Tarea 2. Lipidos: Classes of Lipids

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Tarea 2. Lipidos
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Classes of Lipids
Description: Classify lipids based on their structure, and answer a question about lipid structure.
Lipids are a family of biomolecules that are not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents. Lipids can be broken down into classes of lipids based on their structure. The table
describes the structural characteristics of the classes of lipids.
Class of lipid Characteristic

Fatty acids Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group
Waxes Esters of a fatty acid and a long-chain alcohol
Triacylglycerols Triesters of glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerophospholipids Triesters of glycerol with two fatty acid molecules and a phosphate bonded to an amino alcohol
Sphingolipids Sphingosine molecule bonded to a fatty acid and a phosphate bonded to an amino alcohol
Glycosphingolipids Sphingosine molecule bonded to a fatty acid and a sugar
Steroids Steroid nucleus of four fused carbon rings
Part A
Three different fatty acid molecules react with glycerol to form this triacylglycerol. Of these three fatty acids, draw the smallest one. Include all hydrogen atoms.
Draw the molecule on the canvas by choosing buttons from the Tools (for bonds), Atoms, and Advanced Template toolbars. The single bond is active by default. Include all
hydrogen atoms.
Hint 1. The structure of triacylglycerol
A triacylglycerol molecule contains three fatty acid molecules bonded to one glycerol molecule.
Hint 2. Determine the structure of a fatty acid

Which choice best describes the structure of a fatty acid?
ANSWER:
A hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group
A hydrocarbon chain with a carbonyl group
A hydrocarbon chain with a hydroxyl group
A hydrocarbon chain with an amide group
Hint 3. Select the smallest fatty acid chain

Triacylglycerols are composed of a glycerol group and three fatty acid groups. Select the smallest fatty acid group in the triacylglycerol.
This structure does not contain all of the hydrogen atoms for simplicity. In the main part, you will need to include all hydrogen atoms.
Identify the smallest fatty acid group by selecting each atom and assigning it a map number of 1 until all atoms are mapped. To do this, right-click on an atom and
choose Atom Properties. (Mac users: Use an equivalent for right-clicking.) Then, clear the check mark to enable the Map field before entering a value.
ANSWER:
https://openvellum.ecollege.com/course.html?courseId=17099278&OpenVellumHMAC=50e679aec2ad250dd7825bd2fbea2e91#10001 1/23
Hint 4. Select the glycerol group

Select all the atoms of the glycerol group from the triacylglycerol.
This structure does not contain all of the hydrogen atoms for simplicity. In the main part, you will need to include all hydrogen atoms.
Identify the appropriate group of atoms by selecting each atom individually on the canvas and assigning them a map number of 1 until all atoms are mapped. To do
this, right-click on an atom and choose Atom Properties. (Mac users: Use an equivalent for right-clicking.) Then, clear the check mark to enable the Map field before
entering a value.
Hint 1. The structure of glycerol
The chemical formula for glycerol is C3 H8 O3 . Each carbon atom in glycerol is bound to a hydroxyl group.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Part B
Which class of lipids does the following molecule belong to?
Hint 1. Name a structure found in the molecule
Which structure is found in the molecule?
ANSWER:
A hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxylic acid group
Fused carbon rings
A phosphate group bonded to an amino alcohol
A sphingosine molecule
Hint 2. Determine if the molecule contains a fatty acid

Fill in the blank.
ANSWER:
contains
The molecule shown a fatty acid group.
does not contain
This molecule cannot undergo hydrolysis because it does not contain a fatty acid.
ANSWER:
fatty acids
waxes
triacylglycerols
glycerophospholipids
sphingolipids
glycosphingolipids
steroids
Prednisone, a steroid, reduces inflammation in the body.
Part C
Some of the lipid groups appear similar, but changing a few components significantly alters their biological properties.
Identify similarities and differences between the general structures of glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids. If you were to draw the most basic form of each, which pieces are required
to define a lipid as either type?
Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.
Hint 1. Identify the characteristics of a glycerophospholipid
You can use the word glycerophospholipid to help determine the structural components of the lipid. Which structural features are characteristic of glycerophospholipids?
Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
phosphate group
sphingosine
glycerol
Hint 2. Identify the characteristics of a sphingolipid
You can use the word sphingolipid to help determine the structural components of the lipid. Which structural features are characteristic of sphingolipids?
Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
phosphate group
sphingosine
glycerol
ANSWER:
Reset Help

Glycerophospholipid Sphingolipid Both lipids
fatty acid
glycerol sphingosine hydrophilic R group
phosphate group
Glycerophospholipids have two fatty acids attached to a glycerol group, whereas sphingolipids have one fatty acid attached to a sphingosine group. The glycerol and sphingosine
groups give each lipid different biological properties. Both may contain a variety of R groups attached to the phosphate group.
Chapter 10 Reading Question 4

Description: (a) Which of the following are characteristics of cholesterol? It is a weakly amphipathic, rigid substance. It is the precursor for all steroidal hormones. It packs neatly with the
fatty acid tails of membrane bilayers. It is part of the ...
Part A
Which of the following are characteristics of cholesterol?

1. It is a weakly amphipathic, rigid substance.

2. It is the precursor for all steroidal hormones.
3. It packs neatly with the fatty acid tails of membrane bilayers.
4. It is part of the lipid family of biomolecules.
Hint 1.
Review properties of cholesterol. See Section 10.2 (Page 310) .
ANSWER:
All of the listed statements are characteristics of cholesterol.
Only statements 1, 3, and 4 are characteristics of cholesterol.
Chapter 10 Multiple Choice Question 36

Description: [[Bloom's Taxonomy: Remembering/Understanding]] (a) Glycerophospholipids have ________ heads and long ________ fatty acid tails.
Part A
Glycerophospholipids have ________ heads and long ________ fatty acid tails.
ANSWER:
Polar; polar
Hydrophobic; hydrophobic
Hydrophobic; polar
Polar; hydrophobic

Description: [[Bloom's Taxonomy: Remembering/Understanding]] (a) Which of these compounds are NOT included in the class of eicosanoids?
Part A
Which of these compounds are NOT included in the class of eicosanoids?
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
Leukotriene
Thromboxane
Statin
Prostaglandin

Description: [[Bloom's Taxonomy: Remembering/Understanding]] (a) Methyl groups are present at carbon number ________ and ________ in the chemical structure of cholesterol.
Part A
Methyl groups are present at carbon number ________ and ________ in the chemical structure of cholesterol.
ANSWER:
11 and 14
9 and 12
10 and 13
8 and 11

Description: [[Bloom's Taxonomy: Remembering/Understanding]] (a) Squalene is generated from two molecules of ________ by squalene synthase upon removal of pyrophosphate and
reduction by NADPH.
Part A
Squalene is generated from two molecules of ________ by squalene synthase upon removal of pyrophosphate and reduction by NADPH.
ANSWER:
Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
Geranyl pyrophosphate
Farnesyl pyrophosphate
Chapter 16 Reading Question 18

Description: (a) Which of the following statements describes cholesterol correctly?
Part A
Which of the following statements describes cholesterol correctly?
Hint 1.
Review cholesterol. See Section 16.7 (Page 544) .
ANSWER:
Cholesterol is a tetracyclic hydrocarbon structure with an aliphatic chain at C-17, methyl groups at C-10 and C-13, a double bond in ring D, and an OH group in ring A.
Cholesterol is a tetracyclic hydrocarbon structure with an aliphatic chain at C-17, methyl groups at C-10 and C-13, a double bond in ring B, and an OH group in ring A.
Cholesterol is a pentacyclic hydrocarbon structure with an aliphatic chain at C-17, methyl groups at C-10 and C-13, a double bond in ring B, and an OH group in ring A.
Cholesterol is a tetracyclic hydrocarbon structure with an aliphatic chain at C-17, methyl groups at C-14 and C-16, a double bond in ring B, and an OH group in ring A.
Cholesterol: Its Derivatives

Description: Identify the cholesterol derivative formed by modification in four rings of cholesterol. Sort the reactions according to the enzymes targeted by the specific inhibitor. Analyze
the mechanism of lovastatin mediated HMG -CoA regulation.
Learning Goal:
Understand the modifications to cholesterol during formation of biologically relevant metabolites. Understand cholesterol biosynthesis and the regulatory effects on the enzyme HMG-CoA
reductase. Understand the role of statin inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase.
Isoprenoids, or terpenes, are a large and diverse group of lipids that are built from five-carbon precursors and are diverse molecules ranging in length from 5 to 40 carbons in most eukaryotes,
and can be 80 carbons or more in other organisms. Isoprenes are formed from acetyl-CoA, a product of glycolysis or β-oxidation of lipids. Isoprenes are composed of two key subunits,
isopentenyl phosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl phosphate (DMAPP), arranged in an alternating pattern of isoprene chains. Some of the important isoprenoids include steroids, bile acids,
gibberellins, coenzyme Q, and lipid-soluble vitamins. Steroids are a class of isoprenoids derived from saturated tetracyclic hydrocarbons with A, B, C, and D cyclic carbon rings. The A, B, and
C rings are six-carbon rings while the D ring is a five-carbon ring structure.
The figure below shows the carbon numbering structure of cholesterol with each carbon atom numbered.
Part A - Cholesterol and its derivatives

Cholesterol is the precursor of bile acids, vitamin D, and steroid hormones. In the human body, cholesterol is modified at specific sites to form derivatives. These five classes of
derivatives are known as the progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens. The table below contains the structure of cholesterol and an example of each
class of derivative.
Structure
Name Cholesterol Estradiol Testosterone Cortisol Aldosterone Pregnenolone

Class Estrogen Androgen Glucocorticoid Mineralocorticoid Progestin
Notice the structural differences between cholesterol and its derivatives. Use these differences to predict into which class of derivatives each of the following molecules will fall.
Drag the appropriate derivatives to their respective bins.
Hint 1. Definition for cholesterol derivative
Derivatives are molecules that have similar core structural features to a known molecule, but have minor modifications at other positions. In this case, each class of derivatives
have structural similarities to cholesterol, including the six-ring core structure and stereochemistry of bridging hydrogen atoms. However, in other positions, there are differences in
functional groups or bonding. To determine which derivative matches with which class of steroid, examine the known members of each class for conserved features and compare
them to the items in the part. Note that glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are relatively difficult to distinguish, so they have been grouped together here.
Hint 2. Identify the core structure of each steroid derivative based on functional groups or bonding patterns
Consider the following table of common functional groups and bonding patterns that are characteristic of steroid derivatives:
R−OH
aromatic ring hydroxyl group , unsaturated ring methyl ketone

α β α -hydroxy-ketone
Compare the known members of each steroid class (as shown in the main part) and determine which functional groups or bonding patterns are unique to each class.
Drag the appropriate functional groups or bonding patterns to their respective bins.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
α , β -unsaturated
α -hydroxy-ketone at C-17 aromatic A ring methyl ketone at C-17 hydroxylation at C-17
ketone in the A ring
Estrogen Androgen Gluco- or Mineralocorticoid Progestin
hydroxylation at C-17 α -hydroxy-ketone at C-17

aromatic A ring
methyl ketone at C-17
, -unsaturated
α β , -unsaturated
α β
hydroxylation at C-17
You can identify these same group in each derivative from the main part to sort them by class.
ANSWER:
Reset Help

Estrogen Androgen Gluco- or Mineralocorticoid Progestin
Both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids have anti-inflammatory functions. Cortisol is involved in gluconeogenesis, which increases glucose production. Increased cortisol levels
over a long period of time will promote hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Aldosterone initiates reabsorption of water and sodium in the kidneys. Therefore, it plays an important
role in maintaining blood pressure. Estrogens and progestins are female sex hormones and derivatives in this family are widely used for oral contraception. Pregnenolone specifically
a precursor to all other steroid derivatives, as it is synthesized directly from cholesterol by enzymatic hydroxylation and subsequent cleavage of the side chain by a specific
cytochrome P450 enzyme.
Activity: Membrane Structure
Watch the animation before answering the questions.
Part A
What is the function of Structure E?
ANSWER:
detection of environmental change
cell-cell communication
stabilization of the phospholipids
transport across the plasma membrane
structural support of the cell
Cholesterol helps to stabilize the structure of the plasma membrane.
Part B
Identify Structure D.

ANSWER:
protein
extracellular matrix
glycoprotein
phospholipid bilayer of membrane
cholesterol
Phospholipids can be recognized by the presence of a head and two tails.
Part C
Identify Structure A.
ANSWER:
extracellular matrix
l t i
glycoprotein
protein
cholesterol
phospholipid
Structure A is composed of both a carbohydrate and a protein.
Activity: Selective Permeability of Membranes
Watch this animation, then answer the questions.
Part A
Structure A is a(n) _____.
ANSWER:
structural protein
enzyme
antibody
transport protein
receptor molecule
The protein is allowing solute molecules to enter the cell.
Part B
Which of these cannot rapidly pass directly through the
phospholipids of the plasma membrane?
ANSWER:
A only
B, C, and D
B
only
C
only
D
only
Ions, such as hydrogen ions, and

hydrophilic molecules, such as water and glucose, cannot rapidly pass directly
through the phospholipids of a plasma membrane. To move rapidly
through the
membrane, they must pass through membrane transport proteins.
Membrane Transport (3 of 4): Cotransport (BioFlix tutorial)

Description: (BioFlix tutorial) This tutorial (the third of four associated with the Membrane Transport BioFlix animation) examines cotransport by membrane proteins.
One type of active transport is called cotransport. In cotransport, the energy available from an ion moving through a transport protein down its electrochemical gradient is coupled with the
movement of another solute (small polar molecule or ion) through the same protein but against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. The solute that is being transported against its
gradient may move into the cell or out of the cell (but not both), depending on the type of transport protein that catalyzes this process.
Before beginning this tutorial, watch the clip of the Membrane Transport animation showing cotransport of sodium and glucose.
Part A - The glucose-sodium cotransporter
In many animal cells, the uptake of glucose into the cell occurs by a cotransport mechanism, in which glucose is cotransported with Na+ ions.
Complete the diagram below using the following steps.
1. Drag the labels to the targets, indicating the relative concentration of glucose inside and outside the cell.
2. Drag the correct label to the target, indicating the direction that Na+ ions and glucose move through the cotransporter.
3. Drag the labels to complete the sentences on the right, indicating how Na+ ions and glucose move through the cotransporter relative to their electrochemical and
concentration gradients.
Hint 1. How cotransport works
A cotransport protein couples the transport of an ion across the membrane with transport of another solute. The ion moves through the cotransporter down its electrochemical
gradient, whereas the other solute moves against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. Each cotransporter is specific with regard to the ions and solutes it can transport.
Watch the animation clip showing the function of the glucose-sodium cotransporter again. Notice the direction that the Na+ ions and glucose molecules move across the membrane
relative to their electrochemical and concentration gradients
relative to their electrochemical and concentration gradients.
Because Na+ ions are pumped out of animal cells by the sodium-potassium pump, energy is stored in the Na+ electrochemical gradient. Diffusion of Na+ ions into a cell through a
cotransport protein releases energy. This energy is used by the cotransport protein to move a different solute against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. For example, in
the glucose-sodium cotransporter, glucose moves into the cell (against its concentration gradient) at the same time that Na+ moves into the cell (down its electrochemical gradient).
Hint 2. In which direction do Na+ ions move during cotransport?
Na+ ions play an important role in most cotransport systems in animal cells. Recall that Na+ ions are pumped out of the cell by the action of the sodium-potassium pump.
Which of the following statements correctly describes the movement of Na+ ions through cotransport proteins in animal cells?
ANSWER:
Na+ ions move into the cell down their electrochemical gradient.
Na+ ions move into the cell by active transport.
Na+ ions move out of the cell against their electrochemical gradient.
The sodium-potassium pump uses the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to pump Na+ ions out of the cell and K+ ions into the cell. Thus, the sodium-potassium pump
establishes an electrochemical gradient that drives Na+ ions to diffuse into the cell.
As a Na+ ion moves into the cell through a cotransport protein down its electrochemical gradient, energy is released. This energy is sufficient to power the transport of another
solute through the cotransport protein against its electrochemical or concentration gradient.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
down
down
against
against
In cotransport, the energy required to move one solute against its concentration or electrochemical gradient is provided by an ion moving into the cell down its electrochemical
gradient. The ion that moves into the cell down its gradient is usually the same ion that is pumped out of the cell by an active transport pump: for example, Na+ in animal cells using
the sodium-potassium pump, or H+ in plants and prokaryotes using the proton pump.
In the case of the glucose-sodium cotransporter in animals, Na+ moves back into the cell down its electrochemical gradient, providing the energy for glucose to move into the cell
against its concentration gradient. The energy for glucose transport into the cell is supplied indirectly by the sodium-potassium pump’s hydrolysis of ATP, and directly by the Na+
electrochemical gradient created by the pump.
Membrane Transport (1 of 4): Diffusion and Passive Transport (BioFlix tutorial)

Description: (BioFlix tutorial) This tutorial (the first of four associated with the Membrane Transport BioFlix animation) examines the process of diffusion, its role in the movement of
solutes across membranes, and the function of membrane proteins in facilitating the movement of some solutes across membranes.
Cells require a constant exchange of solutes (ions and small molecules) with the outside of the cell. Many of these solutes undergo passive transport across the membrane. Passive transport
occurs without the input of cellular energy. Some solutes are transported into the cell while others are transported out of the cell.
Before beginning this tutorial, watch the Membrane Transport animation. Pay particular attention to how passively transported substances diffuse across the plasma membrane down their
concentration gradients (without the input of cellular energy). Notice how these passively transported substances either pass directly through the lipid bilayer or move through different types of
transport proteins embedded in the plasma membrane.
Part A - Diffusion
All molecules have energy that causes thermal motion. One result of thermal motion is diffusion: the tendency of substances to spread out evenly in the available space. Although the
motion of each individual molecule is random, there can be directional motion of an entire population of molecules.
Consider a chamber containing two different types of dye molecules, purple and orange. The chamber is divided into two compartments (A and B) by a membrane that is permeable to
both types of dye. Initially (left image), the concentration of the orange dye is greater on side A, and the concentration of the purple dye is greater on side B. With time, the dye molecules
diffuse to a final, equilibrium state (right image) where they are evenly distributed throughout the chamber.
Drag the labels onto the table to indicate when each statement is true. Labels can be used once, more than once, or not at all.
Hint 1. What is the difference between movement of a single molecule versus movement of a population of identical molecules?
When comparing thermal motion and diffusion, it is important to distinguish between the movement of an individual molecule and the movement of a population of identical
molecules.
Drag the phrases on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences. Not all phrases will be used.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
none of the dye molecules 1. The motion of an individual dye molecule is random whether or not a concentration gradient is
present.
2. Diffusion is the net movement of a population of dye molecules when a concentration gradient
is present.
Random thermal motion is a property of each individual molecule whether or not a concentration gradient is present. Even in the presence of a concentration gradient, at any
instant, one molecule may be moving down the concentration gradient, and a different molecule may be moving against the gradient.
On the other hand, the movement of an entire population of identical molecules in the presence of a concentration gradient is not random. There is a net movement of the
population of molecules from higher to lower concentration, even though the movement of each individual molecule is random (as indicated by the red arrows in the image
below). This net movement down a concentration gradient is called diffusion.
Hint 2. What molecule movements occur at equilibrium?
When the chamber containing the orange and purple dyes is at equilibrium, there are no concentration gradients between sides A and B.
Which two of the following statements correctly describe the movement of dye molecules at equilibrium?
ANSWER:
Each individual dye molecule moves in a random direction.
The dye molecules do not move at equilibrium.
For every orange dye molecule that moves from side A to side B, another orange dye molecule moves from side B to side A.
There is no movement of orange or purple dye molecules from one side to the other.
At equilibrium, there is no concentration gradient present. Therefore, there is no net movement of orange or purple dye. However, random thermal motion of each individual
molecule occurs under all conditions, at equilibrium as well as when a concentration gradient is present. At equilibrium, if one orange dye molecule moves from side A to side
B due to its random motion, on average a different orange dye molecule will move in the opposite direction.
Hint 3. Thermal motion and the movements of molecules
Molecules are constantly in motion because of their thermal energy. In an aqueous solution containing several different solutes, the thermal motion of any individual molecule
(water or solute) appears to be completely random. At one instant, the molecule may be moving in one direction, but in another instant, it may be moving in the opposite direction.
When two or more types of molecules are present in a solution, their movement is independent if the motion of one type of molecule is not somehow linked to the motion of another
type of molecule. This does not mean that the two types of molecules do not come into contact with each other. Collisions among all molecules in a solution occur randomly and
continuously. Independent movement means that when they collide, their motions do not become linked together.
Hint 4. Definition of a concentration gradient

In cells, it is common for solutes to be maintained at different concentrations on opposite sides of a membrane, including the plasma membrane or an organelle membrane. This
difference in solute concentration across a membrane represents a concentration gradient. Substances tend to diffuse down a concentration gradient from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
always
never
never
only before
equilibrium is
always reached
only before
only before equilibrium is
equilibrium is reached
reached
never
only at
equilibrium
only at
equilibrium
Each dye molecule and the water molecules that surround it are in constant motion due to their thermal energy. Any individual molecule’s motion is random because of the frequent
collisions among all of the molecules.
If a concentration gradient exists for a population of molecules, the motion of the individual molecules in that population will result in a net (directional) movement from higher to lower
concentration. For example, in the initial condition, there is a concentration gradient for the orange dye. As a result, the orange dye molecules diffuse down the concentration
gradient, with net movement from side A to side B. Once diffusion has eliminated the concentration gradient and equilibrium is reached, net movement stops, but the random motion
of each molecule continues (as indicated by the red arrows in the image below).
Part B - Permeability of the lipid bilayer

Some solutes are able to pass directly through the lipid bilayer of a plasma membrane, whereas other solutes require a transport protein or other mechanism to cross between the inside
and the outside of a cell. The fact that the plasma membrane is permeable to some solutes but not others is what is referred to as selective permeability.
Which of the following molecules can cross the lipid bilayer of a membrane directly, without a transport protein or other mechanism? Select all that apply.
Hint 1. What are the characteristics of solutes that can pass through a lipid bilayer?
Drag the phrases on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. Solutes that can rapidly cross a lipid bilayer are typically small and nonpolar .

2. Solutes that are small and polar can cross a lipid bilayer, but not as quickly.

3. The lipid bilayer is essentially impermeable to solutes that are charged .
Small, nonpolar (hydrophobic) solutes can quickly cross directly through the lipid bilayer because the interior of the lipid bilayer is hydrophobic. Small polar solutes can still
cross the bilayer, but at a slower rate. Large polar molecules and charged molecules of any size cannot cross the lipid bilayer.
Hint 2. Which solutes are nonpolar, polar, or charged?

Drag each solute to the appropriate bin.
ANSWER:
Reset Help

nonpolar polar charged
oxygen carbon dioxide lipids sucrose water proteins ions
Nonpolar molecules have a very uniform distribution of charge. The structures of nonpolar molecules are typically dominated by C-H and C-C bonds, such as in fatty acids
and lipids. The hydrophobic nature of nonpolar molecules allows them to pass directly through the lipid bilayer.
In contrast, polar molecules have an unequal distribution of charge due to the presence of polar covalent bonds. H-O bonds, such as those that occur in water and sugars, are
the most common type of polar bond. Because polar molecules interact strongly with water, they are often referred to as hydrophilic. Polar molecules do not readily pass
through the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. (The exception is the water molecule. Even though it is polar, its small size permits it to pass slowly though the bilayer.)
Charged atoms or molecules, often referred to as ions, possess a net positive or negative charge. As a result, they are very hydrophilic and cannot pass directly through the
lipid bilayer.
Hint 3. Water, an unusual case for transport across the plasma membrane
Water is an unusual molecule because, despite the fact that it is polar, it is small enough to pass directly through the hydrophobic interior of a lipid bilayer, albeit slowly. Rapid
movement of water across membranes, however, requires the presence of transport proteins called aquaporins. Watch this clip from the Membrane Transport animation and
compare the two methods of water transport across a membrane.
Hint 4. Diffusion of lipids across the plasma membrane
Lipids are one type of molecule that can cross the plasma membrane directly, without the use of a transport protein. This is because lipids are soluble in both the water surrounding
the membrane and the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. Watch this clip from the Membrane Transport animation that shows the diffusion of lipids across the plasma
membrane of an epithelial cell lining the intestine.
ANSWER:
lipids
sucrose
carbon dioxide
oxygen
oxygen
water
ions
proteins
Some solutes pass readily through the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane, whereas others pass through much more slowly, or not at all.
Small nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules, such as dissolved gases (O2, CO2, N2) and small lipids, can pass directly through the membrane. They do so by interacting
directly with the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer.
Very small polar molecules such as water and glycerol can pass directly through the membrane, but much more slowly than small nonpolar molecules. The mechanism
that permits small polar molecules to cross the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer is not completely understood, but it must involve the molecules squeezing
between the hydrophobic tails of the lipids that make up the bilayer.
Polar molecules such as glucose and sucrose have very limited permeability.
Large molecules such as proteins cannot pass through the lipid bilayer.
Ions and charged molecules of any size are essentially impermeable to the lipid bilayer because they are much more soluble in water than in the interior of the
membrane.
Part C - Facilitated diffusion via channels and carrier proteins

The majority of solutes that diffuse across the plasma membrane cannot move directly through the lipid bilayer. The passive movement of such solutes (down their concentration
gradients without the input of cellular energy) requires the presence of specific transport proteins, either channels or carrier proteins. Diffusion through a transport protein in the plasma
membrane is called facilitated diffusion.
Sort the phrases into the appropriate bins depending on whether they are true only for channels, true only for carrier proteins, or true for both channels and carriers.
Hint 1. What types of solutes do channels and carrier proteins transport?

Channels and carrier proteins are both involved in facilitated diffusion of certain solutes across the plasma membrane.
Which of the following statements correctly describes the specificity of these transport proteins for the solutes they transport?
ANSWER:
Channels typically transport water or inorganic ions, whereas carrier proteins typically transport small polar molecules such as sugars or amino acids.
The same types of solutes are transported in both channels and carrier proteins.
Channels typically transport small polar molecules such as sugars or amino acids, whereas carrier proteins typically transport water or inorganic ions.
Ch l t i f i th l b dt t i il i i i ( h N + K+) t I t t i t i h l t bi di
Channel proteins form pores in the plasma membrane and transport primarily inorganic ions (such as Na+ or K+) or water. In contrast, carrier proteins have solute binding
sites that enable transport of small polar molecules such as sugars or amino acids. Each type of transport protein is very specific for the solute it transports, owing to the
specificity of the interactions between the solute and the transport protein.
Hint 2. How carrier proteins are thought to accomplish transport
Unlike channels, which are pores through the membrane, carrier proteins transport solutes across the membrane through a sequence of subtle shape changes. Binding of a solute
on one side of the membrane induces a conformational change, which exposes the solute binding site to the opposite side of the membrane. Release of the solute from the binding
site induces a conformational change that returns the protein to its initial shape.
Hint 3. How transport proteins provide a hydrophilic path for polar or charged solutes
Charged ions and polar molecules such as sugars and amino acids cannot diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer because they are much more stable in the strongly polar
environment of water than in the hydrophobic interior of the bilayer. The structure of transport proteins enables them to move charged and polar solutes across the plasma
membrane.
Transport proteins are integral membrane proteins with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions. The amino acids that are in contact with the hydrophobic interior of the lipid
bilayer are nonpolar. In contrast, the amino acids composing the pore of a channel protein or the solute binding site of a carrier protein are polar. The polar amino acids provide a
hydrophilic path for charged and polar solutes to cross the plasma membrane.
The image below shows a potassium channel and its nonpolar and polar components. Note that the interior of the channel (green) is composed of polar amino acids, making a
hydrophilic pore through which K+ ions can pass.
Hint 4. Watch the action of carriers and channels during facilitated diffusion
The passive movement of a solute across a membrane with the help of a transport protein is called facilitated diffusion. Watch this clip from the Membrane Transport animation that
shows the two types of transport proteins that participate in facilitated diffusion: a carrier protein involved in fructose transport, and a channel protein (aquaporin) involved in water
transport.
ANSWER:
Reset Help


only channels only carriers both channels and carriers
provide a hydrophilic path across the

undergo a change in shape to membrane
provide a continuous path across the
transport solutes across the
membrane
membrane are integral membrane proteins
allow water molecules and small ions

transport primarily small polar organic transport solutes down a
to flow quickly across the membrane
molecules concentration or electrochemical
gradient
Carrier proteins and channels are both transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion, the passive transport of solutes across a membrane down their concentration or
electrochemical gradient. As integral membrane proteins, both carriers and channels protect polar or charged solutes from coming into contact with the hydrophobic interior of the
lipid bilayer. Furthermore, all transport proteins are specific for the solutes they transport, owing to the specificity of the interactions between the solute and the transport protein.
Channels are protein-lined pores across the membrane. A channel may be open at all times (non-gated), or may be gated such that the channel opens and closes under specific
conditions. Channels transport inorganic ions or water.
In contrast, carrier proteins do not have a pore. Binding of the transported solute to the carrier protein on one side of the membrane induces a conformational change in the protein
that exposes the solute binding site to the opposite side of the membrane, where the solute is released. Carriers transport small polar solutes such as sugars and amino acids.
Osmosis
Description: This tutorial explores the process of osmosis and compares isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
Osmosis is the net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. The water will continue to
move across the semipermeable membrane as the system attempts to reach equilibrium, where both solutions have the same concentration.
There are three different ways a solution can be described in relation to a cell placed in the solution: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic. Compared to a cell, an isotonic solution exerts the
same osmotic pressure as the cellular fluids. In other words, it behaves as if it had the same solute concentration as the cell. A hypertonic solution behaves as if it had a higher solute
concentration than the cell. A hypotonic solution behaves as if it had a lower solute concentration than the cell.
If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, nothing happens to the cell because water moves into the cell at the same rate that it moves out of the cell.
If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will flow into the cell, causing it to swell (and possibly burst).
If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will flow out of the cell, causing it to shrink.
Part A - Determining water movement in osmosis

A semipermeable membrane is placed between the following solutions.
Which solution will decrease in volume?
Hint 1. Movement of molecules in osmosis
During osmosis, only the water molecules can move across the semipermeable membrane. The larger solute molecules cannot pass through the membrane. The water flows
across the membrane in both directions; however, the net movement of water is into the solution with the higher solute concentration.
Hint 2. In which direction is the net flow of water in osmosis?

Toward which solution will the net flow of water be?
ANSWER:
toward Solution A: 1.4% (m/v) starch
toward Solution B: 7.62% (m/v) starch
The water molecules actually move in both directions, but they move to a greater extent toward Solution B because it has a higher solute concentration than Solution A.
ANSWER:
Solution A: 1.4% (m/v) starch
Solution B: 7.62% (m/v) starch
The water molecules actually move in both directions, but they move to a greater extent toward Solution B because it has a higher solute concentration than Solution A. The net
movement of water molecules causes Solution A to decrease in volume and Solution B to increase in volume.
Part B - Further exploration of the movement of water in osmosis

A semipermeable membrane is placed between the following solutions.
Which solution will increase in volume?
Hint 1. Movement of molecules in osmosis

During osmosis, only the water molecules can move across the semipermeable membrane. The larger solute molecules cannot pass through the membrane. The water flows
across the membrane in both directions; however, the net movement of water is into the solution with the higher solute concentration.
Hint 2. In which direction is the net flow of water in osmosis?
Toward which solution will the net flow of water be?
ANSWER:
toward solution C: 9% (m/v) NaCl
toward solution D: 12.4% (m/v) NaCl
The water molecules actually move in both directions, but they move to a greater extent toward Solution D because it has a higher solute concentration than Solution C.
ANSWER:
Solution C: 9% (m/v) NaCl
Solution D: 12.4% (m/v) NaCl
The water molecules actually move in both directions, but they move to a greater extent toward Solution D because it has a higher solute concentration than Solution C. This net
movement of water molecules causes Solution D to increase in volume and Solution C to decrease in volume.
Part C - Three types of solutions

A red blood cell has been placed into three different solutions. One solution is isotonic to the cell, one solution is hypotonic to the cell, and one solution is hypertonic to the cell. Determine
which type of solution is in each beaker based on the cell's reaction.
Drag each item to the appropriate bin.
Hint 1. What are the definitions of hyper-, hypo-, and isotonic?
Define the following types of solution in relation to a red blood cell.

Drag each word to the appropriate blank.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. A solution that is hypotonic to a red blood cell behaves as if it had a lower solute concentration
than the cell. Thus, water will move into the cell.
2. A solution that is hypertonic to a red blood cell behaves as if it had a greater solute
concentration than the cell. Thus, water will move out of the cell.
3. A solution that is isotonic to a red blood cell exerts the same osmotic pressure as the fluids
inside the cell. Thus, water flows into the cell and out of the cell to the same extent.
In relation to the solute concentration of a red blood cell in solution, a hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration, a hypertonic solution has a higher solute
concentration, and an isotonic solution behaves as though it has the same solute concentration as the cell.
ANSWER:
Reset Help

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
For a cell in an isotonic solution, water flows into the cell to the same extent that it flows out of the cell. If a cell is in a hypotonic solution, water flows into the cell, which causes it to
swell and potentially burst. For a cell in a hypertonic solution, water flows out of the cell, which causes it to shrink.
Part D - Red blood cells: Crenation and hemolysis

A red blood cell placed in a hypertonic solution will shrink in a process called crenation. A red blood cell placed in a hypotonic solution will swell and potentially burst in a process called
hemolysis.
To prevent crenation or hemolysis, a cell must be placed in an isotonic solution such as 0.9% (m/v) NaCl or 5.0% (m/v) glucose. This does not mean that a cell has a 5.0% (m/v) glucose
concentration; it just means that 5 0% (m/v) glucose will exert the same osmotic pressure as the solution inside the cell which contains several different solutes
concentration; it just means that 5.0% (m/v) glucose will exert the same osmotic pressure as the solution inside the cell, which contains several different solutes.
A red blood cell is placed into each of the following solutions. Indicate whether crenation, hemolysis, or neither will occur.
Solution A: 3.21% (m/v) NaCl

Solution B: 1.65% (m/v) glucose
Solution C: distilled H2O
Solution D: 6.97% (m/v) glucose
Solution E: 5.0% (m/v) glucose and 0.9%(m/v) NaCl
Drag each solution to the appropriate bin.
Hint 1. How to approach the problem
You know that a 5.0% (m/v) glucose solution will exert the same osmotic pressure as a red blood cell. You also know that a 0.9% (m/v) NaCl solution will also exert the same
osmotic pressure as a red blood cell.
This means that any solution with a higher total solute concentration than either of these isotonic solutions will be hypertonic to the cell. Conversely, any solution with a lower total
solute concentration than an isotonic solution will be hypotonic to the cell.
Hint 2. How does crenation differ from hemolysis?

If a red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, _____ will occur. If a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, _____ will occur.
ANSWER:
crenation / hemolysis
hemolysis / crenation
A red blood cell undergoes crenation in a hypertonic solution because water moves from the cell into the solution, causing the cell to shrink. A red blood cell undergoes
hemolysis in a hypotonic solution because water moves from the solution into the cell, causing the cell to swell and then burst.
Hint 3. Which solutions are hypertonic, isotonic, or hypotonic?
Classify each solution as hypertonic, isotonic, or hypotonic to a red blood cell.
Solution A: 3.21% (m/v) NaCl

Solution B: 1.65% (m/v) glucose
Solution C: distilled H2O
Solution D: 6.97% (m/v) glucose
Solution E: 5.0% (m/v) glucose and 0.9%(m/v) NaCl
Drag each solution to the appropriate bin.

ANSWER:
Reset Help

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
E D A C B
With 0% solute concentration, distilled water will be hypotonic to red blood cells.
ANSWER:
Reset Help

crenation hemolysis neither
E D A C B
This activity shows why it is very important to use solutions that are isotonic to body fluids in intravenous solutions (IVs). If an IV solution were hypertonic to the body fluids, cells in
the body would shrink. If an IV solution were hypotonic to the body fluids, cells in the body would swell.
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Tarea 2. Lipidos: Classes of Lipids

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29/11/21 11:29 MasteringChemistry: Print View with Answers

 Tarea 2. Lipidos Edit

Overview Diagnostics Print View with Answers

Class of lipid Characteristic

Hint 1. The structure of triacylglycerol

Hint 2. Determine the structure of a fatty acid

A hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group

A hydrocarbon chain with a carbonyl group

A hydrocarbon chain with a hydroxyl group

A hydrocarbon chain with an amide group

Hint 3. Select the smallest fatty acid chain

Hint 4. Select the glycerol group

Hint 1. The structure of glycerol

Hint 1. Name a structure found in the molecule

Which structure is found in the molecule?

A hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxylic acid group

Fused carbon rings

A phosphate group bonded to an amino alcohol

Hint 2. Determine if the molecule contains a fatty acid

Prednisone, a steroid, reduces inflammation in the body.

Hint 1. Identify the characteristics of a glycerophospholipid

Hint 2. Identify the characteristics of a sphingolipid

Glycerophospholipid Sphingolipid Both lipids

glycerol sphingosine hydrophilic R group

Chapter 10 Reading Question 4

1. It is a weakly amphipathic, rigid substance.

Review properties of cholesterol. See Section 10.2 (Page 310) .

All of the listed statements are characteristics of cholesterol.

Only statements 1, 3, and 4 are characteristics of cholesterol.

Only statements 1, 2, and 4 are characteristics of cholesterol.

Only statements 1, 2, and 3 are characteristics of cholesterol.

Chapter 10 Multiple Choice Question 36

Chapter 16 Multiple Choice Question 83

Chapter 16 Multiple Choice Question 73

Chapter 16 Multiple Choice Question 76

Chapter 16 Reading Question 18

Review cholesterol. See Section 16.7 (Page 544) .

Cholesterol: Its Derivatives

Part A - Cholesterol and its derivatives

Name Cholesterol Estradiol Testosterone Cortisol Aldosterone Pregnenolone

Hint 1. Definition for cholesterol derivative

aromatic ring hydroxyl group , unsaturated ring methyl ketone

hydroxylation at C-17 α -hydroxy-ketone at C-17

Estrogen Androgen Gluco- or Mineralocorticoid Progestin

Activity: Membrane Structure

Watch the animation before answering the questions.

detection of environmental change

stabilization of the phospholipids

transport across the plasma membrane

structural support of the cell

Cholesterol helps to stabilize the structure of the plasma membrane.

phospholipid bilayer of membrane

Phospholipids can be recognized by the presence of a head and two tails.

Structure A is composed of both a carbohydrate and a protein.

Activity: Selective Permeability of Membranes

Watch this animation, then answer the questions.

The protein is allowing solute molecules to enter the cell.

Ions, such as hydrogen ions, and

Membrane Transport (3 of 4): Cotransport (BioFlix tutorial)

Part A - The glucose-sodium cotransporter

Complete the diagram below using the following steps.

Hint 1. How cotransport works

Hint 2. In which direction do Na+ ions move during cotransport?