Parameters of Face shovel Dragline Backhoe Clamshell

comparison
Operation in hard soil
1 or rock Good Poor Good Good
Reach distance b/n

2 machinery and Small Longest Small Long
digging point
Loading efficiency on Precise but
3 vehicles Very good Fair Fair slow

Digging Level Mainly above Below its Below its At, above
4 grade level grade level grade level or below
grade level
2.1.1.1.1.2 Hydraulic Excavators

Hydraulic excavators have largely replaced the cable operated crane shove family; functionally
similar hydraulic machines are available including front shovel and backhoe. The advantage of
hydraulic excavators over cable – operated machines are faster cycle time, higher bucket
penetrating force, more precise digging, and easier operator control. In addition to that many
attachments can be made to increase the versatility of the equipments. Some common
attachments include:
• Augers: Drills holes for poles, posts, soil sampling, and ground improvement
• Jack Hammer: vibratory hammer used to break up concrete and rock.
• Bucket Ripper: The bucket sides and bottom are lined with ripper teeth to break up
hard soil or soft rock.
• Thumb Bucket: attached to bucket to provide a hook capacity.

The following are equipments also used to move, load and grade excavated materials.

2.1.1.1.1.3 Loaders

A tractor equipped with a front – end bucket is called a loader, front end loader or bucket
loader. These are equipments used primarily to load excavated materials to a hauling unit,
excavate soft to medium materials, loading hoppers, stockpiling materials, backfilling ditches,
and moving concrete and other construction materials.

Both track and wheel loaders are available. Most modern wheel loaders are articulated.
Attachments available for the loader include augers, backhoes, crane booms, dozer and snow
blades and forklifts. Some models of wheel loaders are designed as a combination of a
backhoe and loader and often called backhoe loader.

Figure 2 ‐7 Wheel Loader – Articulated

2.1.1.1.1.4 Dozers

A tractor equipped with a front – mounted earthmoving blade is known as a dozer or
bulldozer. A dozer moves earth by lowering the blade and cutting until a full blade load of
materials is obtained. It then pushes the material across the ground surface to the required
location. The material is unloaded by pushing it over a cliff or into a hopper or raising the
blade to form a spoil pile. Both rubber tire (and wheel) and crawler (or track) dozers are
available.

Dozers may be equipped with direct – drive, power shift, or hydrostatic transmissions.
Hydrostatic transmissions utilize individual hydraulic motors to drive each track. Therefore, it
is possible for a dozer equipped with a hydrostatic drive to turn in its own length by moving
one track forward while the other track moves in reverse.

Figure 2 ‐8 Hydraulic – Controlled Bulldozer

Dozers are most versatile machines on many construction projects, where they can be used
from the start to the finish for such operations such as Clearing land of timber and stumps,
opening up pilot roads through mountains and rocky terrain, moving earth for the haul
distances up to approximately 100m, helping load tractor‐ pulled scrapers, spreading earth
fills, backfilling trenches, clearing construction sites of derbies, and maintaining haul roads.

Dozers are mounted with the blades perpendicular to the direction of travel, while angle
dozers are mounted with the blades set at an angle with the direction of travel. The machine
operator can change the blade position to attain a certain targets. Based on the positions of
the blade: ‐

A. Tilting ‐ Tilting the blade is used to break hard materials.
B. Pitching ‐ Forward Pitching – is used to roll materials forward and Backward Pitching –
is used to increase depth of cut.
C. Angling ‐ This is used to push materials sideways.

2.1.1.1.1.5 Grader

Grading is the process of bringing earth work to the desired shape and elevation (grade).
Finish grading involves smoothing slopes, shaping ditches, and bringing the earth work to the
required elevation. Such operation are usually carried out by a Grader or Motor Grader

Motor Grader is one of the most versatile terms of earth moving. It is used in grading, bank
noping, balancing, ditching, etc. of a natural ground level. The blade of a grader can be tilted,
pitched and angled.

Figure 2 ‐9 Tandem – driven Motor Grader

2.1.1.1.1.6 Choice of Equipment
Typically, construction equipment is used to perform essentially repetitive operations, and
can be broadly classified according to two basic functions: (1) operators such as cranes,
graders, etc. which stay within the confines of the construction site, and (2) haulers such as
dump trucks, ready mixed concrete truck, etc. which transport materials to and from the site.
In both cases, the cycle of a piece of equipment is a sequence of tasks which is repeated to
produce a unit of output. For example, the sequence of tasks for a crane might be to fit and
install a wall panel (or a package of eight wall panels) on the side of a building; similarly, the
sequence of tasks of a ready mixed concrete truck might be to load, haul and unload two
cubic yards (or one truck load) of fresh concrete.
In order to increase job‐site productivity, it is beneficial to select equipment with proper
characteristics and a size most suitable for the work conditions at a construction site. In
excavation for building construction, for examples, factors that could affect the selection of
excavators include:
1. Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or smaller
excavators in greater number.
2. Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to
increase the size or numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation.
3. Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the
equipment used to perform them is available but not the most adequate.
4. Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the
distance of transportation, and the means of transportation.
5. Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or
fill, excavation massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most
adequate equipment to perform one of these activities is not the most adequate to
perform the others.
6. Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing the
most adequate equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for
different soils. Moreover, one excavation pit could have different soils at different
stratums.
7. Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: Functional characteristics of
different types of equipment makes such considerations necessary.
8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial
limitations for the movement of excavators.
9. Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units if
there is a constraint on the size and/or number of these units.
10. Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and dumping
areas could be relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers, but also
the type of excavators.
11. Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect the
job‐site productivity of labor and equipment.
By comparing various types of machines for excavation, for example, power shovels are
generally found to be the most suitable for excavating from a level surface and for attacking
an existing digging surface or one created by the power shovel; furthermore, they have the
capability of placing the excavated material directly onto the haulers. Another alternative is to
use bulldozers for excavation.

2.1.1.1.1.7 Productivity of Excavators, Loaders, Dozers and Graders

General Introduction and Principles

Definition: ‐ Peak Productivity: – is the theoretical productivity governed by design limitations
only.

Actual Productivity: ‐ is the productivity of an equipment after due consideration of the
differently influencing factors.

Q a = Q th x f 1 x f 2 x.. Equation (2 – 1)

Equipments can be broadly classified into two based on equipment productivity concepts:
Cyclic Operating or Continuously Operating.

A. Cyclic Operating Equipments

These are machines which are intentionally or unintentionally influenced by their operators.
The theoretical productivity can be computed from:

Q a = Vnx noxη Equation (2 – 3)

Where Qa – Actual Productivity
Vn – Volume per cycle
η ‐ Efficiency of the equipment
no – number of cycle /Unit Time (usually Time in hours)
Where To – theoretical cycle time
60
no =
T
o

The term “volume per cycle” should represent the average volume of material moved per
equipment cycle. Thus the nominal capacity of the excavator or hauler unit must be modified
by the appropriate fill factor based on the type of materials and the equipment involved. The
term “number of cycle per hour” must include any appropriate efficiency factors, so that it
represents the number of cycles actually achieved (or excepted to be achieved) per hour.

B. Continuously Operating Equipments

These are machines that continuously operate, like pumps, conveyer belts, etc. For these
kinds of machines:

3
Q a = Vn x a x n o x 60 x η [m /hr]
Equation (2 – 4)

Where Qa – Actual Productivity
Vn – Volume per bucket
a ‐ Number of buckets
η ‐ Efficiency of the equipment
no – number of cycle /Unit Time (usually Time in hours)

2.1.1.1.1.8 Productivity of Shovel Family and Excavators

The actual productivity of the shovel family is dependent on the actual volume per cycle and
the cycle time. Thus, to compute the actual productivity one should be able to make a good
estimate of the actual bucket capacity (which depends on the soil characteristics) and the
cycle time.

The actual productivity can be computed from Equation 2 ‐3 as:

Q a = Vnx noxη Equation 2 – 3

To utilize Equation 2 ‐ 3 for estimating the production of shovel family or an excavator, it is
necessary to know the volume of material actually contained in one bucket load. The methods
by which excavator bucket and dozer blade capacity are rated are given in Table 2 – 1. Plate
line capacity is the bucket volume contained within the bucket when following the outline of
the bucket sides. Struck capacity is the bucket capacity when the load is struck off flush with
the bucket sides. Water line capacity assumes a level of material flush with the lowest edge of
the bucket (i.e., the material level corresponds to the water level that would result if the
bucket were filled with water). Heaped volume is the maximum volume that can be placed in
the bucket without spillage based on a specified angle of repose for the material in the
bucket.

Machine Rated Bucket Capacity
Backhoe and shovel
Cable Struck Volume
Hydraulic Heaped Volume at 1:1 angle of repose
Clamshell Plate line or water line volume
Dragline 90% of struck volume
Loader Heaped volume at 2:1 angle of repose

Table 2 – 1‐ Bucket Capacity Rating Methods

Since bucket ratings for the cable shovel, dragline, and cable backhoe are based on struck
volume, it is often assumed that the heaping of the buckets will compensate for the swell of
the soil. That is, a 5 m3 bucket would be assumed to actually hold 5 bank m3 of material. A
better estimate of the volume of material in one bucket load will be obtained if the nominal
bucket volume is multiplied by a bucket fill factor or bucket efficiency factor.

Suggested values of bucket fill factor for common soils are given in Table 2 – 2. The most
accurate estimate of bucket load is obtained by multiplying the heaped bucket volume (loose
measure) by the bucket fill factor. If desired, the bucket load may be converted to bank
volume by multiplying its loose volume by the soil’s load factor. This procedure is illustrated in
Example 2 – 1.

Material Bucket Fill Factor
Common Earth, loam 0.80 – 1.10
Sand and Gravel 0.90 – 1.00
Hard Clay 0.65 – 0.95
Wet Clay 0.50 – 0.90
Rock well blasted 0.70 – 0.90
Rock, poorly blasted 0.40 – 0.70
Table 2 – 2‐ Bucket Fill Factors for Excavators

It should be noted that a cycle time is the sum of fixed cycle time and variable cycle time.
Variable time represents those components of cycle time related with travel time. Fixed time
represents those components of cycle time other than travel time. Fixed Cycle time
represents the time required to maneuver, change gears, start loading, and dump. Variable
Cycle time is the time required to excavate and travel to load and travel to return to original
position after loading.

Example 2‐1

Estimate the actual bucket load in bank cubic meters for a loader bucket whose heaped
capacity is 3.82m3. The soil’s bucket fill factor is 0.90 and its load factor is 0.80.

Solution
Bucket load = Bucket Volume x B.F. F x fL = 3.82 Lm3 x 0.90 x 0.80 = 2.75 Bm3

Production of a hydraulic excavator may be estimated by using Equation 2 ‐ 5 together with
Tables 2‐ 2 and 2 ‐ 3, which have been prepared from manufacturers’ data.

Q = V x n x S x B xη Equation 2 – 5

a n o

Where Qa – Actual Productivity (m3/hr)
Vn – heaped bucket volume
no – Cycles per hour (Table 2 ‐ 3)
S – Swing depth factor (Table 2 ‐ 4)
B – Bucket fill factor (Table 2 – 2)
η – Job efficiency

Example 2‐2

Find the expected production in loose cubic meter (LCM) per hour of a small hydraulic
excavator. Heaped bucket capacity is 0.57 m3. The material is sand and gravel with a bucket
fill factor of 0.95. Job efficiency is 50 min/h. Average depth of cut is 4.3m. Maximum depth of
cut is 6.1m and average swing is 90.

Solution
Cycles per hour = 250 Cycles / 60 min (Table 2 – 3)
Swing Depth Factor = 1.05 (Table 2‐ 5)
Bucket Fill Factor = 0.95
Bucket Volume = 0.57 Lm3
Job Efficiency = 50/60 = 0.833
Qa = 0.57 m3 x 250 cycles / hr x 1.05 x 0.95 x 0.833 = 118.41 Lm3/hr ≈ 118 Lm3 / hr

Material Type Machine Size
Bucket Size (m3)
Wheel Small Medium Large
Tractor Excavator Excavator Excavator
(0.76 or less) (0.94 – 1.72) (Over 1.72)
Soft 170 250 200 150
(Sand, Gravel, Loam)
Average 135 200 160 120
(Common Earth, Soft Clay)
Hard 110 160 130 100
(Tough Clay, Rock)
Table 2 ‐ 3 Standard cycles per hour for hydraulic excavators

Material Type Bucket Size (m3)
0.57 1.13 1.53 2.29
Sand and Gravel 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.7
Common Earth 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3
Table 2 ‐ 4 Optimum Depth of Cut (m)

% of Depth of Cut to Maximum Angle of Swing (deg)
Depth of Cut 45 60 90 120 180
30 1.33 1.26 1.21 1.15 0.95
50 1.28 1.21 1.16 1.10 0.91
70 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.83
90 1.04 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.75
Table 2 ‐ 5 Swing Depth Factor

In trenching work a fall‐in factor should be applied to excavator production to account for the
work required to clean out material that falls back into the trench from the trench walls.
Normal excavator production should be multiplied by the adjustment factors shown on Table
2 – 6 to obtain the effective trench production.

Material Adjustment Factor
Loose (sand, gravel, loam) 0.60 – 0.70
Average (common earth) 0.90 – 0.95
Firm (firm plastic soils) 0.95 – 1.00
Table 2 – 6 – Adjustment factor for trench production

2.1.1.1.1.9 Productivity of Loaders

Loader production can be estimated as the product of average bucket multiplied by cycles per
hour (Equation 2 – 3). Basic cycle time for a loader includes the time required for loading,
dumping, making four reversals of direction, and travelling a minimum distance (less than 5 m
for track loaders). The important aspect is determining the actual travel time. Travel times
shall be determined from manufacturer’s performance curves. Studies have indicated that
there is a little variation in basic cycle time for wheel loaders up to a distance of 25 m
between loadings and dumping position, therefore travel time shall not be added until one
way distance exceeds this distance.

2.1.1.1.1.10 Productivity of Dozers

The basic earth moving production equation (Equation 2 – 3) may be applied in estimating
dozer production. This method requires an estimate of the average blade load and the dozer
cycle time. There are several methods available for estimating average blade load, including
the blade manufacturer’s capacity rating, previous experience under similar conditions, and
actual measurement of several typical loads.

Blade volume can be computed by using equation 2 – 6:

3

Blade Load (Lm ) = 0.375xH(m) xW(m)xL(m) Equation 2 – 6

Example 2‐3

A power shit crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of 7.65 Lm3. The dozer is excavating a
loose common earth and pushing it a distance of 80 m. Maximum reverse speed in third range
is 8 km/hr and dozing speed is 4.0 km/hr. The fixed time for a power shift transmission is 0.05
min. Estimate the production of the dozer is the job efficiency is 55 min/hr and load factor is
0.90.
Solution: ‐
Q a = Vn x n o x η

Cycle Time = Fixed Cycle Time + Variable Cycle Time

Fixed Cycle Time = 0.05 min
Variable Time = Dozing Time + Return Time
Dozing Time = Dozing Distance / Speed = 80 m / (4 km/hr * 16.7 m/min) = 1.20 min
Return Time = Return Distance / Speed = 80 m / (8 km/hr * 16.7 m/min) = 0.60 min

Cycle Time = 1.20 + 0.60 +0.05 min = 1.85 min

no (No of cycle per hour) = 60/1.85 = 32.43

Qa = 7.65 Lm3 x 60 / 1.85 cycles / hr x 55/60 x 0.90 = 204.69 Bm3/hr ≈ 205 Bm3 / hr

2.1.1.1.1.11 Productivity of Graders

Grader production is usually calculated on a linear basis (kilometers completed per hour) for a
road way projects and on an area basis (square meters per hour) for general construction
projects. The time required to complete a roadway may be estimated as follows:

⎡ Number of pass x Section Length(km) ⎤ x 1
Equation 2 – 7
Time (hr) = ∑
⎢
⎣ Average Speed for Section(km /hr) ⎦ Efficiency ⎥

Average speed depends on the operator skill, machine characteristics, and job condition.
Typical grader speeds for various types of operations are given in Table 2 – 7.

Operation Speed (km/hr)
Bank Sloping 4.0
Ditching 4.0 – 6.4
Finishing 6.5 – 14.5
Grading and road maintenance 6.4 – 9.7
Mixing 14.5 – 32.2
Snow Removal 19.3 – 32.3
Spreading 9.7 – 14.5
Table 2 – 7 – Typical grader operating speed
Example 2‐4

A 25 km gravel load requires reshaping and leveling. It is estimated that six passes of a motor
grader will be required. Based on the operator skill, machine characteristics, and job
condition, estimates indicated two passes at 7 km/hr, two passes at 8 km/hr and two passes
at 10 km/hr. If the job efficiency is 0.80, how many grader hours will be required for this job?

Solution: ‐

Time (hr) = ⎡ ∑ ⎤x
Number of pass x Section Length(km) 1

⎢
⎣ Average Speed for Section(km /hr) ⎥
⎦ Efficiency

⎡ ⎛ 2x25 ⎞ ⎛ 2x25 ⎞ ⎛ 2 x 25 ⎞ ⎤ 1
Time (hr) = ∑ ⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ x 0.80 = 23.0hrs

2.1.2 Hauling and Hoisting Equipments

2.1.2.1 Hauling Equipments

Because hauling or the transportation of excavation is a major earthmoving activity, there are
many different types of hauling equipment available to the contractor. In addition to the
dozer and loader, hauling equipment includes trucks, wagons, scrapers, conveyor belts, and
trains.

Most of the belt – type conveyors used in construction are portable units used for the
movement of bulk construction materials within a small area or for placing concrete. However
it has been proven that conveyor belts are capable of moving earth and stone relatively long
distances at a high speed.

Conventional freight trains may be used to haul earth or rock over long distances when tracks
are located near the excavation and fill areas. Narrow gauge rail built trains are often used in
tunnels.

2.1.2.1.1 Trucks and Wagons

Trucks and wagons are still the most common forms of construction hauling equipment. The
heavy – duty rear dump truck is most widely used because of its flexibility of use and the
ability of highway models to move rapidly between job sites. There is a wide variety of types
and sizes of dump trucks available. Trucks can be divided into highway trucks and off highway
trucks. Refer to Figure 2 ‐10 & 2 ‐11. Trucks may have two or three axles and equipped with
standard or rock bodies.

Wagons are earthmoving trailers pulled by tractors or truck tractors. They are sometimes
referred to as pure haulers because they have many characteristics of tractor – scrapers, but
they are designed for hauling only.

Figure 2 – 10 Off ‐ highway Truck Figure 2 – 11 Highway Dump Truck
Productivity of Haulers

The productivity of a hauler unit can be computed by using Equation 2 – 3. However since
hauling units involve travel of excavated materials; computing the travel time is the most
important step in computing the productivity of the hauler.

Estimating Equipment Travel Time

In calculating the time required for a haul unit to make one complete cycle, it is customary to
break the cycle down into fixed and variable components.

Cycle time = Fixed time + Variable time Equation 2 – 8

Fixed time represents those components of cycle time other than travel time. It includes spot
time (moving the unit position to begin loading), load time, maneuver time, and dump time.
Fixed time can usually be closely estimated for a particular type of operation.

Variable time represents the travel time required for a unit to haul material to the unloading
site and return. As you would expect, travel time will depend on the vehicle’s weight and
power, the condition of the haul road, the grades encountered, and the altitude above sea
level. In this section methods for calculating a vehicle’s resistance to movement, its maximum
speed, and its travel time are presented.

A. Rolling Resistance
To determine the maximum speed of a vehicle in a specific situation, it is necessary to
determine the total resistance to movement of the vehicle. The resistance that a vehicle
encounters in traveling over a surface is made up of two components, rolling resistance and
grade resistance.

Total resistance = Grade resistance + Rolling resistance Equation 2 – 9

Resistance may be expressed in either kilograms per metric ton or in kilograms. To avoid
confusion, the term resistance factor will be used in this chapter to denote resistance in kg/t.
Rolling resistance is primarily due to tire flexing and penetration of the travel surface. The
rolling resistance factor for a rubber‐tired vehicle equipped with conventional tires moving
over a hard, smooth, level surface has been found to be about 20 kg/ton of vehicle weight.
For vehicles equipped with radial tires, the rolling resistance factor may be as low as 15 kg/t. It
has been found that the rolling resistance factor increases about 15 kg/t for each 2.5 cm of
tire penetration.

The rolling resistance in kilograms may be found by multiplying the rolling resistance factor by
the vehicle’s weight in metric tons. Tables can be found which provide typical values for the
rolling resistance factor in construction situations.

Crawler tractors may be thought of as traveling over a road created by their own tracks. As a
result, crawler tractors are usually considered to have no rolling resistance when calculating
vehicle resistance and performance. Actually, of course, the rolling resistance of crawler
tractors does vary somewhat between different surfaces. However, the standard method for
rating crawler tractor power (drawbar horsepower) measures the power actually produced at
the hitch when operating on a standard surface. Thus the rolling resistance of the tractor over
the standard surface has already been subtracted from the tractor’s performance. Although a
crawler tractor is considered to have no rolling resistance, when it tows a wheeled vehicle
(such as a scraper or compactor) the rolling resistance of the towed vehicle must be
considered in calculating the total resistance of the combination.

B. Grade Resistance
Grade resistance represents that component of vehicle weight which acts parallel to an
inclined surface. When the vehicle is traveling up a grade, grade resistance is positive. When
traveling downhill, grade resistance is negative. The exact value of grade resistance may be
found by multiplying the vehicle’s weight by the sine of the angle that the road surface makes
with the horizontal. However, for the grades usually encountered in construction, it is
sufficiently accurate to use the approximation of Equation 2 ‐ 10. That is, a 1% grade
(representing a rise of 1 unit in 100 units of horizontal distance) is considered to have a grade
resistance equal to 1% of the vehicle’s weight. This corresponds to a grade resistance factor of
10kg/t for each 1% of grade.
Equation 2 – 10
Grade Resistance Factor (kg/t) = 10 x Grade (%)
C. Effective Grade
The total resistance to movement of a vehicle (the sum of its rolling resistance and grade
resistance) may be expressed in pounds or kilograms. However, a somewhat simpler method
for expressing total resistance is to state it as a grade (%), which would have a grade
resistance equivalent to the total resistance actually encountered. This method of expressing
total resistance is referred to as effective grade, equivalent grade, or percent total resistance
and is often used in manufactures’ performance charts. Effective grade may be easily
calculated by use of Equation 2 ‐11.

Rolling Resistance Factor (kg/t)
Effective Grade (%) = Grade (%) +

10
Equation 2 ‐ 11
Example 2 – 5

A wheel tractor‐scraper weighing 91 tons is being operated on a haul road with a tire
penetration of 5 cm. What is the total resistance in kg and effective grade where (a) the
scraper is ascending a slope of 5%; (b) the scraper is descending a slope of 5%?

Solution
A) Ascending 5 % Slope (Slope = + 5 %)
Rolling Resistance (kg/t) = 20 + (6 x cm penetration) = 20 + 6 x 5 = 50 kg/t
= 50 kg/t x 91 t = 4,550 kg
Grade Resistance = 91 t x 1,000 kg/t x 0.05 = 4, 550 kg

Total Resistance = 4, 550 kg + 4, 550 kg = 9,100 kg

Effective Grade = 5 + 50/10 = 10 %

B) Descending 5 % Slope (Slope = ‐ 5 %)
Rolling Resistance (kg/t) = 4,550 kg
Grade Resistance = 91 t x 1,000 kg/t x ‐ 0.05 = ‐ 4, 550 kg

Total Resistance = 4, 550 kg ‐ 4, 550 kg = 0 kg

Effective Grade = 5 ‐ 50/10 = 0 %

D. Effect of Altitude
All internal combustion engines lose power as their elevation above sea level increases
because of the decreased density of air at higher elevations. There is some variation in the
performance of two‐cycle and four‐cycle naturally aspirated and turbocharged diesel engines.
However, engine power decreases approximately 3% for each 305 m increase in altitude
above the maximum altitude at which full rated power is delivered. Turbocharged engines are
more efficient at higher altitude than are naturally aspirated engines and may deliver full
rated power up to an altitude of 3,050 m or more.

Manufacturers use a derating factor to express percentage of reduction in rated vehicle
power at various altitudes. Whenever possible, use the manufacturer’s derating table for
estimating vehicle performance. However, when derating tables are not available, the
derating factor obtained by the use of Equation is sufficiently accurate for estimating the
performance of naturally aspirated engines.

E. Effect of Traction
The power available to move a vehicle and its load is expressed as rimpull for wheel vehicles
and drawbar pull for crawler tractors. Rimpull is the pull available at the rim of the driving
wheels under rated conditions. Since it is assumed that no slippage of the tires on the rims
will occur, this is also the power available at the surface of the tires. Drawbar pull is the power
available at the hitch of a crawler tractor operating under standard conditions. Operation at
increased altitude may reduce the maximum pull of a vehicle, as explained in the previous
paragraph. Another factor limiting the usable power of a vehicle is the maximum traction that
can be developed between the driving wheels or tracks and the road surface. Traction
depends on the coefficient of traction and the weight on the drivers as expressed by Equation
2 ‐ 12. This represents the maximum pull that a vehicle can develop, regardless of vehicle
horsepower.

Maximum usable pull = Coefficient of traction X Weight on drivers Equation 2 ‐ 12

For crawler tractors and all‐wheel‐drive rubber‐tired equipment, the weight on the drivers is
the total vehicle weight. For other types of vehicles, consult the manufacturer’s specifications
to determine the weight on the drivers.

Estimating Travel Time

The first method for estimating travel time over a haul route is to use Equation 2 – 13, 2 ‐ 14
and 2 ‐ 15.
Equation 2 ‐ 13
Length of the Road Section (km) L (km)
T = =
v Average Speed (km/hr) V (km/hr)
avg


P
V = mo
Equation 2 ‐ 14
x η
max (G + G ) x ∑ R
P E

V = V x S
Equation 2 ‐ 15
avg max f

Where Pmo = Power output of motor [KW]
GP = Payload (KN)
GE = Empty Weight of Hauler (KN)
∑R = Effective Grade
η = Efficiency
Sf = Average Speed Factor

The maximum speed that a vehicle can maintain over a section of the haul route cannot be
used for calculating travel time over the section, because it does not include vehicle
acceleration and deceleration. One method for accounting for acceleration and deceleration is
to multiply the maximum vehicle speed by an average speed factor to obtain an average
vehicle speed for the section. Travel time for the section is then found by dividing the section
length by the average vehicle speed.

A second method for estimating travel time over a section of haul route is to use the travel‐
time curves provided by some manufacturers. Separate travel‐time curves are prepared for
loaded (rated payload) and empty conditions, as shown in Figures 2 ‐ 12 and 2 ‐ 13. As you
see, travel time for a section of the haul route may be read directly from the graph given
section length and effective grade. However, travel‐time curves cannot be used when the
effective grade is negative. In this case, the average speed method must be used along with
the vehicle retarder curve. To adjust for altitude duration when using travel‐time curves,
multiply the time obtained from the curve by the quantity “1 + derating factor” to obtain the
adjusted travel time.

Use of Performance and Retarder Curves

Crawler tractors may be equipped with direct‐drive (manual gearshift) transmissions. The
drawbar pull and travel speed of this type of transmission are determined by the gear
selected. For other types of transmissions, manufacturers usually present the speed versus
pull characteristics of their equipment in the form of performance and retarder charts. A
performance chart indicates the maximum speed that a vehicle can maintain under rated
conditions while overcoming a specified total resistance. A retarder chart indicates the
maximum speed at which a vehicle can descend a slope when the total resistance is negative
without using brakes. Retarder charts derive their name from the vehicle retarder, which is a
hydraulic device used for controlling vehicle speed on a downgrade.
The use of both the average speed and the travel‐time curve method is illustrated in the
example problems of this chapter.

Figure 2 ‐ 12: Travel Time ‐ Loaded

Figure 2 ‐ 13: Travel Time ‐ Empty

Determining the number of haul units needed:

In operation of construction equipments balancing the excavator and hauler will yield in an
efficient operation. The components of the hauler cycle time are fixed time (spot, load,
maneuver, and dump) and variable time (haul and return). The fixed times can be estimated
by using tables; however the loading time should be calculated by the use of Equation 2 – 16
and 2 ‐ 17.

Load Time = _________Haul Unit Capacity_______ Equation 2 ‐ 16
Loader Production at 100 % Efficiency

Load Time = Number of Bucket Loads x Excavator Cycle Time Equation 2 ‐ 17

The reason for using an excavator loading rate based on 100 % excavator efficiency in the
above equation is that excavators have been found to operate at or near 100 % efficiency
when actually loading. Thus the use of the 100 % efficiency loading rate is intended to ensure
that an adequate number of trucks are provided so that the excavator will not have to wait for
a truck.

The number of trucks theoretically required to keep a loader or excavator fully occupied and
thus obtain the full production of the loader or excavator may be calculated by the use of
Equation 2 – 18 and 2 ‐ 19.

Number of Haulers (N) = Hauler unit Cycle time Equation 2 – 18
Load Time

Number of Haulers (N) = Loader Production at 100 % Efficiency Equation 2 ‐ 19
Actual Hauler Productivity

Example 2 ‐ 5

A Caterpillar Loader and a Nissan dump truck are to be used to carry out the cart away
operation for a building project. Based on the data given below:
a) Determine the productivity of the loader.
b) Determine the productivity of the hauler.
c) Determine the number of trucks required to fully utilize the capacity of the loader.
d) Determine the number of trucks and loaders required to complete the work in three
working days.

Loader Data: Rated Capacity = 3.0 Lm3
Tipping Load = 11,880 kg
Cycle Time = 5 min (without loading time)
Efficiency = 85%

Truck Data: Engine Power = 250 kW
Volume Capacity = 10 Lm3
Mass of Truck = 25,810 kg
Max. Total Weight = 35,810 kg
Fixed Cycle Time = 0.30 min (without loading time)
Efficiency = 80%

Material and Other Data: Material Density = 12.0 kN/Bm3
Bucket Fill Factor = 1.20
Load Factor = 0.90
Rolling Resistance Factor = 8%
Average Speed Factor = 0.80
Use g = 10 m/ s2
Max. Speed = Use the allowable speed limit on the provided
route.

Route: Assume that the route is along the central lane of the Addis – Ababa Ring Road

0 %
400 m
6% 7%
500 m
500 m
Loading Dumping

2.1.2.1.2 Scrapers

Scrapers are capable of excavating, hauling, and dumping material over medium‐ to long‐haul
distances. However, only the elevating scraper and the pull‐scraper are capable of achieving
high efficiency in loading without the assistance of a pusher tractor or another achieving high
efficiency in loading without the assistance of a pusher tractor or another scraper. The scraper
excavates (or cuts) by lowering the front edge of its bowl into the soil. The bowl from edge is
equipped with replaceable cutting blades, which may be straight, curved, or extended at the
center (stinger arrangement). Both the stinger arrangement and curved blades provide better
penetration than does a straight blade. However, straight blades are preferred for finish work.
Although there are a number of different types of scrapers, principal types include single‐
engine overhung (two‐axle) scrapers, three‐axle scrapers, twin‐engine all‐wheel‐drive
scrapers, elevating scrapers, auger scrapers, push‐pull or twin‐hitch scrapers, and pull‐
scrapers. Two‐axle or overhung scrapers utilize a tractor having only one axle (Figure 2 – 14 &
2 ‐ 17). Such an arrangement has a lower rolling resistance and greater maneuverability than
does a three‐axle scraper that is pulled by a conventional four‐wheel tractor. However, the
additional stability of the three‐axle scraper permits higher operating speeds on long,
relatively flat haul roads. All‐wheel‐drive scrapers, as the name implies, utilize drive wheels on
both the tractor and the scraper. Normally, such units are equipped with twin engines. The
additional power and drive wheels give these units greater tractive effort than that of
conventional scrapers.

Figure 2 – 14 Two Axel Scraper Figure 2 – 15 Elevating Scraper

Elevating scrapers (Figure 2 ‐ 15) utilize a ladder‐type elevator to assist in cutting and lifting
material into the scraper bowl. Elevating scrapers are not designed to be push loaded and
may be damaged by pushing. Auger scrapers are self‐loading scrapers that use a rotating
auger (similar to a posthole auger) located in the center of the scraper bowl to help lift
material into the bowl. Push‐pull or twin‐hitch scrapers (Figure 2 – 16) are all‐wheel‐drive
scrapers equipped with coupling devices that enable two scrapers to assist each other in
loading. Pull‐scrapers utilize one or more scraper pans towed by a tractor. One of the earliest
types of scraper, these scrapers had largely fallen out of construction use but are now finding
renewed construction application. When towed by a tractor having high‐flotation tires, these
units can operate under adverse soil conditions and are capable of loading without pusher
assistance in sandy and sandy‐clay soils. Such a combination has a lower initial price and lower
operating cost than does a conventional scraper but can be even more productive on medium
hauls in suitable soils. Pull‐scrapers can also be connected in tandem.

Figure 2 – 16 Pull Loading – Dozer ‐ Scraper Figure 2 – 17 Two Axel Scraper

There are different methods used to increase a Scraper’s productivity, some are:
1. Using Single or tandem Pusher ‐ This method is used to assist scrapers by dozers
during loading.
2. Push Pull loading ‐ In this method we use two different scrapers. The first scraper
will lower its bowl and start excavating while the second one pushes the first to get a
maximum load then when the first is full the second will lower its bowl and start
excavating while being pulled by the first to have a maximum load. After they are both
full, they disengage and travel separately to the dumping site.

Estimating Scraper Production

Scraper cycle time is estimated as the sum of fixed cycle time and variable cycle time. Fixed
cycle time in this case includes spot time, load time, and maneuver and dump time. Spot time
represents the time required for a unit to position itself in the cut and begin loading, including
any waiting for a pusher.

Variable cycle time, or travel time, includes haul time and return time. As usual, haul and
return times are estimated by the use of travel‐time curves or by using the average speed
method with performance and retarder curves. It is usually necessary to break a haul route up
into sections having similar total resistance values. The total travel time required to traverse
all sections is found as the sum of the section travel times.

In determining the payload per scraper cycle, it is necessary to check both the rated weight
payload and the heaped volume capacity. The volume corresponding to the lesser of these
two values will of course, govern. The method of estimating production is illustrated in
Example 2 ‐6.

Example 2‐6

Estimate the productivity of a 631 D single engine two – axle tractor scraper, whose travel
time curves are shown in Figure 2 – 12 & 2 ‐ 13 and fixed cycle time shown Table2 ‐ 8, based
on the following information:
• Maximum Heaped Volume = 24 Lm3
• Maximum Pay Load = 34,020 kg
• Material Density = 1,898 kg/Bm3 or 1,571 kg/ Lm3 (Sandy Clay)
• Rolling resistance = 50 kg/t
• Job efficiency = 50 min/Hr
• Operating Conditions = Average
• Pusher Type = Single Pusher
• Use g = 10 m/ s2

Haul Route:
• Section 1 – Level loading area
• Section 2 – Down a 5% grade ( L = 610 m)
• Section 3 – Level Dumping Area
• Section 4 – Up a 5% grade ( L = 610 m)
• Section 5 – Level turn around ( L = 183 m)

Table 2 ‐ 8: Scraper Fixed Time (min)

Solution:

I. Load per Cycle:

Weight of heaped capacity = 24 x 1,571 = 37, 794 kg, but maximum payload = 34, 020 kg

Since weight exceeds rated payload, maximum capacity is:

Load = 34, 020 / 1, 898 = 17.9 Bm3/load

Effective Grade:

Haul = ‐ 4.0 + 50/10 = +1 %

Return = 4.0 + 50/10 = +9 %

Turnaround = 0 + 50/10 = +5 %

II. Travel Time:

Section 2 = 1.02 min (Figure 2 – 12)


Total = 3.07 min

III. Fixed Cycle Time

Load Time = 0.3 min

Load = 0.6 min

Maneuver and Dump = 0.7 min
Total = 1.6 min

Total Cycle Time = 3.07 + 1.6 min = 4.67 min

IV. Productivity of Scraper

3 3
Q a = Vn x n o x η = 17.9 Bm x 60/4.67 x 50/60 = 192 Bm /hr

Note: The travel‐time curves of Figures 2 – 12 and 2 ‐ 13 assume acceleration from an initial
velocity of 4km/h upon leaving the cut and fill and deceleration to 4 km/h upon entering the
cut and fill. The result of adding together the travel times for several sections will, because of
an excessive allowance for acceleration and deceleration, yield a travel time greater than that
obtained by the use of the average‐speed method. The time estimate obtained by the use of
the average‐speed method should be more realistic.
Choice of Hauler Equipments
The choice of the type and size of haulers is based on the consideration that the number of
haulers selected must be capable of disposing of the excavated materials expeditiously.
Factors which affect this selection include:
A. Output of excavators: The size and characteristics of the excavators selected will
determine the output volume excavated per day.
B. Distance to dump site: Sometimes part of the excavated materials may be piled up in
a corner at the job‐site for use as backfill.
C. Probable average speed: The average speed of the haulers to and from the dumping
site will determine the cycle time for each hauling trip.
D. Volume of excavated materials: The volume of excavated materials including the part
to be piled up should be hauled away as soon as possible.
E. Spatial and weight constraints: The size and weight of the haulers must be feasible at
the job site and over the route from the construction site to the dumping area.


2.1.2.2 Hoisting Equipments

Hoisting equipments are used for vertical transportation. Cranes, Heavy Cranes and Tower
Cranes are commonly used.

2.1.2.2.1 Cranes

Cranes are primarily used for lifting, lowering, and transporting loads. They move loads
horizontally by swinging or travelling. Most mobile cranes consist of a carrier and
superstructure equipped with a boom and hook as shown in Figure 2 – 18. The current trend
toward the use of hydraulically operated equipment includes hydraulically powered
telescoping boom cranes.

Figure 2 – 18 Mobile Crane Figure 2 – 19 Hydraulic Heavy Crane

The major factor controlling the load that may be safely lifted by a crane is its operating radius
(horizontal distance from the center of rotation to the hook). Safety regulations limit
maximum crane load to a percentage of the tipping load (load that will cause the crane to
actually begin to tip).

Construction Cranes are generally classified into two major families: Mobile cranes and Tower
Cranes. The most common mobile crane types include

• Crawler
• Telescoping – boom truck mounted
• Lattice – boom truck mounted
• Rough – terrain
• All terrain
• Heavy Lift Cranes
• Modified cranes for heavy lift

2.1.2.2.2 Heavy Cranes

Cranes intended for lifting very heavy loads are usually crawler – mounted latitude models
such as the one shown in Figure 2 – 19. Such cranes can have a maximum lifting capacity of
290 tons and a maximum lifting height of 110 m.

To lift even heavier loads, several cranes can be used together or the crane can be modified to
allow the use of extra counterweight.

2.1.2.2.3 Tower Cranes

The tower crane is widely used on building construction projects because of its wide operating
radius and almost unlimited height capability. Major types of tower cranes include Horizontal
jib cranes, luffing boom cranes, and articulated jib cranes.

The majority of tower cranes are of the horizontal jib type as shown in Figure 2 – 20 and 2‐ 21.
Luffing boom (inclined boom) models have the ability to operate in areas of restricted
horizontal clearance not suitable for horizontal jib cranes with their fixed jibs and
counterweights. Articulated jib cranes are able to reposition their hinged jibs to convert
access hook reach into added hook height. Thus, such cranes can be operated in either
horizontal or luffed position.

Figure 2 – 20 Tower Crane Figure 2 – 21 Luffing Boom Crane

Types of crane by method of mounting include Static (fixed mount) tower cranes, rail
mounted tower cranes, mobile tower cranes, and climbing cranes. Climbing cranes are
supported by completed building floors and are capable of raising themselves from floor to
floor as the building is erected. Most tower cranes incorporate self – raising masts. That is,
they can raise themselves section by section until the mast or tower reaches the desired
height.

As always, tower crane capacity depends on the operating radius, amount of counterweight,
and the mounting. The lifting capacity of tower cranes is provided in manufacture catalogs
and tables.
2.1.3 Compaction and Stabilization Equipments
The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically. The
basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration:
• Static weight – Pressure
• Kneading – manipulation or rearranging
• Impact – sharp blow and
• Vibration ‐ shaking
The degree of compaction that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its
moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for compaction and the method of
compaction. Some major types of compaction equipment are shown in Figure 2 ‐ 22, which
includes rollers with different operating characteristics.
The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and
elevation. Major types of grading equipment include motor graders and grade trimmers. The
former is an all‐purpose machine for grading and surface finishing, while the latter is used for
heavy construction because of its higher operating speed. Many types of compacting
equipments, which incorporate at least one or more of the compaction methods, are
available, including:
1. Sheepsfoot Rollers
2. Tamping Rollers
3. Smooth drum vibratory soil compactors
4. Pad drum vibratory soil compactors
5. Pneumatic tired rollers.
In addition manually operated vibratory – plate compactors are commonly used for
consolidating soils and asphalt concrete in locations where large units are not practical.
Compactor Productivity

Equation 2 – 20 may be used to calculate compactor production based on compactor speed,
lift thickness, and effective width of compaction. The accuracy of the result will depend on the
accuracy in estimating speed and lift thickness. Trail operations will usually be necessary to
obtain accurate estimates of these factors.

3 10 x W x S x L
Equation 2‐ 10
Production [Cm /h] = x η
P

Where P = number of passes required
W = width compacted per pass (m)
S = Compactor Speed (km/hr)
L = compacted lift thickness (cm)

Figure 2‐ 22 Some Major Types of Compaction Equipment
2.1.4 Pile – Driving Equipments

Piles driving equipments or commonly called pile hammers are used to furnish the energy
required to drive a pile into a soil or rock stratum (see Figure 2 – 23). Pile – driving hammers
are designated by type and size. The hammer types commonly used include:

1. Drop
2. Single – acting steam or compressed air
3. Double – acting steam or compressed air
4. Differential – acting steam or compressed air
5. Diesel
6. Hydraulic
7. Vibratory Drivers

For each of the first six pile hammer types listed the driving energy is supplied by a falling
mass that strikes the top of the pile. The size of a drop hammer is designated by its weight,
whereas the size of each of the other hammers is designated by theoretical energy per blow.

Figure 2 – 23 Pile Driving Equipment Figure 2 – 24 Single Acting Hammer Equipment

Drop Hammer

A drop hammer is a heavy metal weight that is lifted by a hoist line, then released and allowed
to fall onto the top of the pile. Because of the high dynamic forces, a pile cap is positioned
between the hammer and the pile head. The pile cap serves to uniformly distribute the blow
to the pile head and to serves as a “shock absorber.”Drop hammers are suitable for driving
piles on remote projects that require only a few piles and for which the time of completion is
not important factor.

Drop hammers have small investment, simple in operation and ability to vary energy per blow
by varying the height of fall. However, drop hammers are slow in driving piles; involve danger
of damaging hammer and adjacent property.

Single – acting steam or compressed air

A single acting steam/air hammer (see Figure 2 – 24) has a freely falling weight, called a
“ram,” that is lifted by steam or compressed air, whose pressure is applied to the underside of
a piston that is connected to the ram through a piston rod. When the piston reaches the top
of the stroke, the stream or air pressure is released and the ram falls freely to strike the top of
a pile.

The advantages of single – acting steam/air compared with drop hammers include:
• Greater number of blows per minute permits faster driving
• Better energy utilization
• Can be used for underwater driving

However the disadvantages include:
• Higher investment and increased operating cost
• Require a crane and a larger crew
• Require longer time to set up and take down

Double – Acting Steam/Air Hammers

In such drivers steam or air pressure is applied to the underside of the piston to raise the ram;
then during the downward stroke steam is applied to the topside of the piston to increase the
energy per blow.

Differential‐Acting Steam/Air Hammers

A differential‐acting steam/air hammer is a modified single‐acting hammer in that steam/air
pressure used to lift the ram is not exhausted at the end of the upward stroke but is valved
over the piston to accelerate the ram on the down‐stroke. The number of blows per minute is
comparable with that for a double acting hammer, whereas the weight and the equivalent
free fall of the ram are comparable with those of a single‐acting hammer. Thus, it is claimed
that this type of hammer has the advantages of the single‐ and double‐acting hammers. These
hammers require the use of a pile cap with cushioning material and a set of leads.

It is reported that this hammer will drive a pile in one‐half the time required by the same‐size
single‐acting hammer and in doing so will use 25 to 35% less steam or air. These hammers are
available in open or closed types.

Diesel Hammers

A diesel pile‐driving hammer (see Figure 2 ‐ 25) is a self‐contained driving unit that does not
require an external source of energy such as a steam boiler or an air compressor. In this
respect it is simpler and more easily moved from one location to another than a steam
hammer. A complete unit consists of a vertical cylinder, a piston or ram, an anvil, fuel‐and
lubricating‐oil tanks, a fuel pump, injectors, and a mechanical lubricator.

After a hammer is placed on top of a pile, the combined piston and ram are lifted to the upper
end of the stroke and released to start the unit operating. As the ram nears the end of the
downstroke, it activates a fuel pump that injects the fuel into the combustion chamber
between the ram and the anvil. The continued downstroke of the ram compresses the air and
the fuel to ignition heat. The resulting explosion drives the pile downward and the ram
upward to repeat its stroke. The energy per blow, which can be controlled by the operator,
may be varied over a wide range.


Figure 2 – 25 Diesel Pile Driving Equipment Figure 2 – 26 Vibratory Pile Driver Equipment

Hydraulic Hammers

These hammers operate on the differential pressure of hydraulic fluid instead of steam or
compressed air used by conventional hammers. Another type of hydraulic pile hammer that
can be used for driving and extracting steel H piles and steel sheet piles incorporates a
gripping and pushing or pulling technique. This pile driver grips the pile and then pushes the
pile down approximately 90 cm. At the end of downstroke, the pile is released and the gripper
slides up the pile 90 cm to begin the process of another push. The equipment can be used in
reverse for extracting piles. These drivers develop up to 140 tons of pressing or extracting
force, are compact, make minimal noise, and cause very little vibration. They are well suited
for driving piles in areas where there is restricted overhead space since piles may be driven in
short lengths and spliced.

Vibratory pile drivers

Vibratory pile hammers have demonstrated their effectiveness in speed and economy in
driving piles into certain types of soil. These drivers are especially effective when the piles are
driven into water‐saturated non‐cohesive soils. The drivers may experience difficulty in driving
piles into dry sand, or similar materials, or into cohesive soils that do not respond to the
vibrations.

The drivers are equipped with horizontal shafts, to which eccentric weights are attached. As
the shafts rotate in pairs, in opposing directions, at speeds that can be varied in excess of
1,000 rpm, the forces produced by the rotating weights produce vibrations. The vibrations are
transmitted to the pile because it is rigidly connected to the driver by clamps. From the pile
the vibrations are transmitted into the adjacent soil. The vibrations are transmitted to the pile
because it is rigidly connected to the driver by clamps. From the pile the vibrations are
transmitted into the adjacent soil. The agitation of the soil materially reduces the skin friction
between the soil and the pile. This is especially true when the soil is saturated with water. The
combined dead weight of the pile and the driver resting on the pile will drive the pile rapidly.

Figure 2 ‐ 26 illustrates the basic principle of the rotating weights, using six shafts. Leads are
rarely employed with vibratory drivers. The driver is powered either electrically or
hydraulically; therefore, a generator or hydraulic power pack is needed as an energy source.
Because leads are not required, a smaller crane can usually be employed to handle vibratory
work.

METHODS OF SUPPORTING AND POSITIONING PILES DURING DRIVING

When driving piles, it is necessary to have a method that will position the pile in the proper
location with the required alignment or batter and which will support the pile during driving
(see Figure2 – 27 & 28). The following methods are utilized to accomplish such alignment and
support.

Figure 2 – 27 Vertical Figure 2 – 28 Forward Batter

Fixed Leads

Normally, a set of leads consists if a three‐sided steel lattice frame similar in construction to a
crane boom with one side open. These are referred to as U‐type leads. Typical technical data
for this type of leads can be found at www.pileco.com/u‐type_lead_tech_info.html. The open
side allows positioning of the pile in the leads and under the hammer. The leads have a set of
rails or guides for the hammer. Running on the rails, the hammer is lifted above the pile
height when a new pile is threaded into the leads. During driving, the hammer descends along
the lead rails as the pile moves downward into the ground. When driving batter piles, the
leads are positioned at an angle.

The term “fixed” is used to indicate that the leads are held in a fixed position by the pile‐
driving rig or by some other means. The bottom of the leads is commonly attached to the
crane or to the driving platform to assure proper positioning of the pile during driving.

Swing Leads

Leads that are not attached at their bottom to the crane or driving platform are known as
“swing leads.” Such an arrangement allows the driving rig to position a pile at a location
farther away than would be possible with fixed leads. This is not generally the preferred
method of driving a pile since it is more difficult to position the pile accurately and to maintain
vertical alignment during driving. If for any reason the pile tends to twist or run off the
intended alignment, it is difficult to control the pile with swing leads.

Hydraulic Leads

To control pile position, hydraulic leads use a system of hydraulic cylinders connected
between the bottom of the leads and the driving rig. This system allows the operator to
position the pile very quickly and accurately. Hydraulic leads are extremely useful in driving
batter piles since the system can rapidly and easily adjust the angle of the leads for the
required batter. The system is more costly than standard fixed leads but any contractor who is
regularly involved in pile driving operations quickly recovers that dollar difference because of
the increased driving productivity.

Templates

Many times a template is used to support and hold the pile in position during driving.
Templates are usually constructed from steel pipe or beams and may have several levels of
framing to support long piles or piles on a batter. In marine work where access to the pile
groups is restricted, templates are used regularly. Frequently, a set of leads can be fixed or
attached to a template beam and the combined systems are used to support and guide the
pile during driving. Templates or guide frames are commonly used when driving sheet piling.
When driving sheet pile cells, circular templates are used to maintain proper alignment.

2.1.5 Pumping Equipments ‐ Water

Pumps are used extensively on construction projects for such operations as:
1. Removing water from pits, tunnels, and other excavations
2. Dewatering cofferdams
3. Furnishing water for jetting and sluicing
4. Furnishing water for many types of utility services
5. Lowering the water table for excavations
6. Foundation grouting

CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS

The pumps commonly used on construction projects can be classified as:
1. Displacement
a. Reciprocating (piston)
b. Diaphragm
2. Centrifugal
a. Conventional
b. Self‐priming
c. Self‐priming trash
d. Submersible
e. Multistage
Reciprocating Pumps

A reciprocating pump operates as the result of the movement of a piston inside a cylinder.
When the piston is moved in one direction, the water ahead of the piston is forced out of the
cylinder. At the same time, additional water is drawn into the cylinder behind the piston.
Regardless of the direction of movement of the piston, water is forced out of one end and
drawn into the other end of the cylinder. This is classified as a double‐acting pump. If water is
pumped during a piston movement in one direction only, the pump is classified as single
acting. If a pump contains more than one cylinder, mounted side by side, it is classified as a
duplex for two cylinders, triplex for three cylinders, etc. Thus, a pump can be classified as a
duplex double‐acting or a duplex single‐acting. Refer to Figure 2 – 29.

The capacity of a reciprocating pump depends essentially on the speed at which the pump is
operated and is independent of the head. The maximum head at which a reciprocating pump
will deliver water depends on the strength of the component parts of the pump and the
power available to operate the pump. The capacity of this type of pump may be varied
considerably by varying the speed of the pump.

Because the flow of water from each cylinder of a reciprocating pump stops and starts every
time the direction of piston travel is reversed, a characteristic of this type of pump is to
deliver water with pulsations. The amplitude of the pulsations may be reduced by using more
cylinders and by installing an air chamber on the discharge side of a pump.

The advantages of reciprocating pumps are
1. They are able to pump at a uniform rate against varying heads.
2. Increasing the speed can increase their capacity.
3. They have reasonably high efficiency regardless of the head and speed.
4. They are usually self‐priming.

The disadvantages of reciprocating pumps are
1. Heavy weight and large size for given capacity.
2. Possibility of valve trouble, especially in pumping water containing abrasive solids.
3. Pulsating flow of water.
4. Danger of damaging a pump when operating against a high head.

Figure 2 – 29 Reciprocating Pump Figure 2 – 30 Diaphragm Pumps

Diaphragm Pumps

The diaphragm pump is also a positive displacement type (see Figure 2 ‐ 30). The central
portion of the flexible diaphragm is alternately raised and lowered by the pump rod that is
connected to a walking beam. This action draws water into and discharges it from the pump.
Because this type of pump will handle clear water or water containing large quantities of mud,
sand, sludge, and trash, it is popular as a construction pump. It is suitable for use on jobs
where the quantity of water varies considerably, as it will diligently continue pumping air and
water mixtures. The accessible diaphragm may be replaced easily.

Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump contains a rotation element, called an “impeller,” that imparts to water
passing through the pump a velocity sufficiently great to cause it to flow from the pump even
against considerable pressure. A mass of water may possess energy due to its height above a
given datum or due to its velocity. The former is potential, while the latter is kinetic energy.
One type of energy can be converted into the other under favorable conditions. The kinetic
energy imparted to a particle of water as it passes through the impeller is sufficient to cause
the particles to rise to some determinable height.

A centrifugal pump may be equipped with either an open or enclosed impeller. Although an
enclosed impeller usually has higher efficiency, it will not handle water containing trash as
well as an open impeller.

The power required to operate a centrifugal pump is given by several equations. The
efficiencies of these pumps may be as high as 75%. Because of their high efficiency factors,
they will pump a greater volume with lower fuel consumption as compared to other pump
types.

A centrifugal pump will pass a spherical solid one‐quarter (1/4) the size of the suction
opening. As an example, a 2‐in. pump can pass ½‐in.‐size solids. These pumps can typically
pass up to 10% by volume of mud, silt, and sand.

Self‐Priming Centrifugal Pumps

On construction projects, pumps frequently must be set above the surface of the water that is
to be pumped. Consequently, self‐priming centrifugal pumps are more suitable than the
conventional types for use on construction projects. Refer to Figure 2 ‐ 31. A check valve on
the suction side of the pump permits the chamber to be filled with water prior to starting the
pump. When the pump is started, the water in the chamber produces a sealed flow through
channel A into the chamber, where the air escapes through the discharge, and the water
flows down through channel B to the impeller. This action continues until all the air is
exhausted from the suction line and water enters the pump. When a pump is stopped, it will
retain its charge of priming water indefinitely. Such a pump is self‐priming to heights of 25 ft
(7.62 m) when in good mechanical condition.

Effect of Altitude At altitudes above 3,000 ft (914.4 m), there is a definite effect on a pump’s
performance. As a general rule a self‐priming pump will lose one foot (0.305 m) of priming
ability for every 1,000 ft (304.8 m) of elevation.

Effect of Temperature As the temperature of water increases above 60°F, the maximum
suction lift of the pump will decrease. A pump generates heat that is passed to the water.
Over a long duration of operation, as the heat increases, a pump located at a height that is
very close to the suction maximum can lose prime.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

If a centrifugal pump has a single impeller, it is described as a single‐stage pump, whereas if
there are two or more impellers and the water discharge from one impeller flows into the
suction of another, it is described as a multistage pump. Multistage pumps are especially
suitable for pumping against a high head or pressure, as each stage imparts an additional
pressure to the water. Pumps of this type are used frequently to supply water for jetting,
where the pressure may run as high as several hundred pounds per square inch (psi).

Submersible Pumps

Figure 2 ‐ 32 illustrates an electric‐motor‐operated submersible pump that is useful in
dewatering tunnels, foundation pits, trenches, and similar places. With submersible pumps,
there is no suction lift limitation, and of course, no need for suction hose. Another advantage
is that there is no noise problem. For construction applications a pump made of iron or
aluminum is best, as other materials are much more prone to damage when pump is dropped.
There are basically two size categories for submersible pumps, small fractional horsepower
size pumps and larger pumps having one horsepower and larger power units.

Figure 2 – 31 Self Priming Pump Figure 2 – 32 Submersible Pump

2.2 Construction Plants

Usually acknowledged plant types are construction plants for aggregate production, asphalt
mix production and concrete batching plants.

2.2.1 Aggregate Production Plants

Aggregates are used for concrete and Asphalt or Asphalt Concrete pavement works. Since
such materials require quarries where abundant row materials exist, their production requires
a special place than the construction site. Refer to the seminar paper provided for details.

2.2.2 Asphalt Mixing Plants

GENERAL INFORMATION

Hot mixed asphalt is produced at a central plant and transported to the paving site in trucks.
An asphalt plant is a high‐tech group of machines capable of uniformly blending, heating, and
mixing the aggregates and asphalt cement of asphalt concrete, while at the same time
meeting strict environmental regulations, particularly in the area of air emissions. Drum and
batch plants are the two most common plant types. There are a few continuous operation
plants still in use; however, this technology is no longer manufactured so it is not described
here. Drum mix plants are a newer technology than batch plants and generally are more
economical to operate. Drum plants were introduced in the 1970s and dominate the new
plant market. In US, about 95% of the new plants are the drum type. However, about 70% of
operational plants are batch plants.

The technologies of batch and drum plants are described next. While the mixing process
between the two plants is distinctly different, there are many similar elements that vary only
in detail between the two types of plants. The similar elements are the dust collection, asphalt
storage, truck scales, and storage or surge silos. The truck scales are at the loading location at
the plant. The empty and loaded weight of the trucks is measured to determine the weight of
the load. The truck scales must be calibrated and certified.

2.2.2.1 BATCH PLANTS

Batch plants date from the beginning of the asphalt industry. Their primary components in the
order of material flow are
Cold feed system.
Drum dryer.
Hot elevator.
Hot screens.
Hot bins.
Asphalt‐handling system.
Pugmill mixer.
Dust collectors.
Surge silo.
Cold Feed Systems
Cold feed bins provide aggregate surge and a uniform flow of properly sized material for
mixing. Cold feed systems usually consist of three to six open‐top bins mounted together as a
single unit (see Figure 2 ‐ 34). The size of the bins is balanced with the operating capacity of
the plant. The individual bins have steep sidewalls to promote material flow. In the case of
sticky aggregates, it may be necessary to have wall vibrators. The individual bins can be fed
from sized aggregate stockpiles by front‐end loader, clamshell, or conveyor. At the bottom of
each bin is a gate for controlling material flow and a feeder unit for metering the flow. The
plant operator adjusts the flow of the aggregates from each bin to ensure a sufficient flow of
material to keep an adequate charge of aggregates in the hot bins. Belt feeders are the most
common equipment for transporting the aggregates from the cold bins to the dryer drum, but
vibratory and apron feeds can be found.

Figure 2 – 34 Asphalt Plant Cold Feed System Figure 2 – 35 Batch Plan

Drum Dryer
The purposes of a drum dryer are to heat and dry the aggregates of the mix. Aggregate
temperature controls the resulting temperature of the mix. If the aggregate has heated
excessively, the asphalt will harden during mixing. If the aggregates have not been heated
adequately, it is difficult to coat them completely with asphalt. Therefore, the aggregate must
be heated sufficiently at this step in the process to produce a final mix at the desired
temperature (further discussion under “Mixing”).

Aggregates are introduced at the end of the drum dryer opposite the burner and travel
through the drum counter to the gas flow. The drum is inclined downward from the aggregate
feed end to the burner end. This slope causes the aggregate to move through the drum by
gravity. The drum rotates and steel angles, “flights,” mounted on the inside lift the aggregate
and dump it through the hot gas and burner flame. Finally, the heated aggregate is discharged
into the hot (bucket) elevator, which carries it to the screens at the top of the batch plant
tower.

Hot Screening
The batch plant vibrating screen unit is usually a 3 ½ ‐ deck arrangement. This enables
gradation control of four aggregate sizes into four different hot bins. The screen unit ejects
oversized material out of the production cycle. While the screens provide gradation control,
they will not function properly unless the pro‐portioning and flow from the cold feed are
correct. If the screens are overloaded, material, which should be passing through a screen and
into a hot bin, is carried instead into the bin of the next larger aggregate size. Such a situation
destroys the mix formulation and must be avoided.

Hot Bins
The aggregates from the hot screens are stored in the hot bins until the plant is ready to make
a batch of asphalt concrete. One of the key elements in operating a batch plant is to ensure
that the hot bins have sufficient material to feed the pugmill for the production of a batch of
asphalt concrete. One of the potential advantages of a batch plant as compared to a drum
plant is that the batches are individually blended from the hot bins. This allows the aggregate
blend of one batch to be different from the blend of the next batch. However, this is
contingent on having the proper aggregates available in the hot bins. Frequently under high‐
production‐rate conditions, the aggregates in the hot bins will not be sized properly for gross
changes in the gradations of the mix. Thus, the flexibility of the batch plant is compromised.
Large changes in the gradation of the aggregates generally must be accomplished by altering
the flow of aggregates from the cold bins so that the proper amount of material is stored in
the hot bins.

Weight Hopper
Aggregate from the hot bins is dropped into a weight hopper situated below the bins and
above the pugmill. The weight hopper is charged one hot bin at a time to control the
gradation of the blended aggregate. The aggregates are weighed cumulatively in the hopper,
with the mineral filler added last. After charging, the weight hopper gates are opened to
discharge the aggregate into the pugmill.

Asphalt‐Handling System
The asphalt cement is stored on site in a heated tank. The asphalt is pumped to the weight
tank, ready for discharge into the pugmill. After the aggregates are added to the pugmill, the
asphalt cement is pumped through spray bars into the pugmill to coat the aggregates.

Pugmill Mixing
Most plants use a twin shaft pugmill for mixing the batch. To achieve uniform mixing, a
pugmill’s live zone should be completely filled with mix. The live zone is from the bottom of
the box to the top of the paddle arc. The mixing process generally takes about 1 min, 15 sec to
load and dry mix, and 45 sec mixing time with the asphalt cement. The actual mixing time
needed is evaluated based on inspection of the coating of the coarse aggregate. Plant
operation specifications require a sufficient mixing time to fully coat 90 or 95% of the
aggregate, depending on the aggregate size.
The capacity of the plant is a function of the pugmill size and the mixing time. Typical batch
quantities range from 1.5 to 5 tons. A batch plant with a 5‐ton pugmill can produce 300 tons
of mix per hour if a continuous operation can be maintained.

The plant is structured so that the discharge gate of the mixer is sufficiently high to allow
truck passage directly below for loading (see Figure 2 ‐ 35). Alternatively, a hot elevator can be
used to transport the mix to surge silos. These silos allow the plant to operate independently
of the availability of trucks for loading the asphalt concrete. This is particularly advantageous
when the plant is serving jobs with different mix designs. Silos also allow the plant operator to
premix and store several batches of asphalt concrete to accommodate an uneven distribution
of truck arrivals at the plant.

Because of the influence of temperature on the quality of the mix, the purchaser usually
specifies the mixing temperature, measured immediately after discharge from the pugmill.
The specification range will vary with the type and grade of the asphalt cement. In the case of
dense‐graded mixes the range across all asphalt cements is from 225 to 350°F. The range for
open‐graded mixes is from 180 to 250°F. Mixing should be at the lowest temperature that will
achieve complete asphalt coating of the aggregates and still allow for satisfactory work‐ability.
In some cases, during cold weather or for long haul distances, the asphalt concrete is heated
an extra 10°F to allow for temperature los during the haul.

2.2.2.2 DRUM MIX PLANTS

The primary components of a drum mix plant (see Figure 2 ‐ 36) are
Cold feed system.
Asphalt‐handling system.
Drying and mixing drum.
Elevator.
Dust collector.
Storage silo.
Cold Feed System
In a drum plant, all of the mixing is performed within the drum and the final mix is discharged
directly from the drum into storage silos in a continuous manner. There is no opportunity to
adjust the aggregate blend, as can be done with a batch plant. Therefore, the aggregate from
each of the cold feed bins must be weighed prior to feeding the material into the drum. Since
the aggregates are weighed prior to drying, the moisture content of the aggregates in the cold
bins must be monitored and the weights adjusted to ensure that the dry mass of the
aggregates is correct. Scales mounted on the conveyor belts measure the weights of the
aggregates.

Figure 2 – 36 Drum – mixer of drum mix asphalt plant Figure 2 – 37 Storage Silo at a drum mix plant

Mixing Drum
The mixing drum consists of a long tube with flights for tumbling the aggregates and the mix,
a burner for heating the aggregates, and a spray bar for applying the asphalt. The basic
operation of the drum plant is that the aggregates are metered into one end of the drum. The
time the aggregates spend in the drum ranges from 3 to 4 min. During that time, the
aggregates must be thoroughly dried and heated to the mixing temperature. Near the
discharge end of the drum, the asphalt cement is sprayed onto the aggregates. Automatic
controls monitor the aggregate quantity and meter in the proper amount of asphalt cement.
The drum rotation, with the flights in the drum, mixes the aggregate, Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement: RAP (if used), and asphalt cement.

A drum mix plant drum usually has a slope in the range of ½ to 1 in. per foot of drum length.
Rotation speeds are normally 5 to 10 rpm and common diameters are from 3 to 12 ft, with
lengths between 15 to 60 ft. The ratio of length to diameter is from 4 to 6. Longer drums are
found in recycling applications. The drum slope, length, speed and flights, and the nature of
the material control dwell time.

The production rate of the plant is inversely proportional to the moisture content of the
aggregate. For example, increasing the moisture content from 3 to 6% in a batch plant with an
8‐ft‐diameter drum reduces the production rate from 500 to 300 tons per hour.

Originally drum plants were designed as parallel flow operations in which the aggregates and
heated air travel in the same direction down the drum. Subsequent designs have increased
the production rate of drum plants by using counter airflow arrangements in which the
heated exhaust exits from the top of the drum where the aggregates are introduced.
Counterflow plants can operate at about 12% higher production rates.

Storage Silos
Since drum plants produce a continuous flow of asphalt concrete, the output must be stored
in silos (Figure 2 ‐ 37) for subsequent dispatch into transport trucks. These silos have a bottom
dump for directly discharging the asphalt concrete into the haul trucks. The silos are typically
insulated to retain heat. Sophisticated silos can be completely sealed, and even filled with an
inert gas to reduce oxidation of the asphalt cement while the asphalt mix is being stored. One
of the problems with storage silos is the potential for flow of the asphalt cement from
materials at the top of the silo to the bottom. This results in poor quality paving mix.

2.2.2.3 DUST COLLECTORS

To avoid contributing to air pollution asphalt plants are equipped with dust control systems.
The two most commonly utilized systems are the water venture approach and the cloth
filtration “baghouse” system. The wet approach does require the availability of adequate
water supplies. This approach introduces water at the point where dust‐laden gas moves
through the narrow throat of a venturi‐shaped chamber. The dust becomes entrapped in the
water and is thereby separated from the exhaust gas. A disadvantage of the wet approach is
that the collected material cannot be reclaimed for use in the mix.

The dry baghouse systems allow mechanical collection and use of the fines from the
aggregates. The system works by forcing the dust‐laden gas through fabric filter bags that
hang in a baghouse. By using a reverse pulse of air or by mechanically shaking the bags, the
collected dust is removed from the filter. The dust falls into hoppers in the bottom of the
baghouse and is moved by augers to a discharge vane feeder. The vane feeder is necessary to
keep the baghouse airtight.

Filter bags are made of fabrics that can withstand temperatures up to 450°F. But care must be
exercised when using a baghouse system, as excessive temperatures can melt the bags and/or
cause a fire.

2.2.2.4 PAVING EQUIPMENT

A paving operation requires several pieces of equipment. These include

Sweeper/brooms for removing dust from the surface to be paved.
Trucks for transporting the asphalt from the plant to the construction site.
Asphalt distributor truck for applying the prime tack, or seal coats.
Asphalt Paver.
Material transfer vehicle (optional).
Windrow elevator (optional).
Rollers.

SWEEPER/BROOM
The sweeper/broom is used to remove dust from the surface of existing pavement prior to
laying new asphalt. This is done to ensure proper bonding between the new asphalt and the
old pavement. When surfacing a prepared base course, the dust layer should be removed
either by sweeping with the sweeper or by wetting the base course and recompacting.

HAUL TRUCKS
There basic types of trucks are used to haul the asphalt concrete from the plant to the job
site: dump trucks, live bottom trucks, and bottom dump trucks. Dump trucks and live bottom
trucks transfer the mix directly into the paver hopper. The bottom dump trucks are used to
place a windrow of material directly on the pavement and can only be used with pavers that
have an elevator for lifting the mix from the pavement and transferring it to the spreader box
of the paver. Since the windrow material loses temperature rapidly, this paving operation is
generally limited to the southwestern United States, where the ambient temperatures are
high.

Regardless of the type of truck used, the trucks should be insulated and covered to reduce
heat loss during transportation. Before the trucks are loaded, the bed is coated with an
approved release agent. In the past, a heavy fuel oil like kerosene was used for this. However,
this contaminates the asphalt binder, and this practice is no longer permitted.

ASPHALT DISTRIBUTORS
When applying an asphalt prime, tack, or seal coat, a specially designed distributor truck is
utilized (see Figure 2 ‐ 38). An asphalt distributor truck requires constant attention to produce
a uniform application. It is critical that the asphalt heater and pump be well maintained. All
gages and measuring devices such as the pump tachometer, measuring stick, thermometers,
and bitumeter must be properly calibrated. Spray bars and nozzles should be clean and set at
the proper height above the surface receiving the application. The factors that affect uniform
application are
• The asphalt spraying temperature.
• The liquid pressure across the spray bar length.
• The angle of the spray nozzles.
• The nozzle height above the surface.
• The distributor Speed.
Asphalt distributors have insulated tanks for maintaining material temperature and are
equipped with burners for heating the asphalt material to the proper application
temperature. Either independently powered or PTO‐driven discharge pumps are used to
maintain continuous and uniform pressure for the full length of the spray bar. The nozzle
angle must be set properly, usually 15 to 30° from the horizontal axis of the spray bar, so that
the individual spray fans do not interfere or intermix with one another. The height of the
nozzle above the surface determines the width of an individual fan. To ensure the proper lap
of the fans, the nozzle (spray bar) height must be set and maintained. The relationship
between application rate (gallons per square yard) and truck sped is used to determine the
length of covered surface.

Figure 2 – 38 Asphalt Distributor – Truck Sprayer Figure 2 – 39 Asphalt Paver

ASPHALT PAVERS
An asphalt paver consists of a tractor, either track or rubber‐tired, and a screed (see Figure 2 ‐
39). The tractor power unit power unit has a receiving hopper in the front and a system of slat
conveyors to move the mix through a tunnel under the power plant to the rear of the tractor
unit. At the rear of the tractor unit, the mix is deposited on the surface to be paved and
augers are used to spread the asphalt evenly across the front of the trailing screed. Two tow
arms, pin connected to the tractor unit, draw the screed behind the tractor. The screed
controls the asphalt placement width depth, and imparts the initial finish and compaction to
the material. There is one manufacturer that offers a paver having two sets of twin screws to
move the mix through the tunnel to the rear of the paver (see Figure 2 – 40). The use of the
screw conveyors is said to reduce mix segregation.

Pavers can receive mix directly into their front hoppers or can pick up a windrow of material
placed in front of the paver. The traditional method for directly loading the hopper has the
truck directly dump the asphalt concrete into the paver hopper. Push rollers mounted on the
front frame of the paver (see Figure 2 ‐ 41), and extending beyond the hopper, push against
the wheels of the truck, or a bar on the paver pushes the pusher bar of the truck. The material
is then transferred to the hopper by raising the truck bed or by activating the live bottom.
Loading the hopper with individual truckloads often requires that the paver stops
intermittently. This can cause problems with constructing a smooth pavement since
frequently the paver must wait between truckloads, and mating up to the truck can bump the
paver, causing the screed to release material.

Figure 2 – 40 Asphalt Paver – Two Screws Figure 2 – 41 Asphalt Paver loading with truck

Windrow Elevators
A paving operation being served by trucks means that there must be paver/truck load
transfers and times when the paver must operate between truckloads or even stop if
deliveries are delayed. The windrow elevator was developed to address transfer and truck
queuing effects on mat quality. Elevators can also improve production by eliminating the
paver to truck mating.

Pavers with integral windrow pickup elevators are available, but a separate elevator unit
attachable to the front of a regular paver is the most common approach. By using an
attachment, there is the flexibility of using the paver in both direct load and window
situations.

The flight system of the elevator continuously lifts the mix into the hopper from the windrow.
For efficient operation the amount of material in the windrow cross section must equal the
amount required for the mat cross section. Minor quantity variations are accommodated by
the surge capacity of the paver hopper. Conventional windrow machines have limited width
and can handle only fairly narrow rows of material. New elevator designs are being
introduced having the capacity to handle wider windrow cross sections. These machines will
open windrow operations to smaller, limited‐area projects and will allow the use of regular
dump trucks for hauling.

Material Transfer Devices
Some contractors use material transfer devices to improve paving quality. A material transfer
device can receive multiple truckloads of asphalt concrete, remix the asphalt concrete, and
deliver it to the paver hopper. Material transfer device reduces surge loading of the paver.
This allows the paver to continuously operate while the haul trucks transfer the asphalt
concrete to the transfer device. The timing of the trucks to the job site is not as critical, since
the paver can operate from the stockpile of material in the transfer device. The material
transfer device is self‐propelled, so the paver does not need to mate up to and push the haul
truck. Finally, by remixing the asphalt concrete, thermal segregation is reduced.

Thermal segregation occurs during the haul since the asphalt concrete at the surface of the
load cools while the mix in the center of the load retains heat. The self‐leveling screed of the
paver is sensitive to the stiffness f the mix, which is largely a function of the temperature of
the mix. By remixing the asphalt concrete, the stiffness of the asphalt concrete is more
uniform, which allows smoother pavement construction.

2.2.3 Concrete Batching Plants

Concrete consists of Portland cement, water, and aggregate that has been mixed together,
placed, consolidated, and allowed to solidify and harden. The equipments used batching,
mixing and placing will be covered here after.

2.2.4 Batching Equipments

Batch Control
Usually, concrete specifications require the concrete to be batched with aggregate having at
least two size ranges (coarse and fine), but up to six ranges can be required. Aggregate from
each size range must be accurately measured. The aggregate, water, cement, and admixtures
(if used) are introduced into a concrete mixer and mixed for a suitable period of time until all
the ingredients are adequately blended together. Most modern plants have performance data
on their mixers to show that they can adequately mix an 8‐cy batch of concrete in 1 min.

To control the batching, close tolerances are maintained. The Concrete Plant Manufacturers
Bureau publishes the Concrete Plant Standards (CPMB 100‐96), which outlines plant
tolerances [6]. Batching controls are that part of the batching equipment that provides the
means of controlling the batching device for an individual material. They may be mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, or a combination of these means. Batch plants are available
in three categories: (1) manual, (2) semiautomatic, and (3) fully automatic.

Manual Controls Manual batching is when batching devices are activated manually with
accuracy of the batching operation being dependent on the operator’s visual observation of a
scale or volumetric indicator. The batching devices may be actuated by hand or by pneumatic,
hydraulic, or electrical power assists.
Semiautomatic Controls When activated by one or more starting mechanisms, a
semiautomatic batcher control starts the weighing operation of each material and stops
automatically when the designated weight has been reached.
Automatic Controls When activated by a single starting signal, an automatic batcher control
starts the weighing operation of each material and stops automatically when the designated
weight of each material has been reached and interlocked in such a manner that the
1. Charging device cannot be actuated until the scale has returned to zero balance.
2. Charging device cannot be actuated if the discharge device is open.
3. Discharge device cannot be actuated if the charging device is open.
4. Discharge device cannot be actuated until the indicated material is within the
applicable tolerances.
2.2.5 MIXING CONCRETE

There are two types of concrete‐mixing operations in use: (1) transit mixing and (2) central
mixing (see Figure 2 ‐ 42). Today, unless the project is in a remote location or is relatively
large, the concrete is batched in a central batch plant and transported to the job site in
transit‐mix trucks, often referred to as ready‐mixed concrete trucks (see Figure 2 ‐ 43). This
type of concrete is controlled by ASTM specification C94.

Figure 2 – 42 Central – mixed concrete plant Figure 2 – 43 Transit – mix truck

Ready‐Mixed Concrete
Increasingly, concrete is proportioned at a central location and transported to the purchaser
in a fresh state, mixed en route. This type of concrete is termed “ready‐mixed concrete” or
“truck‐mixed concrete.” It is concrete that is completely mixed in a truck mixer (see Figure 2 ‐
43), with 70 to 100 revolutions at a speed sufficient to mix the concrete completely.
Obviously, to be useful, ready‐mixed concrete must be available within a reasonable distance
from the project. At remote location and locations requiring large quantities of concrete,
generally concrete plants are set up on site.

The specifications for the batch plant and the transit‐mixer transport trucks are covered in
detail in ASTM C94. Of particular importance is the elapsed time from the introduction of
water to the placement of the concrete. ASTM C94 allows a maximum of 1 ½ hours, or before
the drum has revolved 300 revolutions, whichever comes first.

Transit mixers are available in several sizes up to about 14 cy (see Figure 2 ‐44), but the most
popular size is 8 cy. They are capable of thoroughly mixing the concrete with about 100
revolutions of the mixing drum. Mixing speed is generally 8 to 12 rpm. This mixing during
transit usually results in stiffening the mixture, and ASTM C94 allows the addition of water at
the job site to restore the slump, followed by remixing. This has caused problems and raised
questions concerning the uniformity of ready‐mixed concrete. ACI 304 recommends that
some of the water be withheld until the mixer arrives at the project site (especially in hot
weather), then the remaining water be added and an additional 30 revolutions of mixing be
required. To offset any stiffening, small amounts of additional water are permitted, provided
the design water‐cement ratio is not exceeded (see Figure 2 – 45).

Figure 2 – 44 Large Size Truck Mixer Figure 2 – 45 Truck Mixer in operation at site

Ready‐mixed concrete can be ordered in several ways, including
1. Recipe batch. The purchaser assumes responsibility for proportioning the concrete
mixture, including specifying the cement content, the maximum allowable water
content, percentage air, and the admixtures required. The purchaser may also specify
the amounts and type of coarse and fine aggregate. Under this approach, the
purchaser assumes full responsibility for the resulting strength and durability of the
mixture, provided that the stipulated amounts are furnished as specified.
2. Performance batch. The purchaser specifies the requirements for the strength of the
concrete, and the manufacturer assumes full responsibility for the proportions of the
various ingredients that go into the batch.
3. Part performance and part recipe. The purchaser generally specifies minimum cement
content, the required admixtures, and the strength requirements, allowing the
producer to proportion the concrete mixture within the constraints imposed.
In US, Today most purchasers of concrete use the third approach, part performance and part
recipe, as it ensures a minimum durability while still allowing the ready‐mixed concrete
supplier some flexibility to supply the most economical mixture.

Central‐Mixed Concrete
This is concrete mixed completely in a stationary mixer and transported to the project in
either a truck agitator, a truck mixer operating at agitating speed, or a nonagitating truck.
Plants usually have mixers capable of mixing up 8 cy of concrete in each batch (although
plants have been built with mixers capable of mixing 15 cy of concrete in each batch) and can
produce more than 200 cy of concrete per hour. The mixer either tilts to discharge the
concrete into a truck or a chute is inserted into the mixer to catch and discharge the concrete.
To increase efficiency, many large plants have two mixer drums.
In determining the quantities needed and the output for a given plant, one should include any
delays in productivity resulting from reduced operating factors.

2.2.6 PLACING CONCRETE

Once the concrete arrives at the project site, it must be moved to its final position without
segregation and before it has achieved an initial set. This movement may be accomplished in
several ways, depending on the horizontal and vertical distance of the movement and other
constraints that might be imposed. Methods include buckets or hoppers, chutes and drop
pipes, belt conveyors, and concrete pumps.

Buckets
Normally, properly designed bottom‐dump buckets permit concrete placement at the lowest
practical slump. Care should be exercised to prevent the concrete from segregating as a result
of discharging from too high above the surface or allowing the fresh concrete to fall past
obstructions. Gates should be designed so that they can be opened and closed at any time
during the discharge of the concrete.

Manual or Motor‐Propelled Buggies
Hand buggies and wheelbarrows are usually capable of carrying from 4 to 9 cf of concrete,
and thus are suitable on many projects, provided there are smooth and rigid runways upon
which to operate. Hand buggies are safer than wheelbarrows because they have two wheels
rather than one. Hand buggies and wheelbarrows are recommended for distances less than
200 ft, whereas power‐driven or motor‐driven buggies—with capacities up to around 14 cf—
can traverse up to 1,000 ft economically.

Chutes and Drop Pipes
Chutes are often used to transfer concrete from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. They
should have a round bottom, and the slope should be steep enough for the concrete to flow
continuously without segregation. Drop pipes are used to transfer the concrete vertically
down. The top 6 to 8 ft of the pipe should have a diameter at least 8 times the maximum
aggregate size and may be tapered so that the lower end is approximately 6 times the
maximum aggregate size. Drop pipes are used when concrete is placed in a wall or column to
avoid segregation caused by allowing the concrete to free‐fall through the reinforcement.

Belt conveyors
Belt conveyors can be classified into three types: (1) portable or self‐contained conveyors, (2)
feeders or series conveyors, and (3) side‐discharge or spreader conveyors. All types provide
for the rapid movement of fresh concrete but must have proper belt size and speed to achieve
the desired rate of transportation. Particular attention must be given to points where the
concrete leaves one conveyor and either continues on another conveyor or is discharged, as
segregation can occur. The optimum concrete slump for conveyed concrete is from 2 ½ to 3
in.

Concrete Pumps
The placement of concrete through rigid or flexible lines is not new. However, pumping was
not used extensively until the 1930s when German pumping equipment was introduced in this
country. The pump is an extremely simple machine (see Figure 2 – 45). By applying pressure
to a column of fresh concrete in a pipe, the concrete can be moved through the pipe if a
lubricating outer layer is provided and if the mixture is properly proportioned for pumping. To
work properly, the pump must be fed concrete of uniform workability and consistency. Today
concrete pumping is one of the fastest growing specialty contracting fields in the United
States, as perhaps one‐fourth of all concrete is placed by pumping. Pumps are available in a
variety of sizes, capable of delivering concrete at sustained rates of 10 to 150 cy per hr.
Effective pumping range varies from 300 to 1,000 ft horizontally, or 100 to 300 ft vertically,
although occasionally pumps have moved concrete more than 5,000 ft horizontally and 1,000
ft vertically.

Pumps require a steady supply of pumpable concrete to be effective. Today there are three
types of pumps being manufactured: (1) piston pumps, (2) Pneumatic pumps, and (3) squeeze
pressure pumps. Most piston pumps currently contain two pistons, with one retracting during
the forward stroke of the other to give a more continuous flow of concrete. The pneumatic
pumps normally use a reblending discharge box at the discharge end to bleed off the air and
to prevent segregation and spraying. In the case of squeeze pressure pumps, hydraulically
powered rollers rotate on the flexible hose within the drum and squeeze the concrete out at
the top. The vacuum keeps a steady supply of concrete in the tube from the receiving hopper.
Pumps can be mounted on trucks, trailers, or skids. The truck‐mounted pump and boom
combination is particularly efficient and cost‐effective in saving labor and eliminating the need
for pipelines to transport the concrete.


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