REPORT ON LONG

SPAN BEAMS
- 1718 Akash Ghagas
1725 Shubham Irawadkar
DEFINITION
Beams greater than 30m span are said to be long span
beams are said to be long span beams. Most common
types of long span beams used today are : Plate
girders, and beams with web openings. The
popular construction methodology is composite
construction steel
(steel + concrete).

DESIGN

The use of long span beams results in a range of

benefits, including flexible, column-free
internal spaces, reduced foundation
costs, and reduced steel
erection times. Many long span solutions are
also well adapted to facilitate the integration of
services without increasing the overall floor
depth.

The design of long span steel and (steel-concrete) composite beams is generally carried out in accordance
with BS 5950, BS EN 1993 or BS EN 1994. For some types of beam this codified guidance is complemented
by specific design guidance, such as that on the design of beams with large web openings (see SCI P355 ), or
manufacturers' information. Such specific guidance is normally based on extensive testing of a given
product, and often presented in the form of design software.

MATERIALS

1. Steel is the major material for long-span structures. Bending structures originally developed for bridges,
such as plate girders and trusses, are used in long-span buildings. Plate girders are welded from steel
plates to make I beams that are deeper than the standard rolled shapes and that can span up to 60
metres (200 feet).
2. Reinforced concrete, because of its inherent strength in compression, is primarily used for long spans in
funicular compression forms, including vaults, shells, and domes.

TERMINOLOGY AND WORDS USED

1. Girder - A girder is a support beam used in construction.[1] It is the main horizontal support of a
structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam cross section composed of two
load-bearing flanges separated by a stabilizing web, but may also have a box shape, Z shape, or other
forms.
2. Eaves haunch - Haunches are usually provided at the eaves of rigid portal frames due to a lot of
beneficial reasons. They are usually cut from the same section as the rafter, or can be fabricated by
welding different plates together. After fabrication, they are welded to the underside of the rafter at the
eaves.
3. Parallel Beam Approach - The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 20 m.
4. Composite Beams - Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the
beam. This enables the structural and service zones to occupy the same space, thereby reducing the
effective overall depth of floor
5. Tapered Girders - Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 15 m to 25 m. They
are another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.
6. Haunched composite beams - Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide
moment continuity.
7. Apex haunch - The apex haunch joint is commonly used for roof beams. It consists of two beams spliced
with bolted end plates, and optional haunches attached at the top and/or bottom.
8. Rafters - A rafter is one of a series of sloped structural members such as wooden beams that extend
from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter or eave, and that are designed to support
the roof shingles, roof deck and its associated loads.
9. Purlins - A purlin is a longitudinal, horizontal, structural member in a roof.
10. Plate Girder - I section girder assembled by welding from a flat plate. These are used when the required
size of cross section is larger than the largest available in the standard range.
CATEGORIES/CLASSIFICATION

depth. A further benefit is that, being fully continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without
incurring the expense and complexity of rigid, full strength connections . The figure on the left shows a
composite floor using the parallel beam approach. Specific guidance on the design of this form of construction
is given in SCI P074 . This is based on BS 5950 but the principles may be equally applied to a Eurocode design.

Composite beams with web openings

to support a roof. Composite beams with web openings have been shown to be a cost effective solution for
spans in the range 10 to 16 m.
A particular type of composite beam with web openings is the so-called cellular beam, which is formed in a
specific way and therefore described separately below . The alternative way of forming the web openings is
simply to cut them into the plate used to form the web of a plate girder, or into the web of a rolled section.
The most appropriate solution to adopt depends on the size, shape and regularity of the openings, or more
commercial drivers such as the method used by a preferred supplier. Beams with web openings present no
disadvantages in terms of erection and familiarity as they are much the same as a 'standard' solid web beam.
The design of beams with web openings must recognise the fact that the openings introduce a number of
potential failure modes not found in solid web beams. Around the openings the beam behaves as a Vierendeel
girder, and web post buckling may govern design (the web post is the section of web found between two
adjacent openings, as shown in the figure below). Large openings may require stiffening to avoid instability
(buckling) of the web posts.

Cellular composite beams

Cellular beams are a form of beam with multiple regular web openings , formed by splitting two rolled sections
longitudinally, to form two Tee sections. The two Tees, which may not come from the same donor section (as
discussed below) are then welded together to form an I-section with web openings which have a characteristic
shape (normally, but not necessarily, circular).
The process used to form cellular
beams enables the bottom half of the
final beam to be formed from a
heavier donor section than the top
half - in other words the bottom
flange can be significantly bigger than
the top flange. This makes sense
when, as is often the case, the
beams are to act
compositely and therefore
a concrete flange
effectively
replaces the upper steel flange in the final state (the upper steel flange only needs to be big enough to meet
construction needs and serve as a platform for the shear studs).
BS EN 1994 provides design rules to cover beams with an asymmetry (area of the bottom steel flange
divided by that of the upper flange) of up to three.
The greater the asymmetry the more onerous the requirements for minimum degree of shear connection ,
which must be observed to prevent excessive slip between the steel and concrete elements. Although cellular
beams have regular openings, some of these may be infilled, and/or stiffening added to accommodate local
features such as incoming beams or heavy point loads. Double (oval) openings may also be included to
facilitate the passage of larger service ducts. Dedicated design guidance (SCI P355 ) and software is available
from specialist manufacturers, based on extensive test programmes that have included fire testing. The figure
below shows a cellular beam, with regular circular web openings, and services sharing a common floor zone.

Tapered girders

the shallower regions near the

beam supports. It is also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear, towards
mid-span. These provide more options for service integration .

Stub girders

Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss, a rather exotic hybrid that can be thought of as lying somewhere
between a solid web I-section and a truss. The bottom chord is typically formed from a shallow open section
(UC), on which sit short lengths (stubs) of
deeper I-sections (UB). The top chord, at least
in the final state, is formed by the composite
slab, and therein lies one of the disadvantages
of this option - until composite action with the
cured concrete is achieved the beams may
need temporary support/restraint. An
inverted Tee
section may be used to fulfil the functions of a
top chord during erection. Composite
interaction is achieved by welding shear studs to the top of the UB stubs. The number of elements/surfaces
associated with a stub girder may increase the cost of fire protection compared with simpler solutions.
A big advantage of this option is that spans in excess of 20 m can be economically achieved. Services and/or
secondary beams can pass through the gaps between the beam stubs, reducing overall construction depth.
The figure on the right shows a composite stub girder supporting a secondary beam, which is in turn
supporting a composite slab.

Haunched composite beams

services are likely to need frequent replacement (for example in hospitals ), hanging the services under the
beams rather than passing them through holes in the webs, or through a truss, can be advantageous. Spans
in excess of 20 m can readily be achieved.
Detailed design guidance is available in SCI P060. Although this is based on design to BS 5950, the principles
are readily transferable to a Eurocode based approach.

Composite Trusses

Composite trusses, which use the concrete slab as the upper chord in the final state, can achieve spans in
excess of 20 m. This means they have been used when a very long spanning capability was needed. The main
disadvantages are that during the construction phase the truss may be rather flexible (laterally), and that in
the final state the costs of fire protection can be high given the large number of surfaces to protect. Clearly
one of the prices to pay for the spanning ability is that fabrication cost is higher than for a plain beam. Services

can be passed through the gaps between the truss members to reduce overall floor depth. THUMB RULES

For plate girders :

 - Depth = 1/8 span upto 10

- Depth = 1/12 span for larger spans

- Maximum outstand of compression flange = 16 x flange thickness

- Tension flange 20x flange thickness

- It becomes uneconomical for span greater than 18 to 21m

- Stiffeners are provided when web depth/85 is more than web thickness

- When web thickness is less than web depth/200 then horizontal stiffeners are provided.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

(i) Bending Moment Consideration:

The section of the beam must be able to resist the maximum bending moment to which it is subjected.

(ii) Shear Force Consideration:

The section of the beam must be able to resist the maximum shear force to which it is subjected.

(iii) Deflection Consideration:

The maximum deflection of a loaded beam should be within a certain limit so that the strength and
efficiency of the beam should not be affected. Limiting the deflection to a safe limit will also prevent any
possible damage to finishing. Generally the maximum deflection should not exceed span/320.

(iv) Bearing Stress Consideration:

The beam should have enough bearing area at the supports to avoid excessive bearing stress which may
lead to crushing of the beam or the support itself.

(v) Buckling Consideration:

The compression flange should be prevented from buckling. Similarly the web of the beam should also be
prevented from crippling. Usually these failures do not take place under normal loadings due to
proportioning of thickness of flange and web. But, under considerably heavy loads, such failures are possible
and hence in such cases the member must be designed to remain safe against such failures.
FAILURE

The influence of large or closely spaced web openings on the behaviour of a composite beam is complex.
There are many factors that may control failure :

- Whether the opening is in a high shear or a high bending zone.

- Whether the beam is uniformly loaded or point-loaded.

- The shape of the openings i.e. circular, rectangular or elongated circular.

- The position of the opening in the depth of the section.

- The spacing of the openings (interaction effects may occur in the web post between openings).

- The symmetry of the steel section (in terms of the ratio of bottom to top flange areas).

- The longitudinal shear force acting on the slab at the opening.

- The slenderness of the web (which influences its buckling resistance)

JOINERY DETAILS
4. Composite trusses

1. Corrugated Roofing Sheets : Standard lengths for corrugated roofing are 8, 10 and 12 feet. The width
varies greatly, depending on the style of roofing. The width is measured simply straight across the top
of the sheet, from edge to edge, to indicate the coverage width of the sheet. It does not follow the
peaks and valleys of the corrugate.The two most common widths are 26 and 36 inches. Other standard
widths include 24 and 39 inches. When calculating coverage using the width and length of corrugated
roofing, keep in mind that each piece will need to overlap by several inches.

The other important measurement for corrugated roof sheets is thickness. This is expressed in gauges,
with a lower number indicating a thicker sheet, and a higher number indicating a thinner one. Standard
corrugated roofing metal gauges include 18, 20, 22, 24 and 26 gauge.

2. Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets : The standard size of a polycarbonate sheet is 2.1 x 6 m and 2.1 x 12 m.
You could buy the entire sheet or have it cut to your required size. However, you may also buy the
entire sheet and cut it on your own with the help of sharp-toothed scissors or hand saws, as
polycarbonate roofing sheets are very easy and safe to cut.
Polycarbonates are available in a variety of thicknesses, but the most ideal thickness that you can
choose lies between the range of 4 and 6 mm. Anything lesser than that means low quality
polycarbonate, which won’t help to serve you for longer. You could however opt for thicker
polycarbonates than 6mm, provided you do need such thick sheets.
3. Metal Roofing Sheets : The roofing sheets made of metal usually comprise Zinc, Aluminium, Copper
and Tin. They can be customized to create rooftops varying on the basis of their price, durability, style,
energy efficiency, longevity and aesthetic value. Available in a plethora of styles, textures and colours,
they are less curvy than corrugated roofing sheets.

Metal roofing sheets possess high insulating capabilities and can be used in the construction of
backyards, garden buildings, garages, household cladding and industrial roofs. Metal roofing panels can
withstand high winds, snow, hail, torrential rains and fire. Generally, they don’t rot, crack, split or break
easily. Metal sheets are also resistant to attacks by insects and pests.

Cost: In India, the price of metal roofing sheets generally varies between 250/square meter and
350/square meter.

TIME ELEMENT AND COST

Cost is a fundamental consideration in the selection of structural frame material and form, which is a key
early decision in the design process.

Corrugated roofing sheets - In India, regular corrugated sheets are generally available in the price range of
Rs 250/square meter to Rs 500/square meter.

Polycarbonate roofing sheets - Generally, the price of polycarbonate roofing sheets varies in the range of
800/square meter to 1500/square meter.

Metal roofing sheets - In India, the price of metal roofing sheets generally varies between 250/square
meter and 350/square meter.

Plastic roofing sheets - The prices of plastic roofing sheets generally vary in the range of Rs 500/square
meter to Rs 1000/square meter.

TIME : Steel frame with composite deck floor saves 55.3% construction time than precast frame with
precast concrete floor and 14.3% compared to steel frame with precast concrete floor. However, this
required extra 23.10% of direct cost and 12.99% of net cost for precast frame with precast concrete floor
while 0.52% and - 2.34% for steel frame with precast concrete floor.

REFERENCES

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Long-span_beams

https://www.slideshare.net/rithikarockingravishankar/long-span-structures-in-concrete-andsteel
https://www.slideshare.net/rithikarockingravishankar/long-span-structures-in-concrete-andsteel

https://www.archiexpo.com/architecture-design-manufacturer/large-span-beam-21099.html

https://www.britannica.com/technology/construction/Concrete-structures