Numbers and Proofs: MOE H3 Math

MOE H3 Math
Numbers and Proofs

A/Prof Victor Tan
(mattanv@nus.edu.sg)
Department of Mathematics
National University of Singapore
Lecture 1
• Compound statements
• Conditional statements
• Quantified statements
• Definitions and Theorems
Mathematical Language
 Not exactly the same as English
 A dialect of English
 Expressing mathematical ideas precisely
 The grammar is Logic
A is better than B
B is better than C
Therefore A is better than C
A sandwich is better than nothing
Nothing is better than God
Therefore, a sandwich is better than God
H3 Math Lecture 1 2
Logical Connectives
Also called logical operators
They are words that make one or more statements
into new statements.
A statement that involves logical connectives is
called a compound statement.
There are three basic logical connectives:

1. Negation
2. Conjunction
3. Disjunction
H3 Math Lecture 1 3
Negation
Standard form: not P Symbolic form: ~P
Example
negation
P: It is raining ~P: It is not raining
negation
Q: 3 is an odd integer ~Q: 3 is not an odd integer
3 is an even integer
When P is true, ~P is false, and vice versa
H3 Math Lecture 1 4
Conjunction
Standard form: P and Q Symbolic form: P ∧ Q
Example P: 5 is a prime number
Q: 5 is an even number
P ∧ Q: 5 is a prime number and 5 is an even number
(same) 5 is an even prime number
3 < X and X < 6
Example 3<X<6 P∧Q
P: 3 < X
Q: X < 6
P ∧ Q is true only when both P and Q are true
H3 Math Lecture 1 5
Disjunction
Standard form: P or Q Symbolic form: P ∨ Q
Example P: 5 is a prime number

Q: 5 is an even number
P ∨ Q: 5 is a prime number or 5 is an even number
(same) 5 is a prime or an even number
4 = X or 4 < X
Example 4≤X P∨Q
P: 4 = X
Q: 4 < X
P ∨ Q is false only when both P and Q are false
H3 Math Lecture 1 6
Negation of Conjunction
Example
5 is a positive even integer P∧Q
P: 5 is a positive integer
Q: 5 is an even integer
Negation: ~(P ∧ Q)
5 is not a positive even integer
5 is not a positive integer and not an even integer

~P ∧ ~Q
5 is not a positive integer or not an even integer
~P ∨ ~Q
H3 Math Lecture 1 7
De Morgan’s Laws
~ (P ∧ Q) ≡ ~ P ∨ ~ Q
~ (P ∨ Q) ≡ ~ P ∧ ~ Q
Example
Augustus De Morgan
(1806-1871)
P ∨ Q: 24 is either a square or a cube
~(P ∨ Q): 24 is neither a square nor a cube
Rephrase this statement using De Morgan’s Law
~P ∧ ~Q: 24 is not a square and not a cube
H3 Math Lecture 1 8
Negation in daily language
Example (daily language)
John is tall and thin P∧Q
Negation: ~(P ∧ Q)
John is not tall and thin

John is not tall or not thin
John is neither tall nor thin

H3 Math Lecture 1 9
Conditional Statement
say: “P implies Q”
Standard form: If P then Q Symbolic form: P → Q
P is called the hypothesis; Q is called the conclusion
Example
If n > 2, then n > 1
hypothesis conclusion
Example (daily life)
If you don’t hand in your homework, then you will
get 0 mark
hypothesis: ‘you don’t hand in your homework’
conclusion: ‘you will get 0 mark’
H3 Math Lecture 1 10
Other forms of Conditional
Form Examples
• If P then Q If n> 2, then n > 1
• Q if P n >1 if n > 2
• P implies Q n >2 implies n > 1
• Q when(ever) P n >1 when(ever) n > 2
• P only if Q n > 2 only if n > 1
• Q is necessary for P n > 1 is necessary for n > 2
• P is sufficient for Q n > 2 is sufficient for n > 1
Hypothesis P: n > 2
they all means P → Q
Conclusion Q: n > 1
Necessary & Sufficient
S→T we can conclude that
If S happens, then T happens
If (we know) S happens,

this is sufficient for (us to know that) T happens
S is sufficient for T The hypothesis is the
sufficient condition
If (we know) S happens,
(we know) it is necessary that T happens
The conclusion is the
T is necessary for S necessary condition
don’t get 0 mark
Only if don’t hand in

negation
homework get 0 mark

S→T
only possible
If S happens, then T happens outcome
(Knowing) S happens,
(it means that) the only possible outcome
is for T to happen (as oppose to T not
happen)
You don’t hand in
homework only if you
S only if T get 0 mark
You may find it confusing to apply this in
daily life example.
More examples
Example
If n is an even square, then n is divisible by 4
n is an even square is sufficient for n to be divisible by 4
n is divisible by 4 is necessary for n to be an even square
n is an even square only if n is divisible by 4
n is divisible by 4 if n is an even square
hypothesis conclusion
n is an even square n is divisible by 4
sufficient necessary
The negation of a conditional is a conjunction,
not a conditional.
Negation of Conditional
The negation of P → Q is P ∧ ~ Q

If you don’t hand in homework, then you will get 0
mark.
Negation:
You don’t hand in homework and you will not get 0
mark.
P → Q is false only when
the hypothesis P is true and the conclusion Q is false
The negation of P → Q is not P → ~ Q

A conditional statement does not have
the same meaning as its converse.
Converse
Example
If n is odd, then n + 1 is even P→Q
If n + 1 is even, then n is odd Q→P
Are the two conditional statements equivalent?

Q → P is called the converse of P → Q
Example
If n is an even square, then n is divisible by 4
If n is divisible by 4, then n is an even square
Biconditional (statement)
Standard form: P if and only if Q Abbr: P iff Q
Symbolic form: P ↔ Q
P ↔ Q is true provided both P → Q and Q → P are true
P ↔ Q has the same meaning as (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)
Example
n is odd if and only if n + 1 is even. True
Example
n is an even square if and only if n is divisible by 4.
False
(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P) ≡ P ↔ Q
Biconditional (other forms)

Standard form: P if and only if Q
Other forms:
P is necessary and sufficient for Q
P and Q are equivalent
Example
n is divisible by 6 if and only if
n is divisible by 2 and 3
n is divisible by 6 is necessary and sufficient for
n to be divisible by 2 and 3
n being divisible by 6 is equivalent to
n being divisible by 2 and 3
Contrapositive
~Q → ~P is called the contrapositive of P → Q
A conditional statement has the same meaning

as its contrapositive.
Example
If n is a prime, then n is not divisible by 5
contrapositive
If n is divisible by 5, then n is not a prime
More examples
If you don’t hand in homework, then you will get
0 mark
contrapositive
If you don’t (want to) get 0 mark, then you
(must) hand in your homework
Contrapositive, Converse, Inverse
converse
P→Q Q→P
not logically equiv.
contrapositive inverse contrapositive

logically equiv. not logically equiv. logically equiv.
converse
~Q → ~P ~P → ~Q
not logically equiv.
Quantified Statements
Example quantifiers
1)There are integers x and y such that 2x + 5y = 7
2)For all integers x and y, 2x + 5y = 7
These are called quantified statements

Two types of quantifiers
There are integers x and y : existential quantifier
For all integers x and y : universal quantifier
Universal quantifier
Let P(x) be x2 > 0
For each real number x, x2 > 0
This phrase quantifies the variable x

The whole sentence claims:
P(x) is true when x is substituted with every real number.
If every real number substituted makes P(x) true,

then this quantified statement is true.
If (at least) one real number substituted makes
P(x) false, then this quantified statement is false.
Universal quantifier (key words)
We call this sentence a universally quantified

statement, or simply universal statement
The phrase “for each”, “for every”, “for all” …

is called a universal quantifier
Notation: ∀ inverted A Say: “for all”
∀ x ∈ R, x2 > 0
A
Universal quantifier (domain)
An element in the domain
∀ x ∈ R, x2 > 0 such that, when substituted
This statement is false. for the variable, the predicate
It doesn’t work for x = 0. becomes a false statement.
We say x = 0 is a counter-example of this statement.
∀ x ∈ { -2, -1, 1, 2 }, x2 > 0

Method of exhaustion
This statement is true.
It works for all x = -2, -1, 1, 2.
∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0
This statement is true. Use basic property of
It works for all real number x. square numbers
Universal quantifier (other forms)
∀ x ∈ R, x2 > 0
Other forms
The square of every real number is greater than 0
(hidden variable)
x2 > 0 for any real number x
(trailing quantifier)
If x is in R, then x2 > 0 (implicit quantifier)
Existential quantifier
Let P(x) be x2 = 2
There exists an integer x such that x2 = 2

The whole sentence claims:
P(x) is true when x is substituted with some integers.
If one (or more) integer substituted makes P(x) true,

then this quantified statement is true.
If no integer substituted makes P(x) true,
then this quantified statement is false.
For each real number x such that x2 > 0
Existential quantifier (key words)

We call this sentence an existentially quantified

statement, or simply existential statement
The phrase “there exists”, “there is”, …

is called an existential quantifier
Notation: ∃ reflected E Say: “there exist”
∃ x ∈ Z, x2 = 2
E
Existential quantifier (other forms)
∃ x ∈ Z, x2 = 2
Other forms can be just one
For some integer x, x2 = 2

At least one integer x satisfies x2 = 2
We can find an integer whose square is 2
(hidden variable)
x2 = 2 has an integer solution for x.
(implicit quantifier)
Existential quantifier (domain)
∃ x ∈ Z, x2 = 2
This statement is false.
It doesn’t work for any integer x.
∃ x ∈ R, x2 = 2
This statement is true.

It works for real x = ±√2.
Lecture 2
Showing true or false
To show ∀ x, P(x) is true:
give a proof that P(x) is true for general x
To show ∀ x, P(x) is false:
find a value of x that P(x) is false.
such an x is called a counter-example
To show ∃ x, P(x) is true:

find a value of x that P(x) is true.
To show ∃ x, P(x) is false:

give a proof that P(x) is false for general x
Negation with universal quantifier
∀ x, P(x) Negation: ~(∀ x, P(x))
∃ x, ~P(x)
S: All students hand in homework
~S: Not all students hand in homework
~S: Some students do not hand in homework
T: All even numbers are divisible by 4

~T: Not all even numbers are divisible by 4
~T: Some even numbers are not divisible by 4
Negation with existential quantifier
∃ x, P(x) Negation: ~(∃ x, P(x))
∀ x, ~P(x)
S: Some students hand in homework
~S: No students hand in homework
~S: All students do not hand in homework
T: Some even numbers are divisible by 4
~T: No even numbers are divisible by 4
~T: All even numbers are not divisible by 4
Definition and Theorem
Theorem
Example ∀ n ∈ Z P(n) ↔ Q(n)
For any integer n, n is odd if and only if
n + 1 is even.
Definition
Example ∀ a ∈ Z P(a) ↔ Q(a)
An integer a is even if and only if
there exists an integer n such that a = 2n.
Definition and Theorem
A (mathematical) definition is a (true)
mathematical statement that gives the precise
meaning of a word or phrase that represents
some object, property or other concepts.
Example
1. Even and odd integers Properties of integers
2. n is divisible by m Relation between integers
A Theorem is a true mathematical statement

that can be proven mathematically.
what we are defining
Even and odd
Definition P(a)  Q(a)
An integer a is an even integer iff
there exists an integer n such that a = 2n.
( n ∈ Z)(a = 2n)
Defining condition
gives an
algebraic expression
Definition
An integer a is an odd integer iff
there exists an integer n such that a = 2n+1.
( n ∈ Z)(a = 2n+1)
Why definitions?
Why do we need definitions for even and odd
integers?
• Is 0 an even integer?
• Not to identify specific even and odd integers
• To describe general even and odd integers
• To be used in the proof of statements involving
even and odd integers

Numbers and Proofs: MOE H3 Math

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MOE H3 Math

Numbers and Proofs

There are three basic logical connectives:

When P is true, ~P is false, and vice versa

Example P: 5 is a prime number

5 is not a positive even integer

5 is not a positive integer and not an even integer

John is not tall and thin

John is neither tall nor thin

If (we know) S happens,

Only if don’t hand in

homework get 0 mark

n is divisible by 4 is necessary for n to be an even square

n is an even square only if n is divisible by 4

n is divisible by 4 if n is an even square

Example (daily life)

The negation of P → Q is not P → ~ Q

If n + 1 is even, then n is odd Q→P

Are the two conditional statements equivalent?

If n is divisible by 4, then n is an even square

Biconditional (other forms)

A conditional statement has the same meaning

contrapositive inverse contrapositive

These are called quantified statements

For each real number x, x2 > 0

This phrase quantifies the variable x

If every real number substituted makes P(x) true,

This phrase quantifies the variable x

We call this sentence a universally quantified

The phrase “for each”, “for every”, “for all” …

We say x = 0 is a counter-example of this statement.

∀ x ∈ { -2, -1, 1, 2 }, x2 > 0

For each real number x, x2 > 0

There exists an integer x such that x2 = 2

This phrase quantifies the variable x

If one (or more) integer substituted makes P(x) true,

Existential quantifier (key words)

This phrase quantifies the variable x

We call this sentence an existentially quantified

The phrase “there exists”, “there is”, …

There exists an integer x such that x2 = 2

Other forms can be just one

For some integer x, x2 = 2

This statement is true.

To show ∃ x, P(x) is true:

To show ∃ x, P(x) is false:

T: All even numbers are divisible by 4

A Theorem is a true mathematical statement

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