Simple Bridges Nicholson

SIMPLE BRIDGE DESIGN
USING
PRESTRESSED BEAMS
B A NICHOLSON
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ASSOCIATION

60 CHARLES STREET, LEICESTER, LE1 1FB
Telephone: 0116 2536161 Fax 0116 2514568
PRESTRESSED BEAM DESIGN 1
FOREWORD
For several years, the Prestressed Concrete Association has run a basic course on
prestressed concrete bridge design. This one day course has been held in various
parts of the country, and uses lecturers both from within the PCA member companies
and from outside consultants.
This book contains a development of some of the material presented in the course.
The original course notes were prepared by H. J. Lloyd, I. M. Gibb, and A. E. Gamble.
This book has been prepared by B. A. Nicholson based on the material in those
course notes.
The bulk of the book takes the form of a worked example of the design of the beams
for a simply-supported single span beam-and-slab deck. The final section is a partial
design example of an inverted T beam deck, included in order to illustrate the extra
calculations required for a solid slab deck.
By following the worked examples, together with the additional commentary, it is

hoped that the reader will be able to design simple bridges using standard precast
beams, whether they are of beam-and-slab, or solid slab construction.
2 SIMPLE BRIDGE DESIGN USING PRESTRESSED BEAMS
1 STANDARD BEAMS
1.1 HISTORY
The use of precast prestressed beams in bridge decks in the post World War II era
owes its success in the main to the foresight of the Prestressed Concrete Development
Group, which in the 1950’s developed the first standard beam sections to be available
from the beam manufacturers.
This enabled factory production of the beams on a large scale, and, with the dawn of
major road construction in the late 1950’s and its philosophy of grade separation for
motorways and trunk roads, it gave bridge engineers scope to rationalise design
procedures using up-to-date load distribution theories.
The standard beam sections available at that time have of course themselves been
developed and modified, and in essence only one really remains today with any
significant usage. This beam, the inverted T beam, is used in bridge decks in spans up
to about 20 metres.
With the rapid development of the UK motorway network in the 1960’s, it was clear
that there was scope for a standard beam that would enable larger spans to be achieved.
Consequently, at the end of the decade a new beam was introduced for spans from
about 15 to 30 metres. This was designated the M beam, due to its width and intended
spacing. These beams were intended for use in pseudo-slab bridge decks with a
contiguous concrete bottom flange using transverse reinforcement located through
lower web holes at 600mm centres along the beams.
Eventually engineers realised that the M beam could be used more efficiently in beam
and slab decks by eliminating the bottom in-situ concrete and by spacing the beams
apart at up to 1.5 metre centres. The limitation on this type of use proved to be the
shear capacity of the beams, which have a web thickness of only 160mm.
Other beams developed around this time were the U beam for beam and slab decks
up to about 30 metre spans, and a U shaped variation of the M beam for use as edge
beams in M beam decks. Eventually, with the very popular M beam being used in a
manner somewhat different from its intended use, and bearing in mind the various
problems and limitations this presented, a new beam was developed by the Prestressed
Concrete Association in the late 1980’s. This was designated the Y beam.
The Y beam now has three variants: the TY beam, the Y beam, and the SY beam.
Together these cover all span ranges up to 45m. It is expected that in due course
inverted T beams and M beams will cease to be used in favour of the enhanced
properties of the Y beam ranges.
STANDARD BEAMS 3
Inverted T beam
M beam U beam
TY beam Y beam SY beam

1.2 BRIDGE DECK TYPES
Concrete bridge superstructures using precast prestressed concrete beams fall into
three distinct types: slab decks, pseudo-slab decks, and beam and slab decks.
Slab Decks
Slab decks can be solid or voided, and provide simply supported spans of up to 20
metres. These decks use standard TY or inverted T beams placed side by side. The
space between them is then filled with in-situ concrete, and an overall covering of
75mm completes the deck.
Continuity of these decks can quite easily be achieved by using reinforcement in the
in-situ concrete over the supports. Suspended spans using TY beams or inverted T
beams can be lightened by introducing void formers into the space between the beams.
Pseudo-slab Decks
This type of bridge structure is currently not quite so popular. Precast beams are
incorporated into a voided slab type of deck by either adding an in-situ bottom flange
and top flange, as with the original M beam decks, or by using voided beams (e.g. box
beams).
A voided slab deck is thus created without the inconvenience of temporary works
and soffit shutters, and provides a torsionally stiffer deck than ordinary beam and slab
decks.
Spans for this type of bridge deck are usually limited by the length of precast beams
that can be transported to site, and therefore are rarely more than 30 metres.
Beam and Slab Decks
The most common type of superstructure for small to medium span bridges, this type
of deck comprises individual precast beams at discrete centres with an in-situ concrete
top flange. M beams, TY beams, Y beams, SY beams, and U beams can all be used
in this form of construction.
With most of the standard range of precast beams the in-situ concrete top slab is cast
into permanent formwork which is located in recesses formed in the edges of the top
flanges of the beams. Typical spans for this type of deck are similar to the pseudo-
slab decks above, being limited in the main by transportable beam components.
Standard edge beams are available to complement the Y beam, TY beam, and M
beam ranges. These provide a vertical visible face, and have the capacity to carry the
extra loads from the parapet cantilever.
STANDARD BEAMS 5
This solid slab deck uses 19 T2 beams.

Service ducts are included in the infill concrete between the beams.
This bridge deck uses nine U5 beams at a spacing of 1.72m.

Service ducts run under the footpath.
A carrier drain runs through one of the U beam cells.
This bridge deck uses seven Y8 internal beams at a spacing of 1.275m,

and YE8 edge beams on each side.
Service ducts run under the footpath.
1.3 CHOICE OF SECTION
For the types of superstructure indicated above, the beam manufacturers provide
standard details of the individual sections and their ranges together with an indication
of typical span ranges for decks incorporating these beams and carrying standard
highway loads.
There will obviously be situations where the choice of deck type is not clearly indicated
by the available span, and it is also inevitable that there will be areas of overlap where
the choice between inverted T beams in a slab deck or individual M or Y beams in a
beam and slab deck may not be clear cut. In this situation it may be necessary to
evaluate more than one solution, and the standard sections enable a swift selection of
the available ranges for comparative design exercises to be undertaken and cost
comparisons made.
It is also possible within the standard range of each beam type to be in a span range
that is covered by more than one specific beam unit. In this situation it is usually cost
effective to select the larger unit where there are no restrictive limitations on headroom.
1.4 STANDARD SECTIONS
Design
Although the various types of standard beam sections are well documented in terms
of dimensions and structural properties, it is important to point out that these factory
produced beams are standard only to the extent that they are manufactured using
standard shaped sections. The amount and magnitude of prestress applied to each
beam is dependent on its individual situation, and must be determined by the designer
prior to manufacture. The standard sections show where prestressing strands may
be located, but it is the responsibility of the designer to determine which of these are
to be used.
In their literature, the manufacturers give suggestions for good design details. These
should be adhered to, as they lead to economy and good workmanship.
Manufacture
Precast prestressed beams are manufactured in long lines of several units using straight
strands. These are debonded for varying distances at the ends of each beam within
the mould. This is necessary to maintain the stress in the beam at an acceptable level
as the self-weight bending moment reduces approaching the supports.
Once the concrete in the moulds reaches the minimum transfer strength, detensioning
can take place, the strands between the beam can be cut, and the beams removed to
the storage area prior to delivery to site.
STANDARD BEAMS 7
Span in
metres: 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
Beams at 1m centres Beams at 2m centres
Beam selection chart for the Y beam range, taken from PCA literature.
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
260
210
160
110
60
0
Standard positions for prestressing strands in a Y8 beam.

It is up to the designer to decide which of these strand positions to use.
1.5 PRACTICAL SITE CONSIDERATIONS
Handling
Beams are usually manufactured with lifting loops, thus enabling on site lifting to be
achieved with either single or twin cranes to suit the site requirements. However, TY
beams and inverted T beams are usually lifted using a sling through the end web
holes.
Access to Site
It is of obvious importance that there is suitable access to the bridges in order for the
beams to be delivered and lifted off the trailer by suitably located cranes. Of course,
this also applies to the route to the construction site which must allow the delivery
lorries to manoeuvre their lengthy loads.
There is generally no problem in the transportation of beams of the lengths described

in this book.
Camber
Variation in camber of prestressed beams is inevitable when one considers the tolerance
in prestress force and location, together with possible variation in concrete properties
with maturity and climatic conditions.
It would therefore be impracticable to specify any limitation on camber values, although

a tolerance on camber variation between beams has been adopted. However, it should
been borne in mind by the designer that an occasional failure to meet the specified
tolerance on soffit level variation does not result in impossible construction conditions.
The careful positioning of adjacent beams in a deck should nearly always result in an
evening out of differential camber.
Edge Details
On site, construction of parapet string courses in one or more stages generally follows
the construction of the central deck slab area. This necessitates the formation of a
construction joint along the edge beam prior to constructing the fascia.
Alternatively, it is sometimes possible to construct the fascia as a second stage casting

in the manufacturer’s yard, prior to delivery to site as an almost complete unit. One
advantage of this is that the beam can be propped quite easily at the works, thus
enabling stresses in the precast beam section to be minimised.
STANDARD BEAMS 9
This section can be cast on site as a second stage after the rest of
the deck, or alternatively can be cast onto the UM beam by the
manufacturer so that the edge beam and parapet can be brought
to site as a single unit.
Construction joint
UM8 M8 M8
Second stage in-situ concrete
First stage in-situ concrete
T2 T2 T2 T2
Cast by manufacturer
Two examples of edge details

Skew
Although it is possible to manufacture precast beams with skew ends, the increase in
cost for each unit and the problems that skew presents should be considered in detail
at the design stage.
Firstly, it should be remembered that even a very small change in skew angle requires
a new stop end for the mould. A change from say 30° to 31° increases the width by
12mm for an M beam. To rationalise a range of angles with a variation of 10°, say,
would be a useful and economic possibility.
Structural problems created by skew in the ends of precast beams relate specifically
to the acute corner, where the formation of cracks can cause the corner of the flange
to spall when the beam cambers during transfer. Although not structurally significant,
this is undesirable, and is best prevented by blocking out the corner to give a local
square end.
An additional problem that presents itself with skew beams is that of locating transverse
reinforcement through the web holes. It is recommended that the standard web holes
permit reinforcement to be placed for skews up to about 35°. Higher skews than this
would require special non-standard web holes, which would increase the cost of the
beams significantly, and may even affect the shear capacity of the section. For high
skew bridges, it is normally better to place the transverse deck reinforcement at right-
angles to the beams rather than parallel to the abutments.
Transverse Reinforcement
For the transverse reinforcement through the web holes of precast beams, it is usually
better to use a number of smaller bars rather than a single large diameter bar, as lap
lengths are reduced and handling becomes easier. For some awkward skew situations
it may even be sensible to use untensioned prestressing strand threaded through the
web holes instead of reinforcing bars, as it is more flexible.
The positioning of transverse deck reinforcement when using solid edge beams may
require the use of couplers at the edge beam interface.
Temporary Support
It is important to ensure that the beams are supported so that they cannot topple over
on site. Deeper beams, particularly when being jacked to their final level and during
bearing installation, must be assessed to eliminate this risk.
STANDARD BEAMS 11
Deck slab
Diaphragm
M beam
Web hole at end of M beam,

for diaphragm reinforcement
Local square end

to M beam
330 wide
Diaphragm
800 wide
M beam bridge deck with 45° skew.

Diagrams show ends of M beams embedded in a diaphragm.
2 BEAM & SLAB DECK DESIGN EXAMPLE
Sections 3 to 7 of this book consist of a design example of a beam and slab deck.
This design example shows the typical sequential calculations necessary for the full
design of a precast pretensioned concrete Y beam in a simply supported beam and
slab bridge deck.
The right hand pages show the numerical calculations involved at each stage, and the
left hand pages contain explanatory comments and further information.
The example bridge has the following design requirements:
Span 26.61m single span

Width 7.3m carriageway, plus 1.0m hard strip each side
1.5m footpath each side
Loading HA plus 37.5 units HB
Surfacing 100mm thick (minimum) plus 20mm waterproofing
The following materials will be used:
Precast concrete fcu = 50 N/mm2

fci = 40 N/mm2
In-situ concrete fcu = 40 N/mm2
Prestressing strand 15.2 mm diameter Dyform strand

fpu = 1820 N/mm2
Area = 165 mm2 per strand
The edge detail was chosen for aesthetic reasons, and the outer beams placed as near
to the edges of the bridge within this limit. This led to the beam spacing of 1.275m.
The span charts for Y beams give spans for beams at 1 and 2 metre spacings. It is
straightforward to interpolate from this information to make an initial selection of
beam size, in this case Y8.
Clearly alternatives would have been possible, for example eleven Y6 beams could
have been used, at about 1 metre spacing. However, it has been found that unless it
is necessary to make the deck as shallow as possible, it is usually preferable to use
fewer but larger beams.
DESIGN EXAMPLE 13
13380 Overall width
Footpath Hard strip Carriageway Hard strip Footpath

540 1500 1000 7300 1000 1500 540
1275 1275
Cross section of bridge deck for design example

3 GRILLAGE MODEL
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Early bridge decks were analysed on a strip basis. Abnormal and wheel loads were
crudely distributed and conservative designs resulted. Experimental data became
available to determine the transverse load carrying characteristics of decks to determine
the correct level of transverse strength provision and to distribute load more logically
to the longitudinal members. For example, in the 1950’s Morice and Little developed
a Distribution Coefficient method which was a simple hand method based on
experiments which allowed for the overall distribution of loads on a plate structure
such as a bridge deck. It was satisfactory for skews up to 20°. This method was one
of several similar techniques extensively used in design offices for approximately 15
years, until the advent of computer techniques which enabled larger and more complex
structures to be analysed more accurately using grillage, finite strip and finite element
methods. Of these three methods grillages offer the widest range of structures which
can be analysed. Popular opinion suggests they are also the easiest to use and
understand.
No analysis method gives a rigorous solution, and some degree of error must be
accepted, usually ranging up to 10% or 20% depending on complexity. These errors
come from several sources, including the idealisation of the geometry and material
properties, and idealisation of the structural behaviour.
Grillage analysis has found favour as a bridge engineer’s design tool because it is
perceived to have the following advantages:
• Grillage beams can be positioned to correspond with physical beams in

the real structure, or where maximum effects are anticipated.
• Modern PC versions have ‘user friendly’ input, often designed by
engineers, and use pre- and post-processors to ease subsequent checking,
searching and analysis.
• Familiarity of use in the design office enables rapid analysis and checking,
which is vital in a competitive market.
• Programs are relatively cheap, thus making analysis economic.
3.2 SUITABILITY OF GRILLAGE ANALYSIS
The method can be used for structures with beam and slabs decks, voided slabs or
solid slabs. It can be used for simple and continuous bridges, and allow for elastic
supports and settlement. It is suitable for right, skew and curved decks. This range
covers hundreds if not thousands of bridge decks designed in recent times, and certainly
covers all bridges with prestressed beams.
GRILLAGE MODEL 15
GRILLAGEANALYSIS
This bridge will be analysed with a grillage analysis.
The analysis will be performed using the computer program “STAAD III / ISDS” from Research
Engineers (Europe) Limited.
Sign Convention
This analysis uses a right-handed orthogonal system of axes. The grillage lies in the X-Z plane,
and the Y-axis is vertically upwards. Loading will be applied in the negative Y direction.
Local axes are used for bending moment in members, etc. In this case the X-axis runs along the
length of the member, and the Y-axis is still vertically upwards. The Z-axis lies in the plane of
the grillage.
3.3 GRILLAGE MODELS FOR PRESTRESSED BEAM DECKS
Longitudinal grillage beams are placed on the line of the physical beams, and represent
the composite action of the beam and its associated section of slab. Longitudinal
beams are also positioned along the parapet edge beam. Transverse elements represent
the top slab. There are no end diaphragms in this bridge, but when these are present
they must also be represented by appropriate transverse elements.
This type of grillage model is suitable for beam and slab decks using M-beams and
Y-beams.
Because of the usually large number of beams in a T-beam deck, it may be preferable
to model two or three beams by one grillage member. Transverse elements represent
transverse solid infill elements. Because of the non-uniform shape of these elements
as they pass over and through the beams their depth is normally taken to the centre
line of the transverse holes. The wider spacing of model elements does not materially
affect the transverse element idealisation since the structure acts as a true slab.
However, care is needed when evaluating design moments shears and reactions due
to the combination of several physical elements into single model elements.
U-beam decks, although basically beam and slab decks, behave differently because
the transverse stiffness alternates across the deck between stiff through the beams
and flexible between the beams. The beams are positioned to try and equalise the top
slab spans between and across beams. One method of modelling a U-beam deck is to
place longitudinal elements on the centre line of each web. The longitudinal properties
for each grillage beam are then taken as half that of the composite box section. As
with the inverted T-beam decks, care is required in evaluating the output since there
are now two longitudinal elements representing one physical beam.
GRILLAGE MODEL 17
Idealisation of the deck
The bridge cross-section looks like this:
The in-situ downstand fascia and the parapet beam are both discontinuous and so do not
contribute to the structural action. The cross-section of the structural elements of the bridge is
therefore:
Grillage beams will be placed on the lines of the nine pretensioned beams, and nominal edge beams
will be placed along the parapet beams. Thus the grillage representation of the cross-section is:
Transverse members will be provided at 1.90m intervals to represent the slab. This divides the
length of the deck into 14 equal sections. The nodes of the grillage will generally be on a grid of
1900 x 1275, which is well below a 2:1 aspect ratio and therefore satisfactory.
3.4 DECK IDEALISATION
Grillage analysis idealises a deck into a grid of interconnected beams. The real
dispersed effects of bending, shear and torsion are assumed to be concentrated in the
nearest equivalent grillage beam.
Variations from the true behaviour arise because the real slabs element equilibrium
requires torques and twists to be identical and in orthogonal directions, but in grillages
the joints can rotate differently. However, if a slab is modelled by a sufficiently fine
grillage mesh these anomalies are smoothed out to become almost insignificant. Again,
moments in grillage beams are proportional to the beam curvature in that direction.
In real slabs, moments also depend on the orthogonal direction curvature, but this
error is also sufficiently small to be ignored.
There are a few fundamental requirements for competent grillage modelling:
• Place the grillage beams coincident with the physical beams or lines of
designed strength.
• Where possible, lay out the grillage to capture all the load, and for ease
of shape generation and section property calculations.
• Transverse elements should be spaced to try and reflect the aspect ratio
(length/width) of the whole deck.
• Skew decks can be analysed by orthogonal or skew meshes. If the skew
exceeds 20°, the model should be laid out within 5° of the real skew.
• Generally, transverse members should be orthogonal to the longitudinal
members, particularly when skew exceeds 20°.
• Bearing positions should be represented faithfully, and in skew bridges
the vertical stiffness must be modelled with care as they can have significant
effect on theoretical distribution of load.
Once the grillage model has been set up, it is recommended that an initial test load is
applied (such as a uniform UDL), to verify that it is behaving correctly. The test load
case should be checked against some simple hand calculations (e.g. wL2/8) to make
sure that the results are reasonable.
GRILLAGE MODEL 19
Grillage model
The grillage model is shown below.
The first diagram shows the node numbers, and indicates the supports with a circle:
1 15
16 30
31 38 45
53
46 60
61 68
75
76 90
91 105
106 120
121 135
136 150
151 165
The second diagram shows the member numbering:
151 152 164

1 2 3 4 14 15
165 178
16 17 18 19 30
179 192
193 206
207 220
221 234
235 248
249 262
263 276
277 290
136 137 138 139 150
291 304
3.5 SECTION PROPERTIES
Since the precast and in-situ concrete strengths do not differ by more than 10 N/mm2,
Clause 7.4.1 permits a modular ratio of 1.0 to be used. However in the example a
more accurate value has been calculated taking into account of the different concrete
strengths.
The Y beams have standard notches 50 mm deep along the top edges. These allow
formwork to be placed between the beams to support the deck concrete. In this case,
20 mm thick permanent formwork is used, so that the beam protrudes 30 mm into the
deck slab. The overall height of the section is 1.590 m. The composite section
properties are calculated by assuming the section is made up from the Y8 beam, a
rectangular slab which overlaps it by 30 mm, and the small overlap area which must
be subtracted as it has been counted twice.
The code permits stiffnesses to be represented on the gross concrete section ignoring
the reinforcement or strand. This is the most straightforward, since the amount of
reinforcement and strand has not yet been accurately determined at the analysis stage.
In some situations, such as continuous bridges at supports, the transformed section
may be important and should be used.
Under transient applied forces the short term elastic modulus should be used, and
under applied deformations or long term loads the long term modulus should be
used. To save analysis time for these two situations a value between long and short
may be chosen, ideally reflecting the proportion of permanent to transient effects.
Almost all analyses are executed on elastic models, even though the code allows
plastic methods with the approval of the bridge authority. An elastic analysis is
appropriate for the serviceability limit state, which is the most important for the design
of the pretensioned beams. The use of an elastic model for the ultimate limit state is
simple and conservative. It is a lower bound solution in which the structure is in
equilibrium and yield is not reached.
GRILLAGE MODEL 21
Section Properties
Beam alone: Y8 beam, properties from data sheet

Area = 0.5847 m 2
y = 0.639 m
= 0.1188 m 4
Composite section: 1.275
0.220
Slab concrete fcu = 40 N/mm2, E = 31 kN/mm2
Beam concrete fcu = 50 N/mm2, E = 34 kN/mm 2
∴ Modular ratio = 31/34 = 0.91 1.370
The actual area is required for calculation of the self weight,

otherwise the modular ratio will be applied to the slab.
Actual Effective y Ay A(y--y)2

area area
Slab 0.280 0.255 1.480 0.378 0.0891 0 . 0 0 1 1

Overlap -0.012 -0.011 1.385 -0.015 -0.0027 0 . 0 0 0 0
Y8 0.585 0.585 0.639 0.374 0.0366 0 . 1 1 8 8
Totals 0.853 m 2 0.829 m 2 0.737 m 3 0.2429 m 4
The values for A(y--y)2 in this table can only be filled in after y has been calculated.
y = Ay / A = 0.737 / 0.829 = 0.889 m (from bottom of beam)
= 0.2429 m 4
Section moduli can now be calculated:

Bottom of beam, Zbbeam = / y - = 0.273 m 3
Top of beam, Ztbeam = / (1.400 - y -) = 0.475 m 3
Top of slab, Z tslab = / (1.590- y) = 0.347 m 3
This last value is based on the transformed section properties, so will not give the true
stresses in the slab. The modular ratio must be divided out of this value to find
the true section modulus for the slab:
Ztslab = 0.347 / 0.91 = 0.381 m 3 (for actual stresses in slab)

3.6 EDGE STIFFENING
Most decks have edge stiffening for the parapets. Many deck arrangements cause
the edge beam to be the most heavily loaded. In many instances these effects are
complementary, the extra stiffness reducing stresses from the extra loading. However,
the combined stiffness of the edge beam with the parapet upstand may be significantly
higher than the stiffness of the internal beams, and so may attract high unwanted
loads into the parapet upstand. Care must be taken in the computer modelling to
ensure that the stiffness allocated to the edge beam is not unrealistically high, as this
would aggravate the problem.
To counteract this ‘overloading’ phenomenon, the following approaches can be taken

when the apparent edge beam inertia is significantly higher than internal elements:
• model the edge upstand as a separate element (usually with less inertia
than the main elements). This reverses the trend of attraction.
• calculate the whole deck inertia including the upstands, and also excluding
the upstands. Then allocate half the difference to each edge member.
This is likely to be significantly less than the inertia calculated for the
discrete edge shape.
• make the edge upstand discontinuous. This is becoming more popular as
it also reduces thermal and differential shrinkage cracking. It does,
however, require careful detailing.
In the design example, the third method has been adopted. The downstand fascia and
parapet are cast after the deck has been completed, and are both cast in sections
about 2.5m long separated by a narrow gap.
The stiffness of the parapet cantilever is included with the outer Y beam. Edge
longitudinal elements are included in the model along the line of the parapet support
upstand. These elements are given very small section properties so that they do not
contribute structurally to the grillage. They are only included to give the grillage
model a tidy appearance the same size and shape as the bridge deck. They could be
omitted without affecting the results of the analysis. If nominal members are used in
this way, however, loads should not be applied directly to these members.
GRILLAGE MODEL 23
Edge Beam:
An in-situ concrete downstand fascia is required for this bridge.

To achieve an economical edge beam design, a two stage construction sequence will be used.
In the first stage, the deck is cast to just outside the

edge beams.
The weight of the stage two construction is supported
by the deck with edge beams at stage one, and a grillage
analysis can be carried out accordingly. This analysis
is not presented here, but the section properties of the
stage one edge beams to be used in this analysis are:
Effective Area = 0.802 m 2

y = 0.875 m
= 0.240 m 4
In stage two, the cantilever is added, as well as the

discontinuous parapet on downstand fascia.
The structural part of the cross-section is shaded on
the diagram. Based on this cross-section, the section
properties to be used for the main grillage analysis can
be calculated as for the internal beam on the previous
page, and are as follows:
Actual area = 1.044 m 2

Effective Area = 1.003 m 2
y = 1.022 m
= 0.316 m 4
Parapet edge member:

Although the grillage will include members running along the very edges of the deck, these are not
structural, and very small values will be used for the section properties.
Slab members:
These represent a 1.900m section of slab:
= mbd 3/12 = 0.91 x 1.900 x 0.220 3 /12 = 0.00153 m 4
There is no end diaphragm, so the end slab members simply represent 0.950m of slab:
= mbd 3/12 = 0.91 x 0.950 x 0.220 3 /12 = 0.00077 m 4
3.7 TORSION
Torsional inertia can be difficult to calculate precisely. A reasonable estimate can be

made by dividing the section up into rectangles. The torsional inertia of the section is
approximately given by the sum of the inertias of the individual rectangles. In beam
and slab bridges, the torsional inertia is normally small compared to the bending
inertia, so this approximate method of calculation is sufficiently accurate.
For rectangular sections,
C = k1b3d
where b is the length of the short side

d is the length of the long side
and k 1 is a factor depending on the ratio d/b
If d/b > 2, then k1 can be approximated by:
k1 = 1/3 (1 - 0.63 b/d)
This formula should not be used for elements which represent sections of a wide slab.
In this case, the value used for k1 must be reflect the whole slab action, and should not
be calculated for the individual elements. Slabs twist in both longitudinal and transverse
directions, so the value of C is halved for each direction to reflect this double action.
Additionally, the slab elements should be transformed in accordance with the modular
ratio. The torsional inertia of slab elements is thus given by:
C = 1/6 mb3d
Torsionless Design
For many composite beams, as here, the torsional inertia is an order of magnitude
less than the bending inertia. The analysis of such bridges can be simplified by ignoring
the torsion constraints. In other words, torsionless design can be used.
The resulting load distribution is less effective and this gives rise to slightly increased
bending moments. The correspondingly increased design strength is considered
adequate to carry the torques which would be associated with a full torsion model.
Torsionless designs should not be used for significant skews or box beam decks which
may be chosen for their high torsion stiffness properties or where torsional strength is
a significant requirement.
Torsion should also not be ignored in UM beams and thick edge beams such as YE
beams, even if internal beams are considered torsionless. Edge beams can be subjected
to considerable torsion due to loads from the parapet cantilever, and cracking of
these beams could occur if torsion is ignored in the design.
GRILLAGE MODEL 25
Torsion
Estimate torsional stiffness of composite section by idealising the section as three rectangles:
1 1.275 x 0.220
2 0.340 x 1.080
3 0.750 x 0.290
First calculate torsion inertias for the individual rectangles:
1: This is part of a wider two way slab,

so C = mb3d / 6
= 0.91 x 0.220 3 x 1.275 / 6
= 0.0021 m 4
2: d / b = 1.080 / 0.340 = 3.18

k1 = (1 - 0.63 b / d) / 3 = (1 - 0.63 / 3.18) / 3 = 0.267
C = k 1 b 3d = 0.267 x 0.340 3 x 1.080
= 0.0113 m 4
3: d / b = 0.750 / 0.290 = 2.59

k1 = (1 - 0.63 b / d) / 3 = (1 - 0.63 / 2.59) / 3 = 0.252
C = k 1 b 3d = 0.252 x 0.290 3 x 0.750
= 0.0046 m 4
Total torsional inertia, C = 0.0021 + 0.0113 + 0.0046

= 0.018 m 4
For comparison, = 0.255 m 4
The bending inertia is clearly very much larger than the torsional inertia.
Torsion will therefore be neglected.
4 CALCULATION OF LOADS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Departmental Standard BD 37/88, Loads for Highway Bridges, is currently used
to determine the loading on UK bridges. BD 37/88 effectively supersedes
BS 5400 Part 2 in the UK, pending revision of this Standard, and it is used throughout
this design example.
The loads generally specified in the Standard are nominal loads appropriate to a
return period of 120 years. Design loads will be obtained later by multiplying the
nominal loads by load factors γfL given in the Standard. An additional factor, γf3, is
also introduced to obtain the design load effects (moments, shears, etc.) from the
design loads. Values of γf3 are given in BS 5400 Part 4 for concrete bridges.
4.2 DEFINITIONS
It is worthwhile clarifying a few definitions, as they may differ from those used with
other structural design work:
Dead Load the weight of structural materials in the bridge.
Superimposed the weight of non-structural materials on the

Dead Load bridge, such as road surfacing, parapets, etc.
Live Loads loads due to vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Primary Live Loads vertical live loads due to weight of traffic.
Secondary horizontal loads due to change in direction of

Live Loads traffic (eg. centrifugal forces, braking, lurching).
Permanent those loads considered to be acting at all times

Loads (i.e. DL, SDL, and any loads due to fill).
Transient all loads other than permanent loads

Loads (i.e. wind, temperature, and live loads).
CALCULATION OF LOADS 27
CALCULATIONOFLOAD
DeadLoad
Dead load will be carried by the beams acting alone, with no composite action.
Y8 Beam alone: Area= 0.5847 m2 (from data sheet)

Weight = 0.5847 m 2 x 24 kN/m 3
= 14.03 kN/m
Internal beam: Area = 0.5847(Y8)+0.2805(slab) - 0.0120(overlap)

= 0.8532 m 2
Weight = 0.8532 m 2 x 24 kN/m 3
= 20.48 kN/m
Edge beam: Area = 0.5847(Y8) + 0.4592(slab+cantilever)

= 1.044 m 2
Weight = 1.044 m 2 x 24 kN/m 3
= 25.05 kN/m
Superimposed Dead Load
This loading is applied to the composite beam & slab structure.
Carriageway: Asphalt surfacing - for simplicity assume maximum thickness of 165mm over
whole carriageway. This includes allowance for waterproofing protection boards.
SDL = 0.165 m x 24 kN/m 3 = 4.0 kN/m2

= 4.0 kN/m 2 x 1.275 m = 5.1 kN/m per beam
Verge: The weight of the footpath, and non-structural (discontinuous) string course and fascia
will all be taken as SDL.
Total weight= 14.6 kN/m each side of bridge

4.3 HIGHWAY LOADING
Notional lanes
For the purposes of calculating the loads to be applied to the bridge deck, the
carriageway is split into notional lanes. In this context, the carriageway is taken as
the distance between raised kerbs, thus including the hard shoulders (see Clause
3.2.9.1). Clause 3.2.9.3 then defines how the carriageway should be split into notional
lanes. Note that in this example there are three notional lanes for loading purposes,
even though the deck will be marked out for only two lanes of traffic.
HA Loading
HA loading is a formula loading representing normal traffic in Great Britain. It

comprises a uniformly distributed load (UDL) and a knife edge load (KEL) combined,
or alternatively a single wheel load.
For loaded lengths up to and including 50 m, the UDL expressed in kN per linear
metre of notional lane is given by the equation:
W = 336(1/L) 0.67
where L is the loaded length (in metres) and W is the load per metre of notional lane.
The KEL per notional lane is always taken as 120 kN.
The UDL and KEL are uniformly distributed over the full width of the notional lane
to which they apply. However, not all lanes carry the full HA load at the same time,
and this is dealt with by means of lane factors. These are functions of the loaded
length and the lane width, and are specified in Table 14 of the Standard.
The single 100 kN wheel load alternative to the UDL and KEL can be placed anywhere
on the carriageway, and occupies either a circular area of 340mm diameter or a square
area of 300mm side. The single wheel load is only significant in the local analysis of
the deck slab, which is not covered in this design example.
Highway Loads
Carriageway width = 1.0 (hard strip) + 7.3 (two traffic lanes) + 1.0 (hard strip)
= 9.3 m
Three notional lanes are required:
Notional lane width, bL = 9.3 m/3 = 3.1 m
HA load: Loaded length = 26.61 m

HA UDL = 336(1/L) 0.67
= 336(1/26.61) 0.67
= 37.3 kN/m
HA KEL = 120 kN
Wheel load = 100 kN (single load)
Lane factors based on BD 37/88 Table 14:

2
= 0.0137{b L (40-L) + 3.65(L-20)}
= 0.0137{3.1(40-26.61) + 3.65(26.61-20)}
= 0.90
First lane factor, 1

= 2
= 0.90
Second lane factor, 2
= 2
= 0.90
Third lane factor, 3
= 0.60
HB Loading
HB loading represents abnormal vehicle loading. An example might be a low load

trailer carrying a power station transformer, with tractor units at front and rear.
For all public highway bridges in Great Britain the minimum number of units of type
HB loading that must normally be considered is 30, but this number may be increased
up to 45 units.
For this design example, the client has specified 37.5 units of HB load.
The HB vehicle as defined in the Standard represents four axles with four wheels per
axle. One unit of load represents 10 kN per axle. Thus the full 45 units maximum is
equal to 450 kN per axle or 112.5 kN per wheel.
The distance between the central two axles is variable. For simply supported spans,
the smallest figure is obviously the most critical.
As with the HA wheel load the contact surface may be taken as circular or square
with a contact pressure of 1.1 N/mm2.
Note that in this example the HB wheel load is less than the HA wheel load. For slab
design the HA wheel will therefore be critical.
Longitudinal and transverse loading
This is only required for design of the bearings.

HB load: This bridge is designed for 37.5 units of HB load.
Axle load = 37.5 x 10 kN = 375 kN

Total HB vehicle weight = 4 x 375 kN = 1500 kN
Wheel load = 375 kN/4 = 93.75 kN
For this simply supported bridge, the shortest wheelbase will be critical.
Thus distance between central axles of the HB vehicle will be taken as 6m.
Horizontal Loads:
Clause 6.10 gives the nominal longitudinal loads:
HA longitudinal load = 250 kN + 8 kN/m of loaded length

= 250 kN + (8 kN/m x 26.6 m)
= 463 kN
This is applied to one notional lane.
HB longitudinal load = 25% of nominal HB weight

= 25% x 1500 kN
= 375 kN
This is equally distributed between the 8 wheels of a pair of axles,

but will not be critical as it is less than the HA longitudinal load.
Clause 6.11 gives the nominal transverse loads:
The nominal transverse load due to skidding is a single point load of 300 kN,
acting in any direction (parallel to the road surface).
4.4 WIND LOAD
Methods of calculating wind loads are given in Clause 5.3 of the Standard.
Combination 2 loading (see page 38) is not significant in its effect on a large proportion
of bridges, such as concrete slab or beam and slab structures 20m or less in span, 10m
or more in width and at normal heights above ground. Wind load therefore does not
need to be calculated for most bridges designed using prestressed beams.
4.5 PEDESTRIAN LIVE LOAD
For loaded lengths of 36m and under, the nominal pedestrian live load is a uniformly
distributed live load of 5.0 kN/m2.
For superstructures carrying both highway and pedestrian loading, a reduction factor
of 0.8 is applied to the nominal pedestrian live loading specified for footbridges alone.
Thus, in this case the pedestrian live load is 4.0 kN/m2.
4.6 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Temperature effects produce two aspects of loading, namely the restraint to the overall
bridge movement due to the temperature range, and the effects of temperature
differences (or gradients) through the depth of the bridge deck.
Temperature Range
The temperature range for a particular bridge is obtained by first determining the
maximum and minimum shade air temperatures for the location of the bridge from
isotherms plotted on maps of the UK, and shown in Figures 7 and 8 in the Standard.
As these isotherm maps are derived from Meteorological Office data relating to a
return period of 120 years (the bridge design life), it may be necessary to adjust the
temperatures for a return period of 50 years for certain applications such as footbridges
and carriageway joints. This is achieved by a straightforward increase or reduction in
temperature as indicated in Clause 5.4.2 of the Standard.
Maximum and minimum effective bridge temperatures are then derived from Tables
10 and 11 in the Standard. Prestressed beam bridges will always be type 4.
The effective bridge temperature range is then used for designing the bearings and
expansion joints, or if this movement is restrained then in determining the stress
resultants in the structure.
Wind load
Wind load will not be specifically calculated for this bridge. It is assumed that Load Combination
2 will not be critical.
Footpath Loads
Nominal live load for footpaths is given in Clause 6.5.1.1 as 5 kN/m2.

Since this bridge carries highway loading as well as the footpath,
the reduction factor of 0.8 applies.
Reduced nominal load to be applied = 0.8 x 5.0 = 4.0 kN/m 2.
Temperature Range
From BD 37/88, Figures 7 and 8:
Minimum shade air temperature = -18°C

Maximum shade air temperature= +36°C
From Figure 9, bridge construction is type 4.

From Tables 10 and 11:
Minimum effective bridge temperature= -11°C

Maximum effective bridge temperature= +36°C
Temperature range = 47°C
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12x10 -6 /°C
Length between expansion joints = 27 m (approx)
Range of movement = 47 x (12x10-6) x 27 = 0.0152 m

Range of movement from central position = ±7.6 mm
Temperature Difference
Positive temperature differences occur within the superstructure when conditions are
such that solar radiation and other effects cause a gain in heat through the top surface
of the deck. Conversely, reverse temperature differences occur when conditions are
such that heat is lost from the top surface of the bridge deck as a result of re-radiation
and other effects.
Temperature gradient diagrams for each of these states are shown on Figure 9 in the
Standard. For surfacing of thickness other than 100mm these can be modified by
reference to Appendix C.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete and steel is taken here as 12x10-6.
For concrete with limestone aggregates, a reduced coefficient of thermal expansion
of 9x10-6 can be used.
If the deck were fully restrained at each end, stresses proportional to the temperature
at each point in the deck would arise. These temperatures and stresses are shown in
the top line of diagrams opposite. The stress at the top of the slab, for example, is
calculated as:
Stress = E α T = (31,000 N/mm2) x (12x10-6 /°C) x (13.5°C) = 5.02 N/mm2
In a simply supported deck there is no axial restraint at the ends, and no moment
restraint. The axial and moment components of these stresses will be relieved by
overall lengthening and hogging of the deck. A self-equilibrating set of internal stresses
will remain; they will exist without any external forces or reactions on the deck.
These internal stresses are calculated by subtracting the axial and moment components
from the stresses calculated for the fully restrained condition.
Stresses due to negative temperature differences also need to be calculated. These

are not presented here, but exactly the same procedure is followed.
It is worth noting that the serviceability limit state stresses determined from these
temperature difference diagrams are subject to a load factor of 0.8.
Temperature Difference
Temperature distribution through the cross section is given in Figure 9 of BD 37/88
Positive temperature difference: 1 2
13.5°C 3 5.02 N/mm 2

h1 = 0.15m
h2 = 0.25m 3.0°C 1.12 N/mm 2
0.88 N/mm 2
h3 = 0.20m
2.5°C 1.02 N/mm 2
Cross Temperature Stresses in fully restrained

Section Difference deck = E T
Calculate axial force and moment components of these stresses.

Stress has been divided up into five blocks, indicated on diagram above, for ease of calculation.
A σ y Aσ Aσy
1 1.275x0.15 1.12 0.626 0.214 0.134
2 1.275x0.15 1.95 0.651 0.373 0.243
3 1.275x0.07 0.96 0.516 0.086 0.044
4 0.47 x0.18 0.44 0.391 0.037 0.015
5 0.75 x0.20 0.51 -0.822 0.077 - 0.063
Axial force = ΣAσ = 0.787 MN
Moment about centroidal axis = ΣAσy = 0.373 MNm
In this simply supported bridge, neither axial force or moment are in fact restrained, so locked in
stresses are calculated by subtracting these effects from the stress diagram above:
Axial release stress = (0.787 MN)/(0.829 m 2) = 0.95 N/mm 2

Moment release stress = (0.373 MNm)/ Z
= (0.373 MNm)/(0.475m3) = 0.79 N/mm 2 at top of beam, etc.
5.02 N/mm 2 0.86 N/mm 2 0.98 N/mm 2 3.18 N/mm 2
0.88 N/mm 2 0.95 N/mm 2 0.79 N/mm 2 -0.86 N/mm 2
— — =
1.02 N/mm 2 0.95 -1.37 1.44 N/mm 2
Restrained stresses Axial Moment Self - equilibrating

from top diagram release release temperature stresses
4.7 SHRINKAGE
When the in-situ top is cast on the precast beams some of the shrinkage of the beams
has already occurred. Hence differential shrinkage occurs between the precast and
in-situ concretes, and this results in the development of a pattern of internal stresses.
Clause 7.4.3.4 states that the Table 29 shrinkage values may be adopted. It is reasonable
(and usual) to assume that half of the beam shrinkage has occurred at the time of
casting the top slab. Hence the differential shrinkage assumed in the calculation is
half of the Table 29 shrinkage value.
The effects of differential shrinkage will be reduced by creep. Allowance is made for
this in the calculations by using a reduction coefficient, . A value of 0.43 is normally
used for this coefficient, as given in Clause 7.4.3.4.
The differential shrinkage stresses can be determined in a similar manner to the

differential temperature stresses. The restrained stresses are calculated, and the axial
force and moment component are subtracted to give the actual internal stresses.
Shrinkage
Differential shrinkage between slab and deck creates internal stresses. It is assumed that half
the total shrinkage of the beam has taken place before the slab is cast.
Differential shrinkage strain,

ε DS = 0.5 x (-300x10 -6 ) = -150x10 -6
150 µε
1.480m
Restraining force = DS x Ec x Aslab x

= -150x10 -6 x 31000 x (1.275 x 0.220) x 0.43
= -0.561 MN (tension)
Restraining moment = -0.561 x eccentricity

= -0.561 x (1.480 - 0.889)
= -0.332 MNm
Calculation of internal stresses is similar to the calculation for temperature difference:
Restrained stress = DS x E c x = -2.0 N/mm 2

Axial release = (-0.561MN)/(0.829m 2) = -0.68 N/mm2
Moment release = M/Z tslab = -0.332/0.381 = -0.87 N/mm2 at top of slab, etc.
Total internal stresses are shown on the right hand diagram:

-2.0 N/mm 2 -0.62 N/mm 2 -0.87 N/mm 2
-0.51 N/mm 2
-0.74 N/mm 2 +1.38 N/mm 2
— — =
-0.54 N/mm 2
-0.68 N/mm 2 +1.22 N/mm 2
Restrained Axial Moment Self - equilibrating

stresses release release shrinkage stresses
5 APPLICATION OF LOADS
5.1 LOAD COMBINATIONS
BD 37/88 considers five combinations of loads. These are listed in detail in Table 1
of the Standard, which also gives load factors to be used in each case. The five
combinations can be summarised as follows:
Comb. 1: Permanent loads plus primary live loads. (For railway bridges, secondary
live load is also included.)
Comb. 2: Wind load, plus loads in Comb. 1 (but with some reduced load factors).
Comb. 3: Temperature effects, again combined with loads from Combination 1.
Comb. 4: Secondary live loads (each considered separately), in combination with
permanent loads and the associated primary live load.
Comb. 5: Bearings friction, together with permanent loads.
Load combinations 1 to 3 are the primary combinations to be considered in the overall

analysis of the bridge deck. In pretensioned beam bridge decks, Combination 2
(including wind loading) is rarely critical, and is ignored in the design example. This
leaves Combinations 1 and 3 to be analysed.
For bridges in the UK, the requirements of BS 5400: Part 4 must be modified according
to Departmental Standard BD 24/92, The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges and
Structures, Use of BS 5400: Part 4: 1990. The most important change this introduces
relates to the Combination 1 loading. The beams must comply with Class 1 SLS
stress limits for a modified version of Combination 1. BS 5400: Part 4 calls for a
maximum of 25 units of HB load for this condition, but BD 24/92 reduces the live
loading to HA alone for this condition. This design example follows the requirements
of BD 24/92.
5.2 SELECTION OF CRITICAL LOAD CASES
In this example, maximum midspan moments will obviously be obtained by

concentrating the loads as near to midspan as possible. This means putting the HA
KEL at midspan in the lanes to which it applies, and also putting the HB vehicle at
midspan.
Positioning of the loads to obtain maximum bending moment elsewhere in the span,
or on skew bridges, is not so easy. The arrangement of loads which give maximum
effects in the various beams can be found by trial and error. Alternatively, some
software packages will automatically analyse a multitude of different possibilities and
report the maximum effects.
The temperature loads in Combination 3 do not cause any bending moments in the
beams, and so will not have a significant effect at ULS. Only Combination 1 therefore
needs to be analysed at ULS.
APPLICATION OF LOADS 39
APPLICATION OF LOADS TO GRILLAGE
Load Cases
Load cases must be selected for input to the grillage analysis. For the design of the prestressed
beams, only the maximum moments (which will occur at midspan), and the maximum shear at
the ends of the beams and at quarter span are needed. Moments are required both at SLS and
at ULS. Only ULS is required for the shear calculations, but the SLS condition will also be
analysed to give maximum loads on the bearings.
Below is a summary of the load cases to be analysed. This has been based on Figure 13 of
BD 37/88. Note that the HB vehicle is wider than a notional lane. When the HB vehicle
straddles the adjacent lane, the KEL is omitted from that lane, and the lane factor for the HA
UDL is based on a notional lane width of 2.5m, giving a lane factor of 0.789 (see Clause
6.4.2(b)).
HA alone: Lane 1 HA, 1

= 0.9, KEL
Combination 1 at SLS and ULS Lane 2 HA, 2
= 0.9, KEL
Combination 3 at SLS Lane 3 HA, = 0.6, KEL
3
HB vehicle
HA with 37.5 units HB:
Combination 1 at SLS and ULS HA, 2
= 0.789
Combination 3 at SLS HA, 1
= 0.9, KEL
HA with 37.5 units HB: HA, 2

= 0.789
Combination 1 at SLS and ULS HB vehicle
Combination 3 at SLS HA, = 0.9, KEL
1
HA with 37.5 units HB HB vehicle

to maximise shear and reactions
HA, 2
= 0.789
in lane 1:
Combination 1 at SLS and ULS HA, 1
= 0.9, KEL
5.3 INPUT TO GRILLAGE ANALYSIS
Loading to grillages can be applied in the form of member loads and joint loads.
Member loads can include UDL, varying UDL, point loads and torque. These are
normally applied with reference to the local member axes. Joint loads can include
both forces and torques, and displacements (normally used for settlement of a support).
These are usually applied with reference to the global axes. In this example, only
UDL member loads and vertical joint loads will be used.
For many grillage software packages a pre-processor routine handles the application
of loads to the grillage model. In the example given here, however, a manual method
of distribution is given to illustrate the technique.
Uniformly distributed loads are generally applied as member loads along the main
elements. A patch load is statically distributed across the members beneath the patch.
Line loads can be applied as member loads, but the HA knife-edge load in this
example is applied as joint loads. Similarly, the HB wheel loads are statically distributed
between the nearest joints, and applied as joint loads.
HA loading alone
In the example opposite, Load 1 is the HA UDL loading for lanes 1 and 2, multiplied
by the lane factor of 0.9 for these lanes. Elements 179 to 234 represent four main
longitudinal beams, and receive member loads representing a width of deck of 1.275m.
The basic HA UDL is 37.3 kN/m on a notional lane width of 3.1m, so the load
applied to members 179 to 234 is:
Member load = (1.275m / 3.1m) x 37.3 kN/m x 0.9 = 13.81 kN/m
The remaining load is allocated to the beams represented by members 165 to 178,
and 235 to 248. So for members 165 to 178:
Member load = (0.1875m / 3.1m) x 37.3 kN/m x 0.9 = 2.03 kN/m
The last section of data shows how the individual loads are combined with factors
equivalent to the factors γfL x γf3 as given in BD 37/88 Table 1 for Combination 1
at SLS.
Grillage input data
The input data for some of the Combination 1 load cases is listed below.
LOAD 1 HA UDL LANES 1 & 2 ( = 0.9)

MEMBER LOAD
165 TO 178 UNI GY -2.03 The data on this page refers to
179 TO 234 UNI GY -13.81 the loads on this diagram:
235 TO 248 UNI GY -9.88
Lane 1 HA, 1
= 0.9, KEL
LOAD 2 HA UDL LANE 3 ( = 0.6) Lane 2 HA, = 0.9, KEL
2
MEMBER LOAD
Lane 3 HA, 3
= 0.6, KEL
235 TO 248 UNI GY -2.617
249 TO 276 UNI GY -9.205
277 TO 290 UNI GY -1.354
LOAD 3 KEL @ MID-SPAN

JOINT LOAD
38 53 68 83 FY -44.42
23 FY -6.53
98 FY -31.79
LOAD 4 FOOTWAY
MEMBER LOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 UNI GY -5.10
151 TO 164 291 TO 304 UNI GY -0.90
LOAD 5 SURFACING
MEMBER LOAD
179 TO 276 UNI GY -5.1
LOAD 6 VERGE SDL

MEMBER LOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 UNI GY -14.6
LOAD COMB 7 (SLS COMB. 1 HA ALONE)

1 1.2 2 1.2 3 1.2 4 1.0
5 1.2 6 1.0
HA with HB loading
The page opposite shows the input data for load cases in which the HB vehicle is
positioned for maximum edge zone longitudinal bending. Note the absence of KEL
in the straddled lane next to the HB lane. A similar load layout is also required with
the HB vehicle in the central lane.
The data for Load 1 is for 37.5 units of HB (375 kN per axle, or 93.75 kN per wheel).
The wheel loads are distributed between the nearest grillage joints, and applied as
point loads. Loads 2 to 7 are similar to Loads 1 to 6 on the previous page. Loads 8
and 9 represent Combination 1 at SLS and ULS respectively.
As before, the combinations are made from applying the γfL and γf3 factors from Table
1 of BD 37/88. Note that for ULS loadings, γf3 = 1.1. Thus the factor applied to
Load 1 in the final set of data is:
Combination factor = γfL x γf3 = 1.3 x 1.1 = 1.43
For reference, the diagram of the grillage model is repeated here, showing the relevant
member and joint numbers, the notional lanes, and the position of the HB vehicle:
151 164
165 21 22 25 26 178
179 36 37 40 41 192
193 51 52 55 56 206
207 66 67 70 71 220
221 234
235 98 248
249 113 262
263 128 276
277 143 290
291 304
Grillage output
Each software package has its own convention for output display. Generally the
member end moments at the same joint in any element string (eg. main longitudinal
member) are averaged to find the maximum design moment at that joint. The sign
convention may give opposite senses for each moment in a sagging effect, or they
may be given the same sign, so care is therefore necessary in the interpretation. The
design shear forces and twisting moments are evaluated in the same way.
Some programs envelope a group of analysis results to provide easy identification of

maxima.
LOAD 1 HB LANE 1
JOINT LOAD
66 67 70 71 FY -93.75 The data on this page refers to
51 52 55 56 FY -140.625 this arrangement of loads:
36 37 40 41 FY -93.75
21 22 25 26 FY -46.875 HB vehicle
HA, 2
= 0.789
LOAD 2 HA LANE 2 ( = .789)
MEMBER LOAD HA, 1
= 0.9, KEL
221 TO 234 UNI GY -12.1
207 TO 220 UNI GY -8.66
235 TO 248 UNI GY -8.66
LOAD 3 HA LANE 3 ( = .9)

MEMBER LOAD
249 TO 276 UNI GY -13.81
235 TO 248 UNI GY -3.93
277 TO 290 UNI GY -2.03
LOAD 4 KEL LANE 3 MIDSPAN

JOINT LOAD
113 128 FY -44.42
9 8 FY -12.63
1 4 3 FY -6.53
LOAD 5 FOOTWAY
MEMBER LOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 UNI GY -5.10
151 TO 164 291 TO 304 UNI GY -0.90
LOAD 6 SURFACING
MEMBER LOAD
179 TO 276 UNI GY -5.1
LOAD 7 VERGE SDL

MEMBER LOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 UNI GY -14.6
LOAD COMB 8 (SLS COMB. 1 37.5 UNITS HB)

1 1.1 2 1.1 3 1.1 4 1.1
5 1.0 6 1.2 7 1.0
LOAD COMB 9 (ULS COMB. 1 37.5 UNITS HB)

1 1.43 2 1.43 3 1.43 4 1.43
5 1.65 6 1.925 7 1.32
6 PRESTRESSED BEAM DESIGN
6.1 GENERAL
The left hand pages in this section are in the form of a commentary on the example
design calculations on the right hand pages.
All references to clauses and Tables in this section refer to BS 5400: Part 4: 1990.
The units used in the calculations are Meganewtons and metres. These have been
chosen in order to avoid the need to use large number of powers of ten, and to avoid
the need to convert between different units within complicated expressions. It should
be noted that the unit of stress of MN/m2 is numerically the same as N/mm2, and so
stresses have been quoted in the latter unit.
6.2 DESIGN BENDING MOMENTS
The grillage analysis does not include the dead load of the beams and the in-situ slab,
as these loads are carried by the prestressed beams alone. These loads must be added
by hand. Appropriate load factors for the different load combinations have been
included in the grillage analysis, but need to be applied to the dead loads at this stage.
The γfL values are obtained from BD 37/88 Table 1. Note that a value of 1.2 has been
taken for the dead load at ULS. The Standard permits a lower value of 1.15 to be
adopted, but the onus is on the designer to ensure that the assumed unit weight of
the structure is not exceeded. Consequently most designers prefer the conservative
value of 1.2 at this stage of the design.
The value for γf3 is taken as 1.1, as given in Clause 4.2.3 for methods of analysis
other than plastic methods, for which a value of 1.15 should be adopted.
PRESTRESSED BEAM DESIGN
The calculations which follow are for one of the seven internal beams. These will all be identical,
so the design is for the worst case.
Design Bending Moments
The dead load bending moment is carried by the precast beam acting alone.
Loads are:
Total DL = 20.48 kN/m
DL precast = 14.03 kN/m
DL in-situ = 6.45 kN/m
Midspan moments due to dead load are:

DL precast = wl 2/8 = 14.03 x 26.6 2 / 8 = 1242 kNm = 1.242 MNm
DL in-situ = wl 2/8 = 6.45 x 26.6 2 / 8 = 571 kNm = 0.571 MNm
Midspan moments for the SDL and LL are obtained from the grillage analysis. Appropriate load
factors have been included in the analysis, so the grillage output gives the factored moments. In
the table below, the bending moments for load cases 3 and 4 are taken from the grillage output
for midspan of an internal beam. Each case includes SDL, footpath loads, and HA load. Bending
moments in the table are all in MNm.
SLS ULS
Combination 1 Combination 3 Combination 1
Load case Nominal γfL Factored γfL Factored γfL x γf3 Factored
moment moment moment moment
1: DL precast 1.242 1.0 1.242 1.0 1.242 1.2x1.1 1.639

2: DL insitu 0.571 1.0 0.571 1.0 0.571 1.2x1.1 0.753
3: HA(udl+kel) 2.540 2.117 3.493
4: 37.5 HB 3.278 2.980 4.261
6.3 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
The basic prestress design is carried out at SLS. Midspan stresses are calculated for
the various load combinations at the top and bottom of the beam, and at the top of the
slab. Prestress must be provided to ensure that the stresses limits are satisfied at the
time of transfer of the prestress (when the load on the beams is at a minimum), and
under maximum loadings.
The table in the calculations opposite list the relevant stresses due to all the different
loadings that need to be considered. Load cases 3 and 4 refer to the grillage load
cases for which the moments are listed on the previous page. Note that these all
include SDL, footpath loads and HA loads in the appropriate combination. The
stresses in the table for these load cases are simply obtained from the bending moments
by dividing by the section moduli.
The following loadings, and the limiting stresses which apply to them, are specified in
Clause 4.2.2 (as modified by BD 24/92) and tabulated opposite:
Tension:
Load Combination 1 : Clause 4.2.2(a) has been modified by BD 24/92 to state

that the section should be checked as Class 1 with live loading due to HA
alone. No HB load need be considered for this condition. Clause 6.3.2.4(a)(1)
gives a limiting tensile stress of zero for Class 1.
Load Combination 3 : Clause 4.2.2(b) states that the section should be checked
as Class 2 or 3, but BD 24/92 specifies that Class 2 should be used, for which
Clause 6.3.2.4(a)(2) gives a limiting tensile stress for pretensioned concrete of
-0.45 √f cu = -3.2 N/mm2.
Compression:
Clause 4.2.2 (para 3) specifies that the section should be checked in compression
under the full Load Combination 1 and 3 loadings. Table 22 gives the allowable
compressive stress as 0.4 fcu. This gives 16 N/mm2 for the slab and 20 N/mm2
for the precast beam. However this value can be increased by 25% for the
upper surface of the precast unit in contact with in-situ concrete (Clause 7.4.3.2.)
provided that failure would be by tendon yield, because the in-situ concrete
confines the precast concrete. This increase is not used in this example; it will
be seen in the ULS bending check later in the calculations that this condition is
not satisfied.
Stresses at Midspan
The bending moments need to be converted into stresses in order to carry out SLS design.
DL moments are resisted by the beams alone, so stresses at the top and bottom of the beam
can be obtained using section moduli for the Y8 beam:
Zt = 0.156 m 3 Stress at top of beam = 1.242/0.156 = 7.96 N/mm2, etc.

Zb = -0.186 m 3 Stress at bottom of beam = 1.242/-0.186 = -6.68 N/mm2, etc.
Grillage moments are resisted by the composite section. For example, stresses for SLS
Combination 1, HA alone, are calculated from the moment of 2.540 MNm given on page 45,
and the composite section moduli given on page 21:
Ztslab = 0.381 m 3 Stress in top of slab = 2.540/0.381 = 6.67 N/mm 2

Ztbeam = 0.475 m 3 Stress in top of beam = 2.540/0.475 = 5.35 N/mm 2
Zbbeam = -0.273 m 3 Stress in bottom of beam = 2.540/-0.273= -9.30 N/mm 2
Temperature difference stresses are included in Combination 3. A load factor γfL = 0.8 is applied
to the stresses calculated on page 35. Internal stresses due to shrinkage are included in all
combinations, if they have an adverse effect; these stresses are as calculated on page 37. All
stresses in the table below are in N/mm2. Figures in brackets do not have an adverse effect, and
are therefore omitted from the totals.
SLS Combination 1 SLS Combination 3
Section Load case σtslab σtbeam σbbeam σtslab σtbeam σbbeam
Precast 1: DL Beam 7.96 -6.68 7.96 -6.68

2: DL Slab 3.66 -3.07 3.66 -3.07
Composite 3: HA 6.67 5.35 -9.30 5.56 4.46 -7.76

4: 37.5 HB 8.60 6.90 7.82 6.27 -10.92
5: Pos Temp 2.54 (-0.69) (1.15)
6: Neg Temp (-1.65) 0.74 -1.25
7: Shrinkage (-0.52) 1.38 -0.54 (-0.52) 1.38 -0.54
Totals HA 6.67 18.35 -19.59 8.10 18.20 -19.30

37.5 HB 8.60 19.90 10.36 20.01 -22.46
Stress limits < 16 < 20 >0 < 16 < 20 > -3.2

BS 5896 gives the characteristic strength of 15.2 mm diameter 7-wire strand as

232 kN. If initially stressed to 75% of its characteristic strength, the initial
force would be 0.75 x 232 = 174 kN per strand.
Dyform strand is used in the design example, initially stressed to 70% of its
characteristic strength. This gives an initial tension of 210 kN for each 15.2 mm
diameter strand.
It has been reported that problems have occurred when stressing Dyform strands
to 75% of their characteristic strength. Therefore, although Clause 6.7.1 allows
up to 75% to be used for pretensioning, some manufacturers elect only to
stress Dyform strand to 70%. This reduced value is used in the design example.
The chosen strand pattern should always have strands located at the
manufacturers’ standard positions.
Prestress Design
Prestress must be added to the net stresses in the table to comply with the stress limits.
For tension at the bottom of the beam, Combination 1 with HA alone is critical:
σbbeam = -19.59 N/mm 2
For Class 1 prestress (ie zero tension), the required prestress after losses must at least
overcome this stress. Taking a trial eccentricity of 370mm, and assuming 30% losses:
19.59 P Pe P P x 0.370
= + = +
0.7 A Z 0.5847 0.186
∴ P = 7.565 MN
For 15.2 mm Dyform strand, stressed to 70% characteristic strength, initial tension per
strand is 210 kN.
No. of strands required = 7.565 MN / 0.210 MN 36 strands (minimum)
Strand pattern using 37 strands:
No. of strands Height of row above soffit
4 x 1200 mm = 4800
2 x 950 mm = 1900
8 x 160 mm = 1280
12 x 110 mm = 1320
11 x 60 mm = 660
37 9960
Centroid = 9960 / 37
= 269 mm from soffit
= 0.269 m
y = 0.639 m
∴ eccentricity = 0.639 - 0.269
= 0.370 m (as assumed)
6.4 PRESTRESS LOSSES
The prestressing force does not remain at its initial value. The prestress
transferred to the beams a few days after they are cast is less than the force
initially jacked into the strands. Prestress losses which occur at or before transfer
are due to:
(i) Relaxation of the strands.
(ii) Elastic shortening of the beam under the prestessing force.
Stresses in the precast beam need to be checked at transfer. The prestress at

transfer is calculated by subtracting the above losses from the initial prestress.
Stresses in the beam are then calculated and checked against the allowable
stresses for the conditions at transfer when the concrete has not yet reached its
full strength.
Clause 6.7.2.2 states that the relaxation loss should be the 1000 hour value
obtained from BS 5896, which is 2.5%. An examination of strand manufacturers
data indicates that it is reasonable to assume that between 25% to 50% of this
occurs prior to transfer for long line pretensioning operations. For ease of
calculation, it is usual to assume 50% relaxation before transfer, and 50% after.
The elastic loss at transfer is calculated at the centroid of the tendons, and is
due to the compression arising from the prestressing force, after the initial
relaxation loss prior to transfer, and the self-weight of the beam. The latter is
included because the beam cambers during transfer, and hence has to carry its
self-weight as a simply supported beam.
The change in strand stress = ( Es / Ec ) σc
The net force after transfer = initial force - relaxation loss - elastic loss.
Stresses at transfer due to the prestress alone are calculated here. These must
be added to the dead load stresses from page 47 to give the actual transfer
stresses in the precast beam.
The stress limits for compression are given in Clause 6.3.2.2(b) and Table 23,
and for tension in Clause 6.3.2.4(b)(1). The strength of the concrete at transfer
is referred to as fci which is less than the final strength fcu. In this case it is
assumed that fci = 40 N/mm2.
Loss of prestress
Initial prestressing force

Pi = 37 x 0.210 = 7.770 MN
(i) Relaxation loss at transfer

Prior to transfer, for a pretensioned beam, take 1/2 of the relaxation loss of 2.5%
∴ P = 0.9875 x 7.770 = 7.673 MN
(ii) Elastic shortening loss at transfer:

Stress at centre of tendons due to above prestressing force,
2 2
σc = P + P e - MDL e = 7.673 + 7.673 x 0.370 - 1.242 x 0.370
A 0.5847 0.1188 0.1188
= 13.12 + 8.84 - 3.87
= 18.09 N/mm 2
Elastic shortening loss,

δPES = (Es / Ec ) x σc x (strand area)
= (200 / 31) x (18.09 N/mm 2) x (37 x 0.000165 m 2)
= 0.713 MN
Transfer prestressing force, after losses

Pt = 7.673 - 0.713 = 6.960 MN (ie 10.4% loss at transfer)
Stresses at transfer are now calculated and checked against allowable stresses.
Transfer stresses due to prestress alone:
σt = Pt - Pt e = 6.960 - 6.960 x 0.370
A Zt 0.5847 0.156
= 11.90 - 16.51 = -4.61 N/mm 2
Similarly
σb = 6.960 + 6.960 x 0.370
0.5847 0.186
= 11.90 + 13.85 = 25.75 N/mm 2
Check SLS stress limits at transfer for Class 1. The only stresses acting at this time are
beam DL and prestress. DL stresses are taken from page 47.
Compressive stress limit, fci/2 = 20 N/mm2
Compression at bottom, σb = 25.75 (prestress) - 6.68 (DL) = 19.07 N/mm2
Tensile stress limit = -1.0 N/mm2
Minimum stress at top, σt = -4.61 (prestress) + 7.96 (DL) = 3.35 N/mm 2
∴ Section is satisfactory at transfer
Further loss of prestress occurs with the passage of time. Long term prestress
losses are due to:
(i) Shrinkage of the concrete as it cures.
(ii) Creep of the concrete due to the permanent compressive stresses.
(iii) Further relaxation of the strands.
These losses need to be evaluated to find the final (long term) prestressing
force. This final prestress is usually about 30% less than the initial prestress,
and it is the final value that must be used in the calculations for the design of the
beams.
Shrinkage strain is given in Table 29 for pretensioned members subject to normal

exposure as 300 x 10-6.
Creep strain is given in Clause 6.7.2.5 as 48 x 10-6 per N/mm2 for cube strengths
in excess of 40 N/mm 2. However, if the stress exceeds one third of the cube
strength, the creep is no longer proportional to stress, and has to be increased
by a factor varying between 1.0 and 1.25 depending on the stress. A modification
factor, k, is used:
k = 1.25 when σb = fci /2 = 20 N/mm2
k = 1.0 when σb = fci /3 = 13.33 N/mm2
In this case, σb = 19.07 N/mm 2
so k = 1.22 by interpolation
The concrete stress is calculated at the centroid of the strands, as paragraph 1

of Clause 6.7.2.5 permits the loss to be calculated based on the substantial
simplification of assuming that the strands are concentrated at their centroid.
The final prestressing force is obtained by subtracting the shrinkage loss, the
creep loss, and the relaxation loss from the force after transfer.
The design stresses in the precast beam are the stresses due to the final prestress
after all losses, as calculated on the opposite page, plus the stress combinations
tabulated on page 47. These stresses are then compared with the allowable
tensile and compressive stresses, also given on page 47.
Final losses
(i) Shrinkage loss

εs = 300 x 10 -6 (from Table 29, for normal exposure)
δPs = εs x E s x A s = 300x10 -6 x 200x10 3 x (37 x 0.000165 m 2)
= 0.366 MN
(ii) Creep loss

for fci > 40 N/mm2 , Clause 6.7.2.5 gives creep strain, ε c = 48 x 10 -6 per N/mm2
modification factor (based on σb = 19.07 N/mm2) is k = 1.22
Stress at the centroid of tendons,

2 2
σc = Pt + Pt e - MDL e = 6.960 + 6.960 x 0.370 - 1.242 x 0.370
A 0.5847 0.1188 0.1188
= 11.90 + 8.02 - 3.87
= 16.05 N/mm 2
δPcr = ε cr x E s x A s = (1.22 x 48x10 -6 x 16.05) x (200x10 3) x (37 x 0.000165)
= 1.148 MN
(iii) Relaxation of strand

Remaining 1/2 of relaxation loss
= 0.0125 x 7.770 MN = 0.097 MN
Final prestressing force, after all losses

Pf = 6.960 - 0.366 - 1.148 - 0.097 = 5.349 MN (31.2% final losses)
Final stresses in precast beam due to prestress alone:

σt = Pf - Pf e = 5.349 - 5.349 x 0.370 = 9.15 - 12.69 = -3.54 N/mm 2
A Zt 0.5847 0.156
Similarly,
σb = 5.349 + 5.349 x 0.370 = 9.15 + 10.64 = 19.79 N/mm2
0.5847 0.186
Check SLS stress limits after final prestress losses:
Stress at bottom of beam, σb = 19.79 (prestress) - 19.59 (Combination 1, HA alone)

= 0.20 N/mm 2 >0
Stress at top of beam, σt = -3.54 (prestress) + 20.01 (Combination 3, 37.5 HB)
= 16.47 N/mm 2 < 20 N/mm2
∴ Section at midspan is satisfactory in tension and compression.

The prestressing force and eccentricity previously calculated are for midspan
where the dead and imposed load moments are maxima. At other sections the
moments are smaller, and in order to satisfy the stress limits, the eccentricity
needs to be reduced. This can be achieved by either debonding or deflecting
some of the strands. In this example debonding has been adopted. Some
manufacturers prefer not to use deflected strands, and will ask to manufacture
a debonded alternative design.
Stress limits at transfer will be critical at all sections other than midspan. The
computer program specifies the debonding required to limit the transfer stresses
to fci /2 in compression and -1 N/mm2 in tension.
This calculation could alternatively be carried out by hand without difficulty.

Debonding of strands
Debonding will be used to reduce the prestress away from the midspan position. A computer
program has been used to limit the stresses in the precast beam at transfer to fci /2 in
compression, and -1.0 N/mm2 in tension. The program determines a strand pattern (compatible
with the already determined midspan pattern) that fulfils these criteria. The results are as
follows:
Strand pattern at midspan
No. of strands Height of row above soffit
11 60 mm
12 110 mm
8 160 mm
2 950 mm
4 1200 mm
Debonding Details
Section m. Strands in row Transfer N/mm2 Final N/mm2

from suppt 1 2 3 4 σt σb σt σb
13.31 11 12 8 2 3.38 19.08 4.42 13.21

11.97 11 12 8 2 3.30 19.14 4.35 13.26
10.64 11 12 8 2 3.06 19.33 4.12 13.39
9.31 11 12 8 2 2.67 19.63 3.74 13.61
7.98 9 12 8 2 2.84 18.47 3.67 13.26
6.65 9 12 8 2 2.13 19.02 2.98 13.68
5.37 9 12 8 2 1.26 19.70 2.14 14.19
3.99 7 12 8 2 0.96 18.89 1.63 14.08
2.66 7 12 8 2 -0.23 19.83 0.47 14.81
1.33 5 12 8 2 -0.84 19.26 -0.33 14.87
0.00 3 10 8 2 -0.96 17.19 -0.79 14.06
6.5 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
After the prestress design has been carried out at SLS, a check should be made
of the situation at ULS.
The calculation of the ultimate moment capacity of the composite section which
is presented on the following page adopts a commonly used approximate method.
In this method, the pre-strain in the concrete, due to the prestress, is ignored.
Since the ultimate capacity of the section is normally (as in this case) found to
be well in excess of the ULS moment, a more exact calculation of the ultimate
capacity is not considered to be necessary.
The pre-strain in the strands is determined for the condition after all losses have
occurred.
The strains in the diagram are the additional strains due to loads. Hence the
pre-strain has to be added to the strand strain at each level to obtain the total
strain.
Note that the strain at the top of the slab is taken as 0.0035, the failure strain of
concrete. Ultimate failure is by crushing of the concrete, not by yielding of the
strands.
Ultimate Limit State - Flexure
σ
1820 /1.15 = 1583
1583
317
1266
Stress/strain curve for

15.2 mm Dyform strand
ref. Figure 3 in BS 5400: Part 4
0.0035
Prestrain in strands,
εpc = Pf / Es As
= 5.349 MN / (200 x 10 3 x 37 x 0.000165 m 2)
= 0.00438
Try neutral axis = 0.630 m from top of section

5
Strains in strands, compatible with failure strain

of 0.0035 in concrete at top of section:
4
ε1 = 0.0044 + (0.900 / 0.630) x 0.0035
= 0.00940
ε2 = 0.0044 + (0.850 / 0.630) x 0.0035
= 0.00918
ε3 = 0.0044 + (0.800 / 0.630) x 0.0035
= 0.00884
ε4 = 0.0044 + (0.010 / 0.630) x 0.0035
= 0.00446
ε5 = 0.0044 - (0.240 / 0.630) x 0.0035
= 0.00307
3
2
1
Knowing the total strains, the strand stresses at each level can be obtained from
the stress - strain curve.
For this calculation, a constant compressive stress block of 0.4 f cu has been
assumed in the concrete. However, BS 5400 Part 4 would strictly require the
parabolic - rectangular stress block in Figure 1 to be used, because the neutral
axis is not in the flange (Clause 6.3.3.1(b)). A computer programme would
be required to perform the calculation rigorously. The approach adopted in the
example is conservative and adequate for most situations.
If the error was significant, the calculation would have to be repeated with a
modified neutral axis depth.
Because the outermost tensions have not yielded, Clause 6.3.3.1 requires the
moment of resistance to be at least 1.15 times the design moment.
Stresses from stress/strain curve are:
σ 1 = (0.00940 - 0.00633) x 317 + 1266 = 1414 N/mm2

(0.01292 - 0.00633)
σ2 = (0.00918 - 0.00633) x 317 + 1266 = 1403 N/mm 2

0.00659
σ3 = (0.00884 - 0.00633) x 317 + 1266 = 1387 N/mm 2

0.00659
σ4 = 0.00446 x 200x10 3 = 892 N/mm 2
σ5 = 0.00307 x 200x10 3 = 614 N/mm 2
Forces:
T1 = 11 x 0.000165 x 1414 = 2.566
T2 = 12 x 0.000165 x 1403 = 2.778
T3 = 8 x 0.000165 x 1387 = 1.831
T4 = 2 x 0.000165 x 892 = 0.294
T5 = 4 x 0.000165 x 614 = 0.405
∴ ΣT = 7.87 MN
1.275 0.4 fcu

Concrete stresses & forces:
C1 = 0.4 x 40 x 1.275 x 0.220
= 4.488 MN 0.480
C2 = 0.4 x 50 x ( 0.480 + 0.368 ) x 0.410
2
= 3.477 MN
∴ ΣC= 4.488 + 3.477
= 7.97 MN 0.368
∴ ΣT ΣC (discrepancy is only about 1%)
Taking moments of all forces about neutral axis:

MT = (2.566 x 0.900) + (2.778 x 0.850) + (1.831 x 0.800)
+ (0.294 x 0.010) + (0.405 x -0.240) = 6.04 MNm
MC = (4.488 x 0.520) + (3.477 x 0.205) = 3.05 MNm
Total = 9.09 MNm
∴ Ultimate Moment of Resistance = 9.09 MNm
Maximum ULS moment = 1.639 + 0.753 + 4.261 (Combination 1, 37.5 units HB,
= 6.65 MNm from page 45)
∴ Moment of Resistance > ULS Moment and section is satisfactory in flexure at ULS .
6.6 SHEAR
A prestressed concrete beam can fail in two basic modes (see Clause 6.3.4.1):
(i) By an inclined web crack developing independently of a flexural crack.

This type of failure can occur at any section of the beam (cracked or
uncracked due to flexure). BS 5400 refers to this mode as a Vco failure.
(ii) By a flexural crack developing into an inclined shear crack. This type of
failure can occur only in regions of the beam which are cracked in flexure
under the ULS loading. BS 5400 refers to this mode as a Vcr failure.
At the support, the section is flexurally uncracked so only failure under mode (i)
need be considered.
Clause 7.4.2.2(a) allows the designer either to assume that all the shear is resisted
by the precast beam acting alone, or to calculate to shear resistance based on
the composite section.
The expression for Vco in Clause 6.3.4.2 is based on the elastic distribution of
stresses in a rectangular beam, and gives the shear force for which the maximum
principal tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of the concrete. For a flanged
beam, the expression is a conservative approximation.
The calculation method based on the precast beam alone is straightforward,

and is adopted here. A calculation based on the composite section would be
much more complicated, and is not recommended. The principal tensile stress
at the centroid of the composite section would have to be calculated. Since the
expression for Vco is based on an elastic stress analysis, account would have to
be taken of the different stress distributions from those loads acting on the
beam alone, and those acting on the composite beam.
A partial load factor γfL of either 0.87 or 1.15 has to be applied to the compressive
stress at the centroidal axis due to prestress, f cp. Obviously, 0.87 results in a
lower value of Vco, and so this value is used in the calculation.
The full prestress is not developed within the transmission length, which is
given in clause 6.7.4. Hence, if the support is within the transmission length, a
reduced value of prestress should be used in the calculations. Clause 6.7.4
states that a linear development of stress within the transmission length should
be assumed.
The transmission length for 15.2mm diameter Dyform strand, calculated in

accordance with Clause 6.7.4 is:
l t = 360 x 15.2 / √40 = 865 mm
The calculation opposite is therefore strictly only applicable 865 mm from the
end of the beam.
Ultimate Limit State - Shear
Design Shear Forces at Support:

As for bending moments, in the table below the factored shear forces for load cases 3 and 4
come directly from the grillage output, and include relevant factors and SDL, etc.
Nominal ULS Load Combination 1

Load Case Shear force γfL x γf3 Factored shear force
1. DL precast 0.187 1.2 x 1.1 0.247

2. DL insitu 0.086 1.2 x 1.1 0.114
3. HA 0.396
4. 37.5 HB 0.584
Maximum total shear force at support, for ULS Load Combination 1 with 37.5 unit HB,
V = 0.247 + 0.114 + 0.584 = 0.945 MN
The shear force will be assumed to be resisted by the precast beam alone,
as permitted by Clause 7.4.2.2.(a)(1).
For an uncracked section, the shear capacity,

Vco = 0.67 b h ft2 + 0.87 ft f cp
where
h = 1400mm
b = 216mm (min)
ft = 0.24 50
= 1.70 N/mm 2
fcp = prestress at centroid of beam
From debonding calculations, prestress at support is

ft = - 0.79 N/mm 2
fb = 14.06 N/mm 2
Interpolating to find the stress at the centroid, 0.639m from the bottom:
fcp = 14.06 + (0.639 / 1.400) x (-0.79 - 14.06)
= 7.28 N/mm 2
∴ Vco = 0.67 x 0.216 x 1.400 1.70 2 + 0.87 x 1.70 x 7.28

= 0.749 MN
The 0.4 term in the expression for required shear reinforcement in Clause 6.3.4.4
allows for degradation of shear capacity due to fatigue effects.
The effective depth dt is the depth to the outermost strands from the compression
face. Clause 7.4.2.2(c) makes clear that this should be derived for the composite
section, even when the calculation for Vc is based on the precast beam alone, as
here. Thus d t = 1590mm - 60mm = 1530mm, or 1.530m.
At the quarter span point the section is cracked in flexure at ULS. Hence both
modes of shear failure should be considered.
As for shear at the supports, the calculation for Vco is based on the precast beam
acting alone.
Ultimate shear resistance Vco is less than applied ULS shear force V, so shear reinforcement
must be provided according to Clause 6.3.4.4:
Asv = V + 0.4 b dt - Vc = 0.945 + 0.4 x 0.216 x 1.530 - 0.749

sv 0.87 fyv d t 0.87 x 460 x 1.530
= 0.000536 m
= 0.536 mm 2/mm
For T12 links, Asv = 2 x 113 mm2 = 226 mm 2

∴ sv = 226 / 0.536 = 422 mm (maximum)
∴ use T12 links at 400 mm centres.
Shear at Quarter Span
Shear also needs to be checked at other positions along the beam. These are the ULS loads at
the quarter span position. The central portion of the beam will be designed for these loads, with
the end quarters reinforced as calculated above. The section at quarter span must be checked both
as cracked and as uncracked in flexure.
Nominal Nominal ULS Load Combination 1

Load Case Shear Coincident Factored Factored
γfL x γf3
force moment shear force coincident moment
1. DL precast 0.094 0.932 1.2 x 1.1 0.124 1.230

2. DL insitu 0.043 0.447 1.2 x 1.1 0.057 0.590
3. HA 0.297 2.789
4. 37.5 HB 0.458 3.290
ΣHB = 0.639 ΣHB = 5.110
(a) Section uncracked in flexure: Vco will be calculated assuming precast beam acts alone.
The debonding calculations give stresses at quarter span due to prestress and DL. From these,
stresses due to prestress alone are calculated by subtracting the effect of the DL:
ft = 2.98 - 0.932 / 0.156 = - 3.00 N/mm 2
fb = 13.68 + 0.932 / 0.186 = 18.69 N/mm 2
Interpolating for stress at centroid of section, 0.639m above soffit:
fcp = 18.69 + (0.639 / 1.400) x (-3.00 - 18.69) = 8.79 N/mm 2
∴ Vco = 0.67 x 0.216 x 1.400 1.70 2 + 0.87 x 1.70 x 8.79

= 0.808 MN
In the case of the shear resistance for a section cracked in flexure, the calculation
based on the composite section is not too complicated, and results in a higher
value of Vcr than if the beam assumed to act alone. The method based on the
composite section is adopted here.
Clause 6.3.4.3 gives an expression for the cracking moment corresponding to

the ultimate tensile stress being reached at the extreme tensile fibre:
M cr = (0.37√f cu + fpt ) I/y
An elastic stress distribution is assumed, but this expression does not allow for
the fact that moment is applied partly to the beam alone, and partly to the
composite section. I/y is different for these two cases. Thus the cracking
moment has to be calculated by adding the DL moments to the extra moment
required on the composite section to give a stress of (0.37√f cu + f pt ) at the
bottom fibre. In this expression, value of f cu for the precast concrete should
clearly be used. A partial factor γfL of 0.87 has to be applied to the compressive
stress due to prestress alone, f pt.
The expression for Vcr is Equation 29 in Clause 6.3.4.3(a), and is an empirical

formula which gives a lower bound to the test data. The flexure-shear crack
will occur in the precast portion of the composite section, so again the value of
f cu to be used in this expression relates to the precast concrete.
Note that M cr is less than the total moment at ULS. Hence the section would
be flexurally cracked at ULS.
A minimum shear reinforcement requirement is given in Clause 6.3.4.4. The

minimum reinforcement should be provided even when the ULS shear force V
is less than Vc.
The maximum link spacings are given in Clause 6.3.4.4.

(b) Section cracked in flexure: Vcr will be calculated for composite section.
Mcr is the moment which causes cracking, assumed to be when the stress in the extreme tensile
fibre reaches (0.37 fcu + fpt )= 0.37 x 50 + 0.87 x 18.69 = 18.88 N/mm 2.
The total cracking moment is a combination of the DL moments acting on the beam alone,
and the moment acting on the composite section:
DL moment = 0.932 + 0.447 = 1.379 MNm

DL stress = 1.379 / 0.186 = 7.41 N/mm 2
Moment on composite section required to cause cracking
= (18.88 - 7.41) Zbbeam
= 11.47 x 0.273 = 3.131 MNm
∴ Total Mcr = 1.379 + 3.131 = 4.510 MNm
Clause 6.3.4.3 gives:

Vcr = 0.037 b d fcu + Mcr V
M
The centroid of the tendons is 0.281m above the soffit at quarter span, so
d = 1.590 - 0.281 = 1.309 m
∴ Vcr = 0.037 x 0.216 x 1.309 x 50 + 4.510 x 0.639

5.110
= 0.638 MN
Vcr < Vco so Vcr is critical: Vc = Vcr

V = 0.639 > Vc = 0.638 so shear reinforcement is required:
Asv = V + 0.4 b dt - Vc = 0.639 + 0.4 x 0.216 x 1.530 - 0.638

sv 0.87 fyv d t 0.87 x 460 x 1.530
= 0.000218 m
= 0.218 mm2/mm
For T12 links, Asv = 2 x 113 mm2 = 226 mm 2

∴ s v = 226 / 0.218 = 1037 mm (maximum)
Maximum spacing (a) 0.75 d t = 0.75 x1560 = 1170 mm

(b) 4 bw = 4 x 216 = 864 mm
∴ use T12 links at 800 mm centres.

6.7 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR
Vertical shear forces in the beams always give rise to longitudinal shear forces.
Indeed, according to elastic theory, the longitudinal shear stress is equal in
magnitude to the vertical shear stress at any point. The construction joint
between the precast beam and the in-situ deck slab forms a weak plane, and the
longitudinal shear along this plane should be checked. It is often found that the
reinforcement provided for vertical shear is adequate for the longitudinal shear
requirements of Clause 7.4.2.3.
Although longitudinal shear must be checked at ULS, it is assumed in Clause

7.4.2.3 that the shear force at the interface may be calculated by elastic methods,
allowing for the fact that the dead load is carried by the precast beam alone.
Only the loads applied to the composite section cause shear forces at the
interface. This is a safe assumption, as the vertical shear capacity at the supports
was calculated assuming the precast beam carried the whole load, thus not
relying on composite action. Similarly at quarter span, although the full section
was used for the calculation of the vertical shear capacity, that calculation also
assumed the dead loads to be carried by the beam alone; the assumption made
in the longitudinal shear calculation is consistent with this.
The shear capacity depends on the contact surface at the interface. It is usual
to assume a “rough as cast” surface, which only requires cleaning of the surface,
but no special preparation. This is defined as surface type 2.
The value of fcu to be used in the calculation is that for the weaker of the two
grades of concrete at the interface. Thus, based on the in-situ concrete, fcu = 40
N/mm2.
Clause 7.4.2.3 call for two checks to be made:

(a) is an upper limit on the ultimate longitudinal shear stress, here 3.6 N/mm2,
(b) is the combined capacity of the concrete and the reinforcement.
Both at the supports, and at midspan, the reinforcement provided for vertical
shear has also been found to be just adequate for longitudinal shear at the
interface. Note, however, that the calculated reinforcement requirement for
vertical shear at midspan was only 0.000218 m2/m, which would not have been
enough for longitudinal shear. More reinforcement than this was provided in
order to avoid exceeding the maximum permitted spacing.
Longitudinal (interface) shear
The longitudinal shear along the top of the precast beam, at the interface with the in-situ deck,
must be checked to Clause 7.4.2.3.
Elastic theory gives longitudinal shear as Vl = V A y /

1.275
A & y in this expression refer to the part of
0.220
the section above the longitudinal shear plane,
in other words the shaded area in the diagram.
1.370
Simplify by assuming a rectangular deck slab, 0.889
including the modular ratio, but ignoring the

small overlap between the beam and slab.
Longitudinal shear is only generated by the shear force carried on the composite section.
At the support, maximum vertical shear on composite section is given on 61:
V = 0.584 MN
A = 1.275m x 0.220m x 0.91 = 0.255 m 2
y = 1.370 + (0.220/2) - 0.889 = 0.591 m
= 0.2429 m 4 (from page 21)
Vl = V A y / = (0.584 MN) x (0.255 m 2) x (0.591 m)/(0.2429 m 4)
= 0.362 MN/m
The surface is assumed to be Type 2 “rough as cast”. Two checks are required:
(a) k1 fcu Ls = 0.09 x (40 N/mm 2) x (0.400 m)
= 1.44 MN/m > Vl so OK
(b) Vertical shear reinforcement is T12 links at 400mm centres

Ae = 0.000565 m 2/m
vl Ls + 0.7Ae fy = (0.50 MN/m 2)x (0.40 m) + 0.7x(0.000565 m)x(460 MN/m 2)
= 0.200 + 0.182
= 0.382 MN/m > Vl so OK
Similarly, at quarter span the vertical shear force carried by the composite section is
V = 0.458 MN
∴ Vl = 0.284 MN/m
For the vertical shear reinforcement of T12 links at 800 mm centres, Ae = 0.000283 m
vl Ls + 0.7Ae fy = 0.291 MN/m > Vl so OK
∴ Longitudinal shear requirements are satisfied at supports and at quarter span.

7 FINISHINGS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The finishings of a bridge deck can be defined as:
Bearings
Joints
Waterproofing and surfacing
Parapets
Although they round off the design and detailing of a bridge deck, they should be
given very early consideration as they can have an important effect on the bridge
analysis and performance. For example, the bearing position on an abutment can
affect the span, access for inspection, maintenance and replacement. The consideration
of carriageway surfacing profile affects loading (eg. crowning or vertical curves).
The parapet type needs to be adequately anchored into the deck edge.
7.2 BEARINGS
Although the technology of bearing design can be left to the specialist suppliers’
mechanical engineers, the bridge designer should develop an appreciation of the
different bearing types to avoid problems and failures.
There are two main types of bearing commonly used with precast beams, namely
elastomeric and pot bearings. Elastomeric bearings have been chosen for the design
example, and they are by far the most common, probably due to their lower initial
cost. However, they may prove with time to have a more limited life.
Elastomeric bearings are generally laminated, and consist of alternate layers of steel
and rubber bonded together. Capacities depend on the area, height, number and size
of the layers. They accommodate vertical loads by compression, translation by shear
deformation, and rotation by variable compression.
In pot bearings, the confined elastomer is heavily loaded and is assumed to act like a
fluid to accommodate rotation. Translations are enabled by a sliding interface of
PTFE and stainless steel.
For elastomeric bearings, there are generally two possible methods of resisting the
horizontal forces. A pin can be provided at one end and a guide at the other end,
which carry all the horizontal forces. Alternatively, as in the example, the forces can
be resisted by the horizontal stiffness of the bearings; this situation is known as a
‘floating deck’.
FINISHINGS 69
Articulation
This bridge will have 18 bearings, 9 at each end.
A floating deck articulation system will be used, so all 18 bearings will be the same.
Plan of bridge deck
Bearing positions
Longitudinal movement is possible

at both ends of the bridge
All bearings should be bedded horizontally, even when the bridge deck has a
longitudinal fall.
Care is needed on skew bridges to keep the axis of the principal movements
and rotations in harmony with the bearing axes. This may require a wider
bearing shelf .
Bearings need to be inspected and maintained. If they need to be replaced, the

bridge deck will have to be temporarily jacked up. Access to the bearing shelf,
and drainage of the bearing shelf, must be provided for in the design of the
abutments (and also the piers, in the case of multi-span bridges). A bearing
shelf with a drainage channel at the front is easier to clean, but increases the
span and possibly the abutment thickness. For larger bridges, an abutment with
an internal access gallery is sometimes justified. This gives easy access to
bearings and expansion joints, at the cost of a substantially larger abutment:
End
Diaphragm
Deck slab
Y8 beam
Access
Gallery
Abutment
FINISHINGS 71
Deck slab
Y8 beam
Elastomeric bearing
Abutment
Bearing plinth
150 mm high
Bearing shelf with Drainage channel

25 mm fall to rear
Detail of one end of the bridge span, showing cross section through abutment, bearing shelf and
elastomeric bearing. A drainage channel is provided at the back of the bearing shelf. Access to
the bearing shelf for inspection and maintenance will be from underneath the bridge.
Calculations for bearings
The bridge designer should carry out calculations of the range of loads and
movements that the bridge bearings will sustain. These are then specified on a
bearing schedule, and a bearing complying with these specifications will then
be selected (often by the contractor) using data supplied by bearing manufacturer.
On the example bridge, all 18 bearings will be identical. On bridges where a

floating deck is not used, movements will be smaller at the pinned end than at
the guided end, and different bearings might be needed.
Nominal horizontal loads have been calculated for the design example at the
same time as other nominal loads. The maximum horizontal loads for each
bearing are now calculated from these loads.
Vertical loads are obtained from the grillage analysis, except for the dead load.
The permanent vertical load on the bearings needs to be specified, as well as
both the maximum and minimum loads. On continuous bridges, as well as on
some skew simply-supported bridges, the minimum load can be less than the
permanent load.
FINISHINGS 73
BEARING DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Loads and deformations in all directions at SLS need to be calculated for entry into the bearing
schedule. This bridge has nine identical elastomeric bearings at each end.
Loads
Longitudinal load : HA load is critical. Nominal load = 463 KN

Assume equally distributed between the 9 bearings at one end.
Nominal load per bearing = 463/9 = 51.4 KN
SLS load per bearing = 51.4 x γfL x γf3 = 51.4 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 51.4KN
Transverse load : Nominal load = 300 KN

If this load occurs near one end of the bridge,
load will be resisted by bearings at this end only.
Nominal load per bearing = 300/9 = 33.3 KN
SLS load per bearing = 33.3 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 33.3 KN
Vertical load: both minimum and maximum loads are required

Minimum load = permanent load = DL + SDL
DL = 20.48 KN/m x (span/2) x γfL x γf3
= 20.48 KN/m x 13.3m x 1.0 x 1.0
= 272 KN
SDL = 4.0 KN/m 2 x 1.275m x (span/2) x γfL x γf3
= 4.0 KN/m 2 x 1.275m x 13.3m x 1.2 x 1.0
= 81 KN
∴ Minimum bearing load = DL + SDL = 272 + 81 = 353 KN
Maximum SLS reaction from computer analysis,

(SDL and HB load, including γfL ) = 456 KN
∴ Maximum bearing load = DL + 456 = 272 + 456 = 728 KN
Effects causing bridge movements can be categorised in two ways, firstly as

internal and external effects, and secondly as reversible and irreversible effects.
Internal effects are:

temperature (and humidity)
* creep
* shrinkage
External effects are:

dead and live vertical loading
* settlement (or other ground movement)
traction and braking
centrifugal or similar effects
* erection procedures
Effects marked * are irreversible.
BS 5400: Part 9: Clause 5.15.1 gives general guidance on the forces and
movements to be considered for bearings together with the relevant limit states.
For the design example, reversible and irreversible translations and rotations at
SLS are required.
Clause 6.7.2 of BS 5400: Part 4 gives guidance on shrinkage and creep, with
Clause 6.7.2.4 referring specifically to shrinkage, and Clause 6.7.2.5 specifically
to creep.
FINISHINGS 75
Movements
Transverse: it is assumed that transverse displacement and rotation is negligible.
Longitudinal translation: irreversible shortening of the bridge occurs due to shrinkage and creep,
and reversible movements occur due to thermal expansion and contraction.
Shrinkage of concrete
- assume that half total shrinkage occurs before beams are placed on bearings.
Shrinkage/unit length = 300 x 10 -6 total
∴ Total shrinkage = 300 x 10 -6 x 26600mm= 8.0 mm
12 shrinkage occurring after beams are placed = 8.0 / 2 = 4.0 mm
/
Creep of concrete
- again assume that only half total occurs after beams are placed on bearings.
Creep/unit length = 48 x 10 -6 per N/mm2
From calculations for prestressed beam design,
average stress at centroid 10 N/mm2
∴ Total creep = 48 x 10 -6 x 26600 mm x 10 N/mm 2 = 12.8 mm
12 creep occuring after beams are placed = 12.8 /2 = 6.4 mm
/
Assume that total of shrinkage and creep shortening is shared equally at each end
Nominal irreversible movement = 1/2 (4.0 + 6.4) = 5.2 mm
SLS irreversible movement = γfL x γf3 x 5.2
∴ Irreversible translation at bearings = 1.0 x 1.0 x 5.2 = 5.2 mm
Temperature range
Nominal temperature range= 47°C
Coefficient of thermal expansion= 12x10 -6 /°C
∴ Nominal range of movement = 47 x 12 x 10 -6 x 26600 mm
= 15.0 mm
Assume bearings are fixed in centre of range
∴ Nominal range of movement = ±7.5 mm
Temperature effects are the only effects (except transient traffic loads) causing reversible
translations. Assume these reversible movements are shared equally between the two
abutments:
Nominal translation at bearing = ±7.5 x 1/2 = ±3.8 mm
SLS reversible translation = γ fL x γf3 x (±3.8)
∴ Reversible translation at bearings = 1.0 x 1.0 x ( ±3.8) = ±3.8 mm
Irreversible rotations due to the self-weight of the precast beams take place
before the bearings are fixed in position, so do not affect the bearings. However,
rotations due to the dead load of the slab and the superimposed dead loads
must be absorbed by the bearings, and are calculated opposite.
Creep will cause irreversible rotation of bearings in the opposite direction to

the effects calculated here. It can be assumed that this effect is not so large as
to cause overall negative rotations greater in magnitude than the rotations
calculated here. Therefore creep rotations can be ignored, and do not need to
be calculated.
Dead load rotation must be calculated by hand, based on bending of the precast
section acting alone. SDL rotation is most conveniently estimated by applying
the SDL load to the composite section, and calculating the rotation by hand,
ignoring any load distribution between the beams.
Reversible rotations due to live loads can be extracted from the grillage analysis.
All grillage load cases in the design example include SDL, which must therefore
be subtracted to get the reversible effect only.
FINISHINGS 77
Rotation
The total rotation at the bearing is made up of a number of components. The camber of the
beams due to the dead load and prestress occurs before the bearings are installed, so this does
not cause rotation of the bearings. Sag of the beams due to the in-situ slab and SDL causes
irreversible rotations. Creep causes hogging of the beams in the long term, leading to irreversible
rotation in the opposite direction. Live load obviously causes reversible rotations.
Dead load of slab = 6.45 kN/m = 0.00645 MN/m

Slab DL rotation = wl 3/24E ( for beam only)
= (0.00645 MN/m) x (26.6 m) 3
24 x (34000 MN/m2) x (0.1188 m 4)
= 0.00125 radians
Superimposed DL = 5.1 kN/m = 0.0051 MN/m
SDL rotation = wl 3/24E (using for composite section)
= (0.0051 MN/m) x (26.6m) 3
24 x (34000MN/m 2) x (0.2429m4)
= 0.00048 radians
Irreversible rotation at SLS is made up from DL and SDL rotations, with appropriate load
factors:
SLS rotation = (0.00125 x 1.0 x 1.0) + (0.00048 x 1.2 x 1.0)
= 0.00183 radians
From grillage analysis output, which includes SDL but not DL,
maximum rotation at SLS = 0.00281 radians
The reversible (live load) rotation is thus this value with the SDL subtracted:
Reversible rotation at SLS = 0.00281 - (0.00048 x 1.2 x 1.0)
= 0.00223 radians
Maximum rate will occur when the beam is acting alone, with no composite action. This is when
the bearing rotates under the weight of the in-situ slab:
Rotation = 0.00125 radians
Reaction = wl /2 = (6.45 kN/m) x (26.6 m) /2
= 85.8 kN
Rate = rotation /100 kN
= 0.00125 / 0.858
= 0.00146 radians /100 kN
Bearing Schedule
The results of the calculations from the previous pages are entered into a bearing
schedule. BS 5400: Part 9.1 contains a standard form of bearing schedule.
The completed schedule for the design example is shown below, and the page
opposite shows how a bearing can be chosen from a manufacturers’ catalogue,
and checked for compliance with the schedule.
Bearing identification mark

Number off 18
Seating material Upper surface Epoxy Mortar
Lower surface Epoxy Mortar
Allowable average Upper face Serviceability 20
contact pressure Ultimate
(N/mm2) Lower face Serviceability 20
Ultimate
Design load Serviceability maximum 728
effects (kN) limit state Vertical permanent 353
minimum 353
Transverse 33.3
Longitudinal 51.4
Ultimate Vertical
limit state Transverse
Longitudinal
Translation Serviceability Irreversible Transverse
(mm) limit state Longitudinal 5.2
Reversible Transverse
Longitudinal ±3.8
Ultimate Irreversible Transverse
limit state Longitudinal
Longitudinal
Rotation Serviceability Irreversible Transverse
(radians) limit state Longitudinal 0.00183
Longitudinal 0.00223
Maximum rate Transverse
(radians/100 kN) Longitudinal 0.00146
Maximum Upper surface Transverse 400
bearing Longitudinal 300
dimensions Lower surface Transverse 400
(mm) Longitudinal 300
Overall height 100
Tolerable movement of bearing Vertical 1
under transient loads (mm) Transverse 1
Longitudinal 12.5
Allowable resistance to translation Transverse 20
under serviceability limit state (kN) Longitudinal 40
Allowable resistance to rotation Transverse
under serviceability limit state (kNm) Longitudinal
Type of fixing required Upper surface Epoxy Mortar
Lower surface Epoxy Mortar
FINISHINGS 79
Bearing Selection
From CCL Elastometric Bearing Catalogue, use bearing reference 4025-02-08ENR3.

Dimensions are 400mm x 250mm x 30mm
Maximum rotation specified = 0.00183 + 0.00223

= 0.00406 radians
Maximum translation specified = 5.2 + 3.8
= 9.0 mm
Rotation capacity at zero shear = 0.0050 radians
Rotation capacity at 14.7mm shear = 0.0038 radians
∴ By interpolation,
rotation capacity at 9.0mm shear = 0.0043 radians > 0.00406 radians
∴ Rotation capacity is adequate.
Maximum vertical reaction specified = 728 kN

Vertical capacity, no shear or rotation = 1882 kN
Vertical capacity at 0.0050 rotation = 710 kN
∴ By interpolation,
capacity at 0.00406 rotation = 930 kN > 728 kN
Shear will reduce the vertical capacity further, but maximum shear and maximum reactions never
co-exist, so vertical capacity is adequate.
Check stiffnesses:
Vertical (compressive) stiffness, Kc = 1748 kN/mm (from catalogue)

∴ Deflection at maximum load = 732 kN /1748
= 0.42 mm
This is less than the 1mm specified allowable deflection, and so is OK.
Shear stiffness, Ks = 4.29 kN/mm (from catalogue)

Maximum shear deflection = 9.0 mm
∴ resistance to translation = 9.0 x 4.29
= 38.6 kN
This is less than the 40kN specified in the bearing schedule, so this is also OK.
Finally, check movement under transient load:

Maximum (transient) longitudinal load on bearing = 51.4 kN
∴ Movement under transient load = 51.4/Ks = 51.4/4.29
= 12.0 mm
This is less than the 12.5mm specified, so transient movement is within tolerance.
7.3 WATERPROOFING AND SURFACING
The minimum desirable surfacing thickness is 110mm, made up of:
40 mm wearing course
60 mm regulating course
10 mm waterproofing
The waterproofing is generally protected by a 20 mm red sand asphalt carpet beneath

the regulating course, increasing the thickness to 130 mm.
Two types of waterproofing are in common use, namely sheeting and spray membranes.
Although generally thought of as more expensive, the spray versions are gaining in
popularity due to their more comprehensive coverage, and due to the fact that they
reduce the overall dead load.
Drainage of the waterproofing in areas near joints or severe crossfalls where ponding
may occur will improve the durability of the surfacing in these areas.
Reference should also be made to the Highways Agency Standard BD 47/94. Further
information can be found in TRRL Research Report 185: “A field trial of waterproofing
systems for concrete bridge decks” by A. R. Price.
FINISHINGS 81
25mm x 25mm rebate

(not required for spray waterproofing system)
Deck waterproofing
Waterproofing detail
7.4 JOINTS
The function of any joint is to bridge any gap or discontinuity between the deck and
the abutment, whilst allowing horizontal movement and rotation of the deck to take
place.
They are subject to all the effects applied to bearings, and are divided into two main
categories: buried joints and mechanical joints.
Buried joints have continuous surfacing over the structural discontinuity, and are
usually reserved for situations where the movements are less than 15 mm. The design
example uses asphaltic plug joints at each end of the bridge span. A steel plate
bridges the gap between the deck and the abutment, and a strip of flexible asphalt
placed over it along the line of the joint.
Larger movements are often accommodated with mechanical joints. In this case the
surfacing is discontinuous. An example is illustrated below.
Mechanical expansion joint,

bedded on epoxy resin,
and bolted to deck and abutment
using resin anchors.
Surfacing
Deck Abutment
wall
FINISHINGS 83
Steel plate
Surfacing Asphaltic plug joint
Deck slab
20mm PVC
Y8 beam drain
Abutment
wall
Waterproofing taken down

back of abutment
Detail of asphaltic plug joint at abutments

7.5 PARAPETS
There are five parapet groups for highway bridges referred to in Highways Agency
Standard BD 52/93:
P1 are required on motorway bridges, except over railways or high risk

locations.
P2 are required for all purpose roads. Metal versions have a traffic face
mesh where pedestrians are allowed. They are subdivided into P2 (80)
and P2 (113) depending on the prevailing speed restrictions at the site.
P2 (48) are also occasionally found at urban sites.
P4 are used on bridleways.
P5 are required over railways, and usually have P1 strength requirements.
These are taller, and have solid infill panels.
P6 are high containment parapets for use at high risk locations.
Standard metal versions in steel or aluminium are available from the various suppliers
listed in BS 6779 Part 1. There are differences between the types which affect the
edge plinth detailing and spacing of posts. Reinforcement should be detailed to
accommodate standard approved anchorage cages. Most designers give the contractor
the choice of steel or aluminium parapets, although individual client authorities may
have preferences relating to maintenance aspects.
Concrete can also be used for the P1 and P2 containment requirements, sometimes
faced or sandwiched with other materials such as brick.
P6 high containment parapets are often provided in the form of precast concrete
panels, which are either cast into the edge of the deck, or bolted down onto it. The
edge of the deck must be designed to resist the high transverse bending moment that
a vehicle hitting the parapet can generate; see BS 6779: Part 2. The bending moment
is too high to be resisted by the bending strength of a standard deck slab, or the
torsional strength of M or Y beams. A torsionally stiff edge beam should be provided,
or the base of the parapet panels should span over two adjacent beams.
Precast parapet
panels, 2.5m long,
bolted to deck.
A typical edge detail for a bridge deck with a high containment parapet.
FINISHINGS 85
P2 (113 kph) aluminium parapet

bolted down to concrete upstand by
4 stainless steel M20 bolts per post,
with washers and plastic sleeves.
Mesh infill
Grout below parapet base
Parapet details
8 SOLID SLAB DECK DESIGN EXAMPLE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of prestressed beams in a solid slab deck follows the same pattern as for
a beam & slab deck. This section consists of a partial design example of a solid slab
bridge deck, to demonstrate how to deal with the transverse moments and shears
using reinforcement threaded through the web holes of the precast beams.
The example bridge has the following design requirements:
Span 9.089m between bearings (single span)

Width 6.5m carriageway (two 3.25m lanes)
1.0m footpath each side
Skew 21°
Loading HA load to BD 37/88
No HB load is required for this private development
Surfacing 180mm total maximum thickness (including waterproofing)
Inverted T beams were chosen as the most suitable form of construction for this short
span. The beam selection charts indicate that T2 beams are appropriate for a span of
about 9m. The beams are placed side by side in this form of construction, so for the
width of deck required, eighteen T2 beams are needed. The bridge could alternatively
have been designed using twelve TY2 beams.
In-situ concrete provides the infill between the beams, and the topping over the beams.
The standard thickness for the topping is 75mm, and this is used here. The topping
should never be specified less than 75mm thick.
SOLID SLAB DESIGN EXAMPLE 87
9300 Overall width
Footpath Carriageway Footpath

400 1000 6500 1000 400
Cross section of 9.089m span simply supported bridge.

The bridge deck has a skew of 21°.
Eighteen T2 beams are used at a spacing of 508mm.
There are two 175mm diameter ducts in the infill concrete under each footpath.
This is the cross section showing only the structural elements.

The thickness in the middle of the deck is 495mm,
made up from the 420mm high T2 beams plus 75mm topping.
Total height of the edge beams is 920mm.
8.2 GRILLAGE ANALYSIS
The grillage used to analyse this bridge deck has nine longitudinal members, each
representing two inverted T beams with their associated in-situ concrete:
BS 5400: Part 4: Clause 7.4.1 does not require a modular ratio to be used for concrete
strengths varying by 10 N/mm2, and so no account has been taken of the difference
between the precast and the in-situ concrete in the analysis of this bridge. The section
properties of the internal longitudinal members are therefore based on a simple
rectangular shape.
The edge members have different properties, due to the geometry of the edge detail,
and the presence of service ducts under the footpath.
Transverse members have been provided to divide the span into eight equal segments
of 1.136m. The beams oversail the bearings by 0.605m on this bridge, so the members
along the line of the bearings represent a similar width of slab to the members within
the span.
Because the skew of 21° is not too large, the transverse members have been positioned
parallel to the abutments. This leads to a simple grillage layout, and is reasonably
accurate for small skew angles. Decks with a large skew should be analysed with a
grillage in which the transverse members are at right angles to the longitudinal beams.
Because of the discontinuous nature of the deck in the transverse direction, it is

normal (and conservative) to assume that the transverse members can be represented
by a solid slab down to the centre of the web holes, which is 175mm above the soffit
of the inverted T beams.
Grillage Analysis
Diagram of grillage model use to analyse this bridge deck:
Span = 9.089 m
1.016
1.136
The difference between the strength of the precast concrete beams and the in-situ concrete is
10 N/mm2, and so a modular ratio of unity will be assumed.
Section properties of internal longitudinal members (representing two beams):
Area = 0.495 x 1.016 = 0.503 m 2

= (0.495 3 x 1.016) /12 = 0.0103 m 4
C = (0.495 3 x 1.016) / 6 = 0.0205 m 4
Section properties of transverse members (representing 1.136m width of slab):
Thickness of slab assumed for transverse members is down to web holes of T beams,
which are 0.175m above soffit of beams.
∴ Slab thickness = 0.495 - 0.175 = 0.320 m
Area = 0.320 x 1.136 = 0.364 m 2
= (0.320 3 x 1.136) /12 = 0.0031 m 4
C = (0.320 3 x 1.136) / 6 = 0.0062 m 4
8.3 DESIGN OF TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
Transverse sagging reinforcement can only be provided through the web holes of the
precast beams, which are at 0.610m centres. The sagging moment is therefore
recalculated for a 0.610m section of slab.
Note that the depth to the reinforcement is the same as the depth assumed for the slab
in the analysis.
Transverse reinforcement of 3T16 bars through each web hole is used. This is preferred
to a single T25 bar as the extra flexibility will make it easier to thread the bars through
the web holes on site, particularly if these are not perfectly aligned.
Reinforcement of 4T16 through the web holes is often used for the larger inverted T
and TY beams.
Note that Clause 5.3.3.2 also has a requirement for additional longitudinal shear
reinforcement in the tensile zone. In this case, this only amounts to 83mm2 per 0.610m
section. This requirement is easily fulfilled by the excess of bending reinforcement
provided. Furthermore, the maximum bending and the maximum shear will not occur
at the same place, so this requirement will rarely actually result in extra reinforcement
being needed.
Clearly the concrete and the tensile steel have plenty of capacity to resist the shear
between the beams. The interface between the precast beams and the in-situ concrete
also needs to be considered. The shape of the precast beams allows shear to be
transferred by interlocking between the beams and the in-situ concrete. Additionally,
shear can be assumed to be transferred by dowel action of the reinforcement through
the web holes:
Dowel action shear capacity = 0.7 A s (0.87 f y ) = 0.7 x 0.000603 x 400
= 0.169 MN
This is well in excess of the ULS shear of 0.066 MN for a 0.610m section of deck.
Transverse Sagging Moment
From the grillage analysis,

max ULS transverse sagging moment for a 1.136m element = 101 kNm
Reinforcement is provided through the web holes, which are at the standard spacing of 0.610m.
Moment per 0.610m section = (0.610 / 1.136) x 101 = 54.2 kNm

= 0.0542 MNm
Depth to reinforcement, d = 0.320 m

Width of section, b = 0.610 m
fcu = 40 N/mm2
fy = 460 N/mm 2
Lever arm, z = 0.95 d = 0.304 m (assumed)
Mu = (0.87 fy ) As z = 400 x A s x 0.304 > 0.0542 MNm
∴ As > 0.0542/ (400 x 0.304) = 0.000446 m 2

= 446 mm 2
∴ Use 3T16 (area provided = 603 mm 2 )
1.1 fy As d 1.1 x 460 x 0.000603 = 0.961 d

Check z = (1 - ) = (1 - )
fcu b d 40 x 0.610 x 0.320
so confirming assumption of z = 0.95 d
Transverse Shear
Maximum ULS shear in a 1.136m element, from grillage, V = 123 kN = 0.123 MN
∴ Shear per 0.610m section = (0.610/1.136) x 0.123 = 0.0660 MN
v = V / bd = (0.0660 MN) / (0.610m x 0.320m) = 0.34 N/mm2
Percentage reinforcement = 100 x 0.000603m 2 = 0.31%

0.610m x 0.320m
vc = 0.50 N/mm 2 from Table 8
ξs = 1.12 from Table 9
ξs vc = 1.12 x 0.50 = 0.56 N/mm 2
ξs vc = 0.56 N/mm 2 > v = 0.34 N/mm2 so shear capacity is adequate.

Hogging moments can occur in this bridge deck near the edge beams, if the
edges of the deck are loaded, but there is no load near the centre. Note that the
maximum hogging moment is much lower than the maximum sagging moment
on the previous page.
A142 mesh will be used in the topping throughout the deck. This nominal
reinforcement is used in the topping concrete which is predominantly in
compression. However, at the edges of the deck where hogging occurs, this
reinforcement is not enough, and T6 bars are added.
Transverse Hogging Moment
From the grillage analysis,

maximum ULS hogging moment for a 1.136m element = 32 kNm
∴ Moment per metre width of slab = 32 / 1.136 = 28.2 kNm/m

= 0.0282 MNm/m
Depth to reinforcement, d = 0.320m - 0.040m = 0.280 m (approx)

b = 1.136 m
z = 0.95 d = 0.266 m
Mu = (0.87 fy ) As z = 400 x A s x 0.266 > 0.0282 MNm/m
∴ As > 0.0282/(400 x 0.266) = 0.000265 m 2/m

= 265 mm 2/m
The A142 mesh provides a reinforcement area of 142 mm2/m, which is insufficient for the
hogging at the edges of the deck. Additional transverse reinforcement of 2m lengths of T6 bars
at 200mm centres will therefore be added in the topping at each side of the deck.
Total reinforcement area = A142 mesh + T6 @ 200mm centres

= (142 mm 2/m) + (142 mm2/m)
= 284 mm 2/m
> 265 mm2/m required

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SIMPLE BRIDGE DESIGN

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ASSOCIATION

By following the worked examples, together with the additional commentary, it is

TY beam Y beam SY beam

1.2 BRIDGE DECK TYPES

Beam and Slab Decks

This solid slab deck uses 19 T2 beams.

This bridge deck uses nine U5 beams at a spacing of 1.72m.

This bridge deck uses seven Y8 internal beams at a spacing of 1.275m,

1.3 CHOICE OF SECTION

1.4 STANDARD SECTIONS

Beams at 1m centres Beams at 2m centres

Standard positions for prestressing strands in a Y8 beam.

1.5 PRACTICAL SITE CONSIDERATIONS

There is generally no problem in the transportation of beams of the lengths described

It would therefore be impracticable to specify any limitation on camber values, although

Alternatively, it is sometimes possible to construct the fascia as a second stage casting

Second stage in-situ concrete

First stage in-situ concrete

Two examples of edge details

Web hole at end of M beam,

Local square end

M beam bridge deck with 45° skew.

2 BEAM & SLAB DECK DESIGN EXAMPLE

The example bridge has the following design requirements:

Span 26.61m single span

The following materials will be used:

Precast concrete fcu = 50 N/mm2

Prestressing strand 15.2 mm diameter Dyform strand

13380 Overall width

Footpath Hard strip Carriageway Hard strip Footpath

Cross section of bridge deck for design example

• Grillage beams can be positioned to correspond with physical beams in

3.2 SUITABILITY OF GRILLAGE ANALYSIS

This bridge will be analysed with a grillage analysis.

3.3 GRILLAGE MODELS FOR PRESTRESSED BEAM DECKS

Idealisation of the deck

The bridge cross-section looks like this:

3.4 DECK IDEALISATION

There are a few fundamental requirements for competent grillage modelling:

The grillage model is shown below.

The second diagram shows the member numbering:

151 152 164

3.5 SECTION PROPERTIES

Beam alone: Y8 beam, properties from data sheet

Composite section: 1.275

The actual area is required for calculation of the self weight,

Actual Effective y Ay A(y--y)2

Slab 0.280 0.255 1.480 0.378 0.0891 0 . 0 0 1 1

Totals 0.853 m 2 0.829 m 2 0.737 m 3 0.2429 m 4

y = Ay / A = 0.737 / 0.829 = 0.889 m (from bottom of beam)

Section moduli can now be calculated:

Ztslab = 0.347 / 0.91 = 0.381 m 3 (for actual stresses in slab)

3.6 EDGE STIFFENING

To counteract this ‘overloading’ phenomenon, the following approaches can be taken

An in-situ concrete downstand fascia is required for this bridge.

In the first stage, the deck is cast to just outside the

Effective Area = 0.802 m 2

In stage two, the cantilever is added, as well as the

Actual area = 1.044 m 2

Parapet edge member:

Torsional inertia can be difficult to calculate precisely. A reasonable estimate can be

For rectangular sections,

where b is the length of the short side