A.

Business Writing
and Reporting
Skills
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 Memo (short for
memorandum) is a
business-oriented style
that is best suited for

Memo
interoffice or
intercolleague
correspondence. More

Writing informal in tone and

organization than a letter,
memos are generally
used to provide or ask for
information, announce a
new policy, update on
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personnel transfers, or for

any other internal issues.
 An effective memo:

 grabs the reader's

attention

Memo  provides information,

makes a recommendation, or
asks for action

Writing  supports your position or

explains benefits to reader

 mentions next steps and

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deadlines
 Types of Memos
1. Information Memo
 used to deliver or
request information or
Memo assistance
 first paragraph provides

Writing main idea

 second paragraph
expands on the details
 third paragraph outlines
the action required
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 2. Problem-solving Memo
 suggests a specific action
to improve a situation
 first paragraph states the

Memo problem
 second paragraph
analyzes the problem
Writing  third paragraph makes a
recommendation
 when making a
recommendation, include
not only the positive
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details but also the

drawbacks and diffuse
 3. Persuasion Memo
 used to encourage the
reader to undertake an
action he or she doesn't
have to take

Memo  first paragraph begins with

an agreeable point
 second paragraph
Writing introduces the idea
 third paragraph states
benefits to the reader
 fourth paragraph outlines
the action required
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 fifth paragraph ends with a

call to action
 4. Internal Memo Proposal
 used to convey suggestions
to senior management
 first paragraph states
reason for writing

Memo  second paragraph outlines

present situation and states
writer's proposal
Writing  third paragraph describes
advantage(s)
 fourth paragraph mentions
and diffuses disadvantage(s)
 fifth paragraph ends with a
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call to action
 Memo Parts

All memos consist of two

sections: the heading
Memo and the body. The
heading indicates who is

Writing writing to whom, when,

and why.
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 The heading should include
the following parts:
1. To
 lists the names of everyone

Memo
who will receive the memo
 includes the first and last
name and titles or

Writing departments of the recipients

for formal memos, memos to
superiors, or if everyone on
the list does not know each
other
 if all recipients know each
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other's names and positions,

use just the first initial and
  can be listed
alphabetically or by rank
 if it is not possible to fit
all the names in the To:
area, use the phrase "See
Memo distribution list"
 at the end of the memo

Writing add the word "Distribution"

and then list the names of
the people who will receive
a copy of the memo
 arrange the names by
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rank, department or
alphabetically
 2. From
 lists the name of the
writer(s) in the same way
as the name(s) of the
Memo recipient(s)
 there is no

Writing complimentary close or

signature line, but
authors initial their
names on the From: line
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 3. Date

 lists the month, date,

and year the memo was
Memo written

Writing  do not use

abbreviations

 avoid using numbers for

months and days
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 4. Re: or Subject

 indicates the main

subject of the letter
Memo  should be as specific

Writing and concise as possible

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 5. Cc or c

 lists those readers who

should have a copy of the

Memo
memo for their information or
reference but are not
expected to carry out the

Writing same action as the recipients

listed in the To: line

 "cc" can also be placed at

the end of the memo below
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the distribution list (if used)

 The body of the memo
conveys the message and
generally consists of 4
parts:

Memo 1. Introduction

Writing  states the general

problem or main idea
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 2. Statement of facts
 states the facts or discusses
the problem or issue
3. Argument
 explains importance or

Memo
relevance of facts
4. Conclusion
 summarizes the main idea,

Writing suggests or requests action

 memos do not have a
complimentary close or
signature line
 memos end with a call to
action
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 ● The minutes of a meeting
are a basic record of

MINUTES important points that will

be useful for the group to

OF remember.
● For example, minutes could

MEETING
include the meeting date,
names of people there,
decisions reached and
actions people said they
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would do.
 Accurate, easy-to-read

MINUTES minutes can help by:

● Providing a clear record

OF of past decisions.
> This means the group

MEETING
doesn't need to waste time
and effort revisiting
conversations they've already
had.
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 ● Enabling people to stay

MINUTES connected to the group

if they can't attend a

OF meeting.
> Anyone in the group

MEETING
can check what decisions they
missed. This makes the
decision making more
transparent and inclusive.
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 ● Reminding people what
MINUTES they said they'd do.
> A clear list of tasks
OF (with names and deadlines)
also means the group can
MEETING take more collective
responsibility for things
getting done.
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 ● Supporting the

MINUTES facilitator during the

meeting.

OF > When writing down a

decision, the minute-taker can

MEETING
check their exact wording, to
make sure everyone has the
same understanding of what's
being decided.
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 MINUTES What to include in minutes?
● Date: to make it easier to
OF find the minutes afterwards
and pinpoint when
MEETING decisions were made.
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 ● Names of the people
present, the minute taker

MINUTES and of people sending in

apologies.

OF > This provides clarity

about who was involved in

MEETING
which decisions. It also means
that someone who missed the
meeting knows who to ask
about things they don't
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understand.
 ● Brief explanation of
each agenda item: this
can help people who
missed the meeting to
MINUTES understand the decisions
made.
OF ● What you decided for
each agenda item: this is
MEETING the minimum information
necessary in the minutes. It
helps for the minute taker
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to read out what they are

writing down, so everyone
can check it is clear.
 ● Reasons why you made
the decision: this could
be useful if you think

MINUTES people who missed the

meeting might disagree.

OF ● Different views
expressed:This could be a

MEETING
summary of key concerns,
hopes and remaining
questions at the end of a
conversation, rather than
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everything that was said!

 ● Action points - with
deadlines and names! A
shared record of action

MINUTES points means everyone

knows who they need to

OF check with if something

isn't getting done.
● Date, time and location
MEETING of next meeting to
remind everyone, and
make it easy for people
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who missed the meeting to

stay in the loop.
 B.
PRESENTATION
OF REPORTS
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 Title page
● Report title; date of
submission; name, title, and
PARTS organization of the person
who prepared the report;

OF A name, title, and organization

of the person receiving the

REPOR report.
● If report contains sensitive
information or if it is going to
T be exposed to the elements, it
might also contain a cover
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page.
 PARTS Table of contents

OF A
● A list of the sections in the
report and their respective
page numbers.
REPOR ● All headings/sub-headings in
the report should be listed on

T this page.
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 Executive summary

PARTS The executive summary is a one-

page overview of the entire report
aimed at managers or people in a
OF A position of power. It discusses the
managerial implications of your

REPOR
report: basically what managers
or other people who have the
authority to approve your report

T
need to know. Summarize the
topic, methods, data/evidence,
results, and
conclusions/recommendations.
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 PARTS Introduction

OF A Introduces the topic of the report,

states the purpose of the report,
and previews the structure of the

REPOR report. This section often contains

similar information to the
Executive Summary, but in a

T clear, factual manner.

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 Body

PARTS Key elements of the report body

may include the background,
methods, results, and analysis or

OF A discussion.

Conclusion and/or

REPOR recommendations

Concise presentation of findings

T and/or recommendations. Indicate

the main results and their relation
to the recommended action(s) or
outcome(s).
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 References
PARTS ● A list of all references used in

OF A the report.
● All in-text citations included in

REPOR
the report should have an
accompanying entry in the
reference list.
T Appendix or appendices
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 PREPARATION
AND
CONDUCT OF
MEETINGS
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 CUSTOMER
ENGAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
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 Customer
Engagement
Management provides
the means to drive
the increase in
customer value. To
increase and improve
customer engagement
product adoption and
customer retention
are important. 
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SLIDESMANIA.C
 RECORDS
MANAGEM
ENT
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 Data
Privacy
Protocols SENTINEL
EVENTS The term sentinel
in Data an unexpected refers to a
system issue that
occurrence
Safekeepin involving death, may result in
similar events in
serious physical or
g and psychological the future
injury.
Release of
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Records
 Examples of ● Abduction
Data sentinel events while receiving
from the Joint care
Privacy Commission ● Discharge of
include the an infant to
Protocols following: the wrong
● Suicide during
in Data treatment or
family
● Hemolytic
within 72
Safekeepin hours of
transfusion
reaction due to

g and discharge
● Unanticipated
blood
transfusion

Release of death during

care of an
with major
blood group
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Records infant incompatibiliti

es
 Data ● Surgery on the
wrong individual
or wrong body
Privacy part
● Retained foreign ● Fire during
Protocols body after
surgery
direct patient

in Data ● Severe neonatal

jaundice
care caused
by hospital

Safekeepin (bilirubin >30

mg/dl)
equipment
● Intrapartum

g and ● Prolonged
fluoroscopy with
maternal
death

Release of very high or

inappropriate
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dose or to the
Records wrong site
 Data
Privacy ● Rape
● Falls
Protocols ● Delay in treatment
● Medication error
in Data ● Criminal event
● Unanticipated severe maternal
Safekeepin morbidity resulting in

g and permanent or severe temporary

harm

Release of
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Records
 Data
Privacy They are
descriptions of
Protocols ANECDOTAL
incidents or
events that are
in Data RECORDS important to the
person observing.
Safekeepin is an observation
that is written like Anecdotal

g and a short story. records are short,

objective and as

Release of accurate as
possible. 
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Records
 Data ● An incident is

Privacy broadly defined as

any event or
accident that leads
Protocols INCIDENT
REPORT to personnel injury
or damage to
in Data An incident report equipment or
property. 
is an official
Safekeepin recording of the
● Incidents also
include events or
facts related to an
g and incident on the
accidents that
have the potential
worksite. 
Release of to cause harm, or
in other words,
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Records
near misses. 
 Data KARDEX
Privacy is a desktop file
It is like having a
cheat sheet for

Protocols system that gives

a brief overview of
nurses to
reference that is
in Data each patient and
is updated every
separate from
the patient chart.
Safekeepin shift.  It is usually kept
in a central
g and is actually the
brand name and
location, such as
the nursing
Release of trademark for the station, for quick
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original cardstock access.

Records system.
 Data Information such
as demographics,
Privacy vital signs,
diagnoses,
Protocols PATIENT CHART/
RECORDS
surgeries,
medications,
in Data is a thorough treatment plans,
allergies,
Safekeepin record of a
patient’s medical laboratory

g and history and clinical

data
results,
radiological

Release of studies,
immunization
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Records records is
included.
 Data Several healthcare

Privacy professionals can

add information to

Protocols medical charts,

including
in Data physicians,
nurses,
Safekeepin radiological
technicians,
g and laboratory
technicians, and
Release of other members of
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a healthcare
Records team. 
 Data 201 FILE

Privacy usually containing records

pertaining to the employee’s
Protocols personal information,
employment contract, duties,
in Data salary, performance and
employment history, among
Safekeepin others, is established and
maintained by an employer for
g and specific purposes relating to the
employee’s employment, i.e.
Release of payroll, training and
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Records
development, performance
evaluation, promotion, etc.
 Data As this file is
compiled and in
Privacy part, created by
and held under
Protocols
On the other hand,
the custody of the Republic Act No.
101731, also known as
company, such
in Data files may be
the Data Privacy Act of
2012 (DPA), applies to
considered
Safekeepin
the processing2 of all
types of personal
company property
information and to any

g and and acquiring a

copy thereof may
natural and juridical
person involved in the

Release of still be governed processing thereof.

by certain
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Records company rules

and regulations.
 REFERENCES
Cruthers A (n.d.
). Organizing Reports. Retrieved from https://kpu.pressb
ooks.pub/businesswriting/chapter/organizing-reports/

https://www.kean.edu/~cpdonova/HowtoWriteaMemo2.p
df

https://www.seedsforchange.org.uk/minutes.pdf

Chen TC, Schein OD, Miller JW. Sentinel Events,

Serious Reportable Events, and Root Cause
Analysis. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2015 Jun;133(6):631-2.
https://pdfcoffee.com/anecdotal-records-pdf-free.html

NPC (2018). PRIVACY POLICY OFFICE ADVISORY

OPINION NO. 2018-028. Retrieved from
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https://www.privacy.gov.ph/wp-content/files/attachments/
advopn/2018/AdOpNo.2018-028.pdf
 STAY SAFE
AND BE
HEALTHY
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 ORGANIZER
establish formal structure

provide for the coordination of resources

accomplish the objectives

getting into one another’s way

stepping on one another’s toes
affect the delivery of health service
 Organization

backbone of management

Remember : manager cannot do without organization and

there can be no management without organization.
The Organization

There are current definitions of

\

organization but basically the way it

was phrased at the time it was
formally studied still holds true.
(Mooney,1939) Organization
form of every human
association

attainment of a common
purpose (Moenhlman, 1940)

systematic relationships Organization serves

as a facilitating
agency in the
elements and activities achievement of a
purpose.
satisfaction of the purpose
 Organization

form of identifying roles and relationship of each staff

delineate specific tasks or functions
 process of identifying and grouping the work to be
performed,
 defining and delegating responsibility and authority,
establishing relationships
 enabling the people to work most effectively together
in accomplishing objectives
(Allen, 1998).
 “Organization, then is both a function and
a framework or a process and structure. It is
both a human activity and at the same time,
it is a group of people. It is deliberately
designed and exists because of an objective
which is geared towards efficient and
effective goal attainment”
As a process involves:

Identification and definition of basic tasks -

- staffing
- creation of job description

Delegation
- authority
- assignment
Establishing relationship
- providing a system of vertical and
horizontal communications
As a structure it is;
- borne out of process
- deliberately constructed.
- evolves out of the logical process
- does not happen by accident; it is designed
- must be built around the basic activities of the
nursing practice.
- It must reflect the:
a. Objectives and plans,
b. Center of authority,
c. Environment within which it is to function, and
d. Quality of available manpower to run it.
Reasons for organizing

People choose to organize when they recognize that acting alone limits their
ability to achieve their goals, and that by acting as a group, they may overcome
individual limitations.

The best way for an Organized Group to Succeed

The benefit of organization is maximized when the group achieves patterns of

activity that are both complementary and interdependent, which result in the
achievement of the intended outcomes. Each member of the group contributes
to the success of the group.

The end result of effective organizational design

The final product is an integrated system of people and resources, tailored to

the specific direction of organization.
Categories of Organization

2 major categories of organization

a. Formal organization – logical process

b. Informal organization – behavioral pattern
Formal Organization

It is a system of well defined jobs, each with a measure

of authority and responsibility and accountability. The
whole consciously designed to enable the people of the
enterprise to work most effectively together in
accomplishing its objectives. It is well-defined, bounded
by delegation and relatively stable.

Formal Organization is derived from the set of factors

considered vital by scientific management. It is governed
by the set of principles crystallized by Taylor, Fayol and
Gantt among others.
Informal Organization

Refer largely to what people do because they are human personalities, and to their
actions in terms of needs, emotions and attitudes and not in terms of procedures and
regulations. In the informal organization, people work together because of their
likes and dislikes. This is reflected in the unofficial ways in which a nurse creates a
small group of collaborators officially denied to him.

”There is another form of organization which

exists side by side with the formal organization
but is not visible. What one sees in the
organizational chart is usually different from
what actually happens in the organization. This
is the informal organization, not easily
reproduced in a chart but whose presence is
simply felt by those within the organization”
People in the organization cross formal
barriers and form the informal organization
Under these circumstances, management
does not have an option to destroy the
informal organization but should instead
harness it for constructive ends
 Characteristics of an Organization

Organization are separated from other types of associated by the ff.

characteristics

a. Division of work
b. Chain of Command
c. Different types of work segments
d. Different levels of management indicating hierarchical relationships.
Organizational Design

 process used to improve the probability that an

organization will be successful
 formal, guided process for integrating the people,
information and technology of an organization.

organizational structure vs organizational chart.

 Hierarchical System

The triumvirate of authority, responsibility and

accountability are arranged in a hierarchy, which is often
known as a bureaucracy. In such systems, rules, policies
and procedures are uniformly applied to exert control
over member behaviors. Activity is organized within
sub-units (bureaus of departments) in which people
performed specialized functions, such as accounting,
ward staff, ICU staff and the like. People who perform
similar task are clustered together.
Principles of Organizational Design

These principles on which sound organizational design

is found are self explanatory.

a. Division of Labor - departmentalization &

specialization
b. Unity of command - follows a line of command or
vests it one superior ensures a unity of vision.
c. The principle of authority and responsibility
determine the line and staff of authority, which
delineates the distribution of power.
d. The span of control - different levels of control
within the system, as well as whether it is
centralized or decentralized.
 Organizational structure

It is a formal system of task and reporting

relationships that controls, coordinates and
motivates employees so that they cooperate
to achieve an organization’s goals.
 Patterns of Organization Structure

a. Tall or Centralized Structure

- centralized authority
- responsible for only a few subordinates,
- narrow span of control;
- vertical nature of the structure
- there are many level of communication.

Advantages to the system.

1. It makes use of expertise, and allows close communication between

the workers.
2. Supervisory individuals screen communications.
Disadvantages of the system are that:

1. It often transpires that the most skilled individuals end

up doing nothing while actual tasks are done by those
less capable,
2. Communication from bottom to top is often difficult,
and messages do not get on top
3. Workers tend to be very ‘Boss- Oriented’ because of
the close contact with their supervisor.
Flat or Decentralized Structures

Is characterized by few levels and a broad span of

control, where decision- making is spread among many
people.
Communication from the lower levels to higher levels is
easy and direct.
 Principle advantage of this system over a more centralized
system is:

The lower likelihood of messages being lost or distorted; the

organization can respond to problems or new opportunities faster,
Workers develop their own abilities and autonomy and come to
see the organization as humanistic, resulting in great job
satisfaction.
Principle of ‘shared governance’ produces maximum potential for
professional growth.
Disadvantages of this system:

The fact that supervisors spend less time with

each workers
That the supervisors themselves may lack
expertise in the variety of operations and may
end up making inappropriate decisions.
 The Types of Organizational Structure
Line Organization/Bureaucratic/ Pyramidal
Each position has general authority over the lower
position in the hierarchy. This is commonly found in
large health care facilities.
There is a clear defined-supervisor-subordinate
relationship. A traditional hierarchical organization is
pyramid shape where all decisions emanate from the
top down to the subordinates.
Authority, responsibility, accountability and power are
concentrated at the top.
PROMOTION is highly proportional to power, authority
and responsibility
b. Flat Organization aka horizontal organization

 It is a decentralized type
 flattened scalar chain
 fewer levels of position.
 used for less complex organization
 decentralized authority
 several manager supervising large work groups.
- few or no levels of intervention between management
and staff.
The more experienced and well trained nurses become
productive when they are directly involved in the decision
making process, rather than closely supervised by many
layers of management. Through this, feedback is
immediately reported and time management issues are
lessened.
applicable only in smaller organizations
individual units within larger organizations.
(When organization grows bigger, the pyramidal or
traditional hierarchical structure takes place)

Advantage
a. minimizes poor feedback.
b. communication is more rapid

Disadvantage
a. requires a painstaking building of personal
relationships
c. Staff Organization

 purely advisory to the line structure with no authority to place

recommendations into action

d. Functional Organization

 Permits a specialist to aid line position within a limitation and

clearly defined scope of authority

e. Ad Hoc Organization

 It is a modification of the bureaucratic structure and is used as a

temporary basis to facilitate completion of a project within a
formal line organization. It is a means of overcoming inflexibility
of the line structure.
f. Matrix Organizations

 focus on both products and functions.

 vertical and horizontal chain of command.
 combines both the best of both worlds to make an efficient organizational
structure. This structure is most complex organizational structure.

g. Shared Governance Organization

 most radical and idealistic type of organizational structure developed in

1980’s as an alternative to traditional pyramidal/centralized structure.

h. Lateral Organization

 Lateral organization is one of coordination and collaboration.

 Organizational Relationships
a. Formal Relationships
Represents by uninterrupted lines between units, showing who
reports to whom.

b. Informal Relationships
Represents a broken or dotted line, where power relationships are
coordinated.

Relationship can include:

1. Supervisory reporting,
2. Command and control relationships,
3. Command-subordinate relationships
4. Coordination relationship between equals.
Organizational Culture

Basically the personality of the organization comprised

of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs of
the corporation, as well as its attitudes, feelings beliefs,
norms and customs.

Corporate culture can be looked at as a system, in which

inputs include feedback from the group. Organizational
culture is less tangible and difficult to measure
 Different types of Organizational Culture

The types of organizational culture provide a reason for the

employee to be satisfied or unsatisfied with the organization as
well as the people comprising the organization.

a. The Tough- Guy Macho Culture

 Feedback is quick and the rewards are high.
 applies to fast moving financial activities such as brokerage.

b. The work Hard/Pay Hard Culture

 Characterized by few risks being taken, all with the rapid feedback
c. TheBet your company Culture
Involves high stakes but delayed feedback.
Big stakes decisions are taken, but it may be years
before the results are known.

d. The Process Culture

 Is formed in organizations where there is little or no
feedback.
People become bogged down with how things are done
not with is to be achieved.
 Staffing

Is a process of assigning competent people to fill the roles

designated for the organizational structure through
recruitment, selection and developing.

also includes induction and orientation of the new staff

on the goals, mission, vision, objectives and philosophy
of the organization.
Steps in Staffing

1. Determine the number and types of personnel needed

This is a decision that a manager can best reach not
alone but in consultation with the staff and co-workers.
This can be done through interviews or daily
observations of needs of clients.
2. Recruit Personnel
It must be carefully and thoughtfully done either
through word of mouth or formal advertisement in
different channels such as newspaper classified, radio,
television, or manpower agency. It attracts the best and
brightest applicants to fill in the personnel needed in the
organization.

3. Interviews
All Interviewers must be ready with the background of
the prospective employee. Resumes or Curriculum vitae
with pictures of the faces of the applicants usually help
in identifying the interviewees. Interviews should be
- scheduled properly and conducted in an airy
environment that would help bring out the best and
worst in the applicant depending on the objectives of the
interviewer.

- Theinterviewer though should always keep sight of the

qualities and experience desired in the position to filled
up. Both the interviewers and interviewees should
prepare in advance for the question and answer that will
be asked during interview.
3. Induct or Orient the Personnel
 Such orientation allows both parties to see whether they would be able to
work with each other, understand the organizational culture and learn the
background of the orientation. This allows parties to back-out before any offer
can be made.

4. Job Offer
 For instance, when the personnel will be given an offer and the applicants
accepts the offer and is therefore hired. The would-be employee endures a pre
employment testing and the physical examination before any contact is signed
in all parties.

 Selection of employee and placement happens all pre employment

requirements are accomplished. This is the only time that the person officially
becomes an employee.
 Staff Pattern

There are several ways of developing a staffing pattern.

It can be generated by determining the nursing care
hours needed for a specific patient or patients and then
generating the full time Equivalents and staff to patient
ratio needed to provide that care. In most cases, a
combination of methods is used to validate the plan.
Developing a staffing pattern is a science and an art.
 Benchmarketing
It is a management toll for seeking out the best practices
in one’s industry so as to improve performance
(Swansburg, 1996)

Regulatory Requirements
The local requirements will be followed as mandated in
R.A. 5901
 Skill Mix
 It is another critical element in nurse staffing. It is the percentage
or ratio of professionals to non-professionals

e.g. RN Staff to other direct care staff and other non professionals.

Staff Support
It is the support in place for the operations of the unit or
department. For instance, does the organization have a systematic
process to deliver medications to the department or do unit
personnel have to pick up patient medications and narcotics.
Remember: the less support available to the staff, the more
nursing hours have to be built in the staffing pattern to provide
care to patients.
 Historical Information
 Keep intact the effective ways of doing task. Be knowledgeable
about the presence or absence of equipment and supplies. Its
absence will require the time of nurses which has to be
considered greatly.

Factor Affecting time requirement of nursing care

 Acuity of the patient’s illness
 Degree of dependence of the patients on the caregivers
 Communicability of the ailment
 Rehabilitation needs and special treatments and procedures
Remember :

The needs of the patient as determined

by the ailment effectively how much
time and care the nursing program must
devote.
Job Description
Are specifications of duties, conditions and requirements of a
particular job prepared through a careful job analysis. They are
also called PERFORMANCE DESCRIPTIONS.
They are used primarily for purposes of:
Recruitment,
Placement and transfer,
Guidance and direction,
Evaluation of performance,
Reduction of conflict and frustration,
Avoidance of overlapping of duties,
Facilitating working relationships with outside bodies such as
professional associations,
Serving as basis for the employees’ salary range.
Job description includes:

Job Title, namely the position and the necessary

qualifications,
It should be progressive in nature.
In the work environment especially it should be preceded
with counseling.
Disciplinary procedures should be instituted with extreme
cautions.
Disciplinary Problems

Problems tend to occur when there is methodological

weakness. Such as when the manager lacks skill in
interviewing or documentation, or when there is a
procedural omission, such as poor application of
discipline.
Steps to Addressing Disciplinary Problems

Coaching

Is a day to day process of helping employees improve their

performance. This is done through interaction which encompasses
need analysis staff development, interviewing decision making,
problem solving, analytical thinking active listening, motivation,
mentoring and communication skills. The goal is to eliminate or
improve performance problems such as excessive absenteeism or
frequent personal phone calls.
Confrontation
Is a communication technique used to
address specific issues such as violation of
a policy or procedure. Confronting an
employee over such issues involves a
number of steps.
The nurse manager should determine whether the
employee is aware of the policy.
The employee should have received policy information
at orientation, and an update policy manual should be
readily accessible to all employees.
The policy should have been enforced strictly and
consistently.
The nurse manager should then describe the behavior
that constitutes the violation in a manner that relays the
concern to the employee regarding the issue, while
avoiding making interaction a personal issue.
The manager should solicit the employee’s reason for the
behavior, allowing sufficient time for the employee to respond.
The manager should convey to the employee that she cannot
continue breaking an established policy.
The manager should explore alternatives solutions to the problem
so that negative outcome will be avoided.
The manager and employee should agree on a course of action.
They should set up a reasonable date to follow-up in order to
check if she is adhering to established policy.
Disciplinary Conference

Means of applying discipline, discipline conference uses

a combination of directive and non directive technique,
in order to minimize stress during interview.
STEPS of Progressive Discipline

Means that adherence to the principle of due process and fair

treatment of subordinates. The measures taken should be
graduated according to the frequency and severity of the offense.
The different measures are:
Counseling
Verbal reprimand
Written reprimand
Short suspension
Longer suspension
Discharge/ Dismissal
Nurse should at all times adhere to “due process” and
ensure fair treatment of her subordinates. This creates a
feeling in the subordinates they are heard and that
special treatment will not be provided to anyone.

The 1986 Bill of Rights “No person shall be deprived of

life, liberty or property without due process of law”
Tool for terminating staff
Contrary to popular belief, it is not easy for mangers to
discipline or terminate non performing employees. It is
either because of personal beliefs or inadequate
understanding of the termination process. The ff are
guidelines in terminating an employee:
Inform the human resources department and
administration before hand,
State the offending behavior and the reason for
termination,
Explain the termination process,
Remain calm,
Arrange for employee to be escorted out
Report back to the human resources department and
administration.
PLANNING
 PLANNING
 Is a management function, concerned with defining
goals for future organizational performance and
deciding on the tasks and resources to be used in
order to attain those goals.

 Is deciding in advance what to do, how to do a

particular task, when to do it, and who is to do it.

 It must be adaptable and flexible to current

realities to ensure that the desired result is
achieved.
 Components of Planning
Planning:
Predetermined
Action

What to do: How to do it: Who is to do it

 nursing - techniques, - professional,
activities principles non-professional
Good Planning
 Involves a continuous process of
assessment, establishment of goals and
objectives, implementation and evaluation
of change as new facts become known.
Poor Planning
 Is the failure to set goals, make assessments or provide for
implementation or to anticipate any possible change in
circumstances.

 Indicators of poor planning

1. delivery dates are not met.
2. machines are idle.
3. material is wasted
4. some nurses are overworked, others are underworked
5. skilled nurses doing unskilled work.
6. nurses are fumbling on jobs for which they have not been
trained.
7. there is quarreling, bickering, buck-passing and confusion
Characteristics of a Plan
A well-developed plan requires, first and
foremost, creative thinking and foresight.
It has three characteristics, planning must:
1. involve the future;
2. involve action; and
3. have an organizational
identification of the action which will be
undertaken either by the planner or
someone designated by or for her.
 Types of Plans
1. Strategic Plan
- is one that asks the vital question: “what are the
right things to do?”
- usually around 3-5 years, long-term in nature.

2. Operating Plans
- usually pertain to activities in specific departments of an
organization.
- the plan’s main question is “how does one do things right?”
- generally shorter in time frame (1 year), and usually
involve the middle and lower level managers.
- focuses on timetables, target quantities and specifies the
persons responsible for the tasks.
3. Continuous or Rolling Plans
- similar to operating plans, involves
mapping out the day-to-day activities.
- this is the task of the staff nurse who
has to devise and implement the NCP for
the patients, altering or modifying the plan
as necessary depending on the needs and
problems of the patients and the unit to
where the plan is applicable.
Reasons for Planning
1. It leads to success in the achievement of
goals and objectives.
2. It provides for the effective use of
available personnel and facilities.
3. It helps nurses cope with crises and
problems calmly and efficiently.
4. It reduces the element of change.
5. It is necessary for effective control.
Resistance to Planning
Despite the many benefits of planning, many
nurse-managers avoid it because they lack:
1. Knowledge of the philosophy, goals and
operations of the organization.

2. Understanding of the significance of planning,

that success or failure of work activities relate
directly to the quality of a plan.

3. Proper appreciation of use of time for planning;

they erroneously perceive that time spent on
planning would be better spent on addressing
day-to-day concerns.
4. Confidence and fear of failure.

5. Openness to change that they believe

planning may entail.

6. Willingness to engage in new activities

that planning produces.

7. Insights into the exigencies of the

situation, they prefer to act on immediate
problems that give them immediate
feedback.
Resistance to planning can be overcome by
managers who are willing to be open-minded
about planning and change.
1. Forecast or Estimate the Future
- it is weighing the unknown values in
the situation and using them as basis for
an educated guess about the future.
- in making forecasts, the planner
should consider 3 things:
1. the agency
2. the community affected
3. the goals of care
2. Set objectives/Goals and Determine
Results Desired
- Goals are defined as broad statements of
intent derived from the purposes of the
organization.
- Objectives are specific behavior or tasks set
for the accomplishment of a goal.

3. Develop and Schedule Strategies,

Programs/Projects/Activities; Set the Time
Frame
- Strategy is the techniques, methods, or
procedure by which the overall plan of the
higher management achieve desired objectives.
 - Programs are activities put together to
facilitate attainment of some desired goals,
such as staff development programs,
outreach programs, discharge teaching
programs and the like.
 Time

Management
 Good time management is founded upon intelligent
planning and decision-making, and a thorough assessment
of the tasks which need to be done.

 It is about efficiency and the determination of the most

effective or at least the best available means of fulfilling a
task.

 Management of Time severely compromises an

organization’s productivity and results in negative effects
across the board, from the manager to the rank-and-file.

 When time is mismanaged, work is rushed and becomes

substandard, deadlines are missed, bad choices are made,
employees suffer from fatigue, and even the nurses’
personal lives and relationships are adversely affected by
the lack of time or energy to devote to them
 Principles of Time Management
* planning for contingencies. Think o other
options to alternatives, if the desired option is not
possible.
* listing of tasks. Calendar all activities.
* Inventory. Looking at task done and not done.
* Sequencing. Prioritizing activities
* Setting and keeping deadlines. Do not
procrastinate or else nothing is done.
* Deciding on how time will be spent. Indicate
time allotted for each activity, set time targets.
* Delegate. A portion of the task can be given to
another who can equally accomplish the task on
time.
MULTITASKING
 multitasking does not really make a person
more efficient. It just looks that way.

 With technology, things seem faster and so

many tasks need to get done all at the same
time. People think they are getting so much
done at once, but in fact are not

 The net effect of multitasking is that when

several tasks are done at once, some or all
of them end up being performed in a
haphazard manner. This can have
disastrous consequence.
 Tools in Project
Management
Allows the manager to set the time frame of
the project or activity meant to achieve the
goals of the organization.
 A. GANTT CHART
 Show task and schedule
information. The tasks
are numbered and listed
vertically. A bar shows
the starting date and
projected completion
date of each task. Color
or shading is sometimes
used to show how much
of each task has been
completed. It is both a
management tool and a
communications tool.
B. Performance Evaluation and
Review Techniques (PERT)
 Is a network
system model for
planning and
control which
involves identifying
key activities,
sequences them in
a flow diagram and
assigning a specific
duration each
phase of work.
 C. Critical Path Method
(CPM)
 Can calculate time and
cost estimates for each
activity. This method is
used to create a cost
estimate using either
“normal” or “crash”
operating conditions.
Normal operating
conditions are those
involving the least cost,
while crash operating
conditions have much less
available time than under
normal conditions.
 CPM is useful where time and cost are
significant factors because both can be
estimated based on past experience.

 CPM is a tool to analyze a project and

determine duration, based on identification
of a “critical path” through an activity
network. Knowledge of the critical path can
permit management of the project to
change duration.
4. Prepare the Budget and Allocation of
Resources

BUDGETING is defined as a systematic

financial translation of a plan, the
allocation of scarce resources on the basis
of forecasted needs for proposed activities
over a specified period of time.

Nursing Budget
- allocates resources for nursing
programs and activities to deliver patient
care during a fiscal year
 Hospital Budget
- is designed to meet future service expectations,
to provide quality patient care at minimum cost.

Budget Plan for health care institutions, which

is simply a plan for future activities, generally
consists of four components:

1. Revenue Budget
- is summarizing the income the management expects
to generate during the planning period.

2. Expense Budget
- is describing expected activity in operational financial
terms for a given period of time.
3. Capital Budget
- outlines the programmed
acquisitions, disposals and improvements
in the institution’s physical capacity.

4. Cash Budget
- consists of money received, cash
receipts and disbursement expected
during the planning period.
 Types of Budgeting
1. Centralized Budget
- is developed and imposed by the
comptroller, administrator and/or director
of nursing with little or no consultation
with lower level managers.

2. Decentralized Budget
- the level manager involved in the
planning and budgeting process with ARA
placed on the practitioner level.
 Components of Total Institutional Budget
1. Manpower Budget
- consists of the wages and salaries of the regular
employees and the fees paid to outside registries
through which the institution contracts short-term
employees.

2. Capital Expenditure Budget

- this involves the large expense of purchasing of
lands, buildings, and major equipment meant for long-
term use.

3. Operating Budget
- this includes the cost of supplies, minor equipment
repair and maintenance as well as other overhead
expenses.
 MODELS OF PLANNING
1. “Basic” Strategic Planning
> this model is suited to small
organizations with a high volume of work
but with limited to no strategic planning.

> the early operation period of the

organization, like the first year, would be a
good time to use the model in order to
familiarize the organization with the
concept and conduct of planning.
2. Issue-Based or Goal- Based Planning
Activities:
1. External/internal assessment to identify
“SWOT” (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats) of the organization.

2. Strategic analysis to identify and prioritize

major issues or goals.

3. Designing major strategies or programs to

address these issues or goals.

4. Designing or updating the organization’s

vision, mission and values.
5. Establishment of action plans based on the organizations
objectives, resource needs, roles and responsibilities for
implementation.

6. Documentation of issues, goals, strategies or programs, and

whenever applicable, an updated mission and vision, action
plans in a strategic plan document, and SWOT.

7. Development of the yearly operating plan document from

one year of the multi-year strategic plan.

8. Development and implementation of the Budget for year one

and allocation of funds needed to fund year two and onward.

9. The conduct of the organization’s year-one operations.

10. Monitoring/reviewing/evaluating and update the strategic

plan document.
3. Alignment Model
- is geared towards ensuring that the
organization’s resources are aligned with
its mission in order to ensure effective
operation.

- it is a useful strategy for

organizations that need to fine tune their
operating strategies or which may need to
rework their current approach.

- an organization with internal issues

may also find benefit in this model.
4. Scenario Planning
- involves identifying possible scenarios
or situations that the organization may
face. This model is useful in identifying
strategic issues and goals and may be
used to ensure truly concrete solutions to
problems.

5. “Organic” or Self-Organizing Planning

- organic strategic planning is self-
organizing, and naturalistic in orientation,
requiring repeated reference to common
cultural values within the organization.
6. Functional Planning
- deals with both the actual activities of
the organization and the administrative or
internal matters thereof as well, such as
work, costs and resources.

- defines tasks which may be assigned

to individuals; produces clear final outputs
to other similarly oriented organizations;
tracks internal operations; allows for
additional program requirements; and
allows for managing competing priorities
from multiple programs
7. Cross-sectional Planning
- focuses on managing the external effects
on outputs of a function.

- It brings together the activities of various

functional groups in support of a single
project like a team working together.

- unlike functional planning, which is

oriented towards moving work within a
single organization, cross-functional
planning is geared towards moving work
from one functional organization to another.
8. Operational Planning
- requires one to look at the
development of the decisions being made
as they relate to the overall effectiveness
of work on the health care facility.

- defines how one will implement the

action agreed upon and monitoring these
plans, what the needs are, how will one
use available resources, how one will deal
with risks, and how one will ensure
sustainability of the project’s
achievements.
DECISION
MAKING
 Is the process of identifying and choosing a
particular course of action from among
several possible choices. This process is
influenced by the values and preferences of
the decision maker.

 The decision is based on information

gathered by the decision-maker in
implementing a workable plan through
observation, interview, and scientific inquiry
 KINDS OF DECISIONS
1. Whether Decisions

- refer to the decisions made before the

selection of one several alternatives, where
selection is made after weighing pros and
cons.
- e.g. before figuring out the alternatives of
what car to buy, the decision has to be made
whether or not to buy a car.

2. Which Decisions
- the process of choosing from among several
alternatives, which are measured based on a
set of pre-defined criteria.
3. Contingent Decisions
- these are decisions that have been
made but put on hold until some
conditions are met like time, energy, price,
availability, opportunity and
encouragement.

- e.g. “I have decided to buy that car if I

can get it for the right price and/or I have
decided to write that article if I can work
the necessary time for it to fit into my
schedule.
 DECISION MAKING MODELS

1. Win-Win
- it is characterized by a mutual willingness in the group
to come up with solutions that are acceptable to all.
- This is based in part on everyone’s preferred solution
to combine the self interests and purposes of the people
in the group, and to negotiate solutions that are
acceptable to all.

2. Win-Lose
- in this model, some interests are advanced at the
expense of others.
- e.g. The nurse administered all the treatments
necessary despite patient’s inconvenience or discomfort
during the treatment process
3. Disagreement and Collaboration
- decisions resulting in the following elements are made
when conflicts and disagreements are openly explored,
using collaboration and cooperation:
a. High quality decisions
b. Creative decisions
c. Decisions that are understood
d. Decisions that are accepted and owned

4. Solution Shaping
- this method is focused on how to modify or amend an
unpopular proposed solution rather than attempt to
pressure people into changing their minds about the
solution
- this is holding the planned solution in abeyance for
further study and analysis until a justifiable solution is
reached.
 Decision-making is an end-point of critical
thinking which leads to problem solution using
these steps:
1. Define the problem
2. Assess all options
3. Weigh all options against a set of criteria or standards
4. Test possible options
5. Consider consequences of the decision
6. make a final decision

 When making a clinical decision, the nursing process is used

for the nurse to determine actions that will help move the
client toward achievement of the expected outcome.

 Nurse managers exercises clinical judgment viewed within

the context of the management process involving client care,
manpower resources, and hospital resources.
CONTROLLING
 Controlling
The use of formal authority to assure the
achievement of goals and objectives.
Involves assisting, regulating, monitoring,
and evaluating individual and group
performance.
Also called “coordinating” since
management control can have a negative
connotation.
Can be critical determinant of
organizational success.
Functions both a means and an end
(promotes effective use of resources,
Principles of Controlling
1. Critical Few- fewer people involved in control
brings about the best results
2. Point of Control- centralization or
decentralization of authority
3. Self-control or Discipline- personal acceptance
of responsibility and accountability

Kinds of Formal Control

1. Pre-action Control- personal supervision and
utilizing control checks consisting of procedures
for any given task or function
2. Post-action Control- controlling as the task is
being performed and correcting deviations from
the standards or plans
Types of Control
1. Feedforward Controls
* Focus on operations before they begin
* Goal is to prevent anticipated problems
* Examples: preparing all supplies and equipment before doing
procedures, safety systems, training programs, and budgets

2. Concurrent Controls
> Apply to processes as they are happening
> Enacted while work is being performed
> Include any type of material or supplies for therapeutic care
which requires direct supervision or the use of automated systems

3. Feedback Controls
+ Focus on the results of operations
+ Guide future planning, inputs, and process designs
+ Examples: timely (weekly, monthly, quarterly, annual) reports
so that almost instant adjustments can be made
Characteristics of Effective Controls
1. Must be designed appropriately.
2. When control standards are inflexible or
unrealistic, employees cannot focus on the
organization’s goals.
3. Control systems must prevent, not cause, the
problems they were designed to detect.
 
Designing Effective Control Systems (Guidelines)
1. Control at all levels in the health care delivery
system. All nursing units must have a standard
control system.
2. Acceptability of those who will enforce decisions.
(Manner of influence to her staff to comply with the
policies or procedures)
3. Flexibility of the enforcers and the
implementors to enforce decisions based
on practical situations.
4. Accuracy. Steps or mechanisms of control
must be clear and vivid with significant
implications.
5. Timeliness. Activities are planned with
time target set.
6. Cost effectiveness. Resources used are
well maintained and enough or adequate to
meet the needs of the unit.
7. Understandability. Policies and procedures
are simple, easy to understand and can be
implemented with less difficulty.
8. Balance between objectivity and
 The Control Process
1. Establish and Specify Criteria and Performance
Standards
Serve as the criteria against which performance is
measured and give an idea of the level of performance that
managers can expect a person
a. Standards
- created when objectives are set during the planning
process
- any guideline established as the basis for measurement
- a precise, explicit statement of expected results from a
product, service, machine, individual, or organizational unit
- usual expressed numerically and is set for quality,
quantity, and time
b. Resource Controls
- Time controls- deadlines and time
constraints
- Material controls- inventory and material-
yield controls
- Equipment controls- built into the
machinery, imposed on the operator to
protect the equipment or process
- Cost controls- ensure cost standards are
met
- Employee performance controls- actions
and behaviors of individuals and groups of
employees
- Budget control cost or expense related
standards- identify the quantity of
c. Financial Controls
- facilitate achieving the organization’s profit motive
- one method is budgeting
- budgets allocate resources to important activities
and provide supervisors with quantitative standards
against which to compare resource consumption
d. Operation’s Control
- assess how efficiently and effectively an
organization’s transformation process create goods
and services, includes Total Quality Management
(TQM)
e. Statistical Process Control
-use of statistical or mathematical methods and
procedures to determine whether production
operations are being performed correctly to detect
any deviations and to find and eliminate their causes
f. The Just-in-Time (JIT) System
-timely application of medications, and purchased
materials just in time to be transformed into parts
- Deliver the smallest possible quantities at the latest
possible date at all stages of the transformation process to
minimize inventory costs

2. Monitor and Measure Performance of Nursing Care

Services and Evaluate it against the Standards
through Records, Reports, and Observations
a. Nursing rounds- attention to issues of patient care and
nursing practice
b. Quality Assurance- monitors compliance with
established standards
c. Nursing Audit- documentation of the quality of nursing
care in relation to the standards established by the nursing
department
3. Compare Performance with
Standards, Models, or Criteria to
Determine Deviations or Differences
-ensures that tasks are being carried out as
planned
- actual accomplishment is matched with
the acceptance standard to check if there
are delays or deviations from the standard.
a. the Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)- matrix that uses network
of activities represented in a chart,
including the goals or product desired, time
management, budget and estimation of
critical paths
b. Benchmarking- seeks out the best so as
4. Enact Remedial Measures or Steps to
Correct deviations or Errors
a. Correction of deviations or errors by
modifying the plan either by changing the
number of personnel or by better selection
and training of subordinates or by changing
the other factors of production or by adding
more materials or resources.

b. A Master Control Plan- depicting

functions, goals, and objectives to be
accomplished and its specific activities.

c. Take necessary actions. Find the cause

of deviation from standard.
Characteristics of the Control Process

1. Cyclical which means it is never finished

2. Controlling often leads to management

expecting employee behavior change

3. Control is both anticipatory and retrospective

4. Ideally, each person in the health care

delivery views control as his/her responsibility.

5. Controlling builds planning, organizing, and

leading
Management Control Strategies
1. Market control- first relies primarily on
budgets and rules, made up of external
forces

2. Bureaucratic control internal forces,

social needs
3. Clan- control through feeling a valued
part of the business

4. Self- control- aka adhocracy control;

complimentary to market, bureaucratic,
and clan control
Performance Appraisal Tools
A method of acquiring and processing
information needed to improve the
individual’s performance and
accomplishments
Consists of setting standards and objectives
against determined standards and objectives;
reviewing progress, having on-going
feedback between the appraiser and the one
who is being appraised; planning for
reinforcement, deletion or correction of
identified behavior as necessary
To assess the appropriateness, adequacy,
effectiveness, and efficiency of services

1. Trait Rating Scale

-rating a person against a set standard
2. Job Dimension Scales
-focuses on job requirements and the quality of work
performance

3. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)

-focuses on desired behaviors to improve performance

4. Checklist
-composed of behavioral statements that represent desirable
behavior.

5. Peer Review
- collegial evaluation of the performance done to promote
excellence in practice and offer information, support, guidance,
criticism, and direction to one another .

6. Self- Appraisal
-allows the employee to evaluate own performance
Common Errors in Appraisal
1. Halo Effect- tendency to overrate staff based on
the raters first impression of the ratee based on the
good traits or good things one sees in a person
2. Logical Error- often based on first impressions of
the rater to the ratee
3. Central Tendency Error- rates the staff as
average; used when feedback tools are inadequate
4. Leniency Error- overlook the weakness and
mistakes of the person being evaluated leading to
an inaccurate picture of the job performance
5. Hawthorne Effect- the behavior of the ratee
changes simply because he is observed by the rater
6. Horn’s effect- occurs when rating an employee
very low because of an error committed
Development of Standards
> In developing a performance standard, it is mandatory
that a criterion is established and specified
> Example: Competency of the nursing profession in the
Philippines
 
Types of Standards
a. Structure Standards
-focus on the structure of management system used by
an agency to organize and deliver nursing care who
provides that care
b. Process Standards
-refer to actual nursing care procedures or those activities
engaged in by nurses to administer care
c. Outcome Standards
-designed for measuring the results of nursing care
include Conflict Management, Budgeting, and discipline
Dysfunctional Consequences of Control
a. Game Playing- a game between the “boss and me and
I want to win”
b. Resisting Control- passive aggression or negative
reaction to too much control
c. Providing Inaccurate Information- lack of
understanding of why the information is needed
d. Following Rules to the Letter- following dumb and
unprofitable rules in reaction to “do as I say”
e. Sabotaging- stealing, discrediting other workers,
chasing customers away, gossiping about the firm to
people in the community
f. Playing One Manager Off Against Another- Exploiting
lack of communication among managers, asking a second
manager if don’t like the answer of the first manager.
 DIRECTING

- Is the issuance
of assignment,
orders and
instructions ,
delegation
• It is through directing that the manager;
– encourages personnel to accomplish their assigned tasks
– achieving the objectives
– laid down the organization while planning and organizing
the operations.

• Directing goes beyond giving orders and instructions;

- final major step
- ensure that the organization’s goal is
accomplished
- thus, must ensure that she has assigned the works
properly
-gotten the right person for each task that needs to
be accomplished.
 - employee must have a genuine interest in the
task that needs to be accomplished
  -employees are able to get along harmoniously
-directing employees invariably depend on the
relationships existing among them.
- in a nursing care environment where continued
interaction among the various employees
 
• Definition of Directing

- issuing of orders assignments, instructions to

accomplish the organization’s goals and objectives.
- process of getting the organization’s work done.
- explaining what is to be done, to and by whom, at
what time, how and why.

• Remember: All directions must be consistent with

the department policies
 • Characteristics of Good Direction
1. Direction must be clear, concise, consistent and
complete.
2. Apart from being understandable, the person giving
directions must explain the rationale well and make
certain that it is understood.
3. The words used in the directions indicate their
importance. For example, the words “must” ,”shall” and
“will” indicate that the directions are mandatory. The
word “may” denotes that action is recommended, while
the word “should” places the directive somewhere
between mandatory and recommended action
• The person giving directions must speak distinctly
and slowly. Directions must come across as
requests not commands, using a specific tone and
set of words. She should give directions in logical
manner and prioritize the tasks directed to be
done by importance and time.
• It is important, furthermore.
 To avoid giving too many directions at one time:
To personalize directions
To always check to make sure directions have been
followed.
 Tools in directing

 
A. Nursing Care Plan
 
• outlines the nursing care to be provided to a
patient
• set of actions the nurse will implement to
resolve nursing problems identified by
assessment
• guides in the ongoing provision of nursing care
and assists in the evaluation of that care.
 
• Element of Directing
 
1. Delegation
– Act of assigning to someone else a portion of work to be done with corresponding
authority, responsibility and accountability (ARA)
– An assignment is a task done with ARA.
– Skill to be learned and mattered beginning with learning what cannot be delegated
and what will be delegated and to whom.
 
• What cannot be delegated?
 
• Certain matters cannot be delegated,
a. Overall ARA,
b. File evaluation of staff performance and
c. Correcting and disciplining staff
d. Activities which the nurse to whom the task is delegated does not
know how or does not want to do because it is unpleasant.
e. Delegated tasks must be based on policies, job description and
capacities of workers.
  Five“rights”
Delegation of delegation:

 Right task
 Right

• Manager decides circumstances

what task should  Right person

be delegated,  Right direction

when, where and and
by whom. communication
 Right

supervision
• Why manager do not want to delegate

1. Mistakes in delegation can be costly

2. Failure to delegate wisely increases management
costs and contributes to personnel dissatisfaction,
3. Fear on the part of the director, of her own ability
to delegate
4. Fear of losing control of staff
5. Fear of failing to get others to do works
6. Fear of criticism.
• Common Delegation Errors
 
A. Under delegating
 
• managers’ false assumption that delegation may be interpreted as
lack of ability on his or her part to do the job correctly and
completely. The manager manifests his desire to do the job himself.
He has trust issues and thus lacks the trust in his subordinates. He is
insecure that he fears that subordinates will resent the work
delegated to them.
 
• Under delegating also occurs when the manager lack experience in
the job. Thus, there is excessive need to control and be perfect.
 
B. Over delegating
 
- unnecessarily burdens the subordinates with tasks that are either
inconsequential or irrelevant to the delivery of the goal. The culprit
is usually poor management of time and insecurity in the art of the
nurse manager in her ability to perform tasks.
 
C. Improper Delegating
 
- Delegation of tasks and responsibilities beyond which the person
cannot perform properly I improper delegation.
- therefore: manager should be able to determine the talents and
capacities of his subordinates.
 
2. Supervision
 
• process of guiding and directing the work to
be done.
• motivating and encouraging the staff to
participate
• helping the staff to do their work better.
 
• Principle of Good Supervision

– supervisor is in a position to exert strong

influence in motivating individuals
– supervisor can incite in her employees ideas and
emotions
– This means a supervisor:
a. Can produce attitudes which are both
positive and negative in character,
b. Produces positive attitudes when are
positive when an employee is conscious of
the benefits to himself which he attributes
to the influence of the supervisor;
c. Produces negative attitude when the
reaction of workers is resistance to
discipline or actual fear of demotion or
discharge.
• Principles of good supervision for supervisors and
manager in general

1. Good supervision is focused on the improvement

of work rather than upgrading the workers.
2. It is based on lines of authority, organizational
philosophy, vision/mission, the job description,
policies and standards, the needs of the
individual,
3. Focuses on the 3 areas of skills: Conceptual,
Technical and Interpersonal.
4. It is cooperatively planned and accepts both
challenge and change.
5. It uses a democratic process to facilitate:
 
 Effective communication;
Continuous improvement of staff ;
Respect for the individuality of each staff member;
Bring about a harmonious relationship and a
conductive social, psychological and physical
atmosphere
• The ultimate goal of good supervision is to
provide safe, effective, quality care.
• Responsibilities of Supervisors
 
a. Supervisors have the duty to teach and
motivate the staff
b. Facilitate staff work.
c. Should delegate work responsibilities and;
d. Be available for consultation
e. Should also perform assessment
f. Evaluation of work performance condition.
3. Staff Development
  Is planned experience to help employees
perform effectively, and to enrich their
competence in practice, education,
administration and research. It is re-
training them for better performance in
areas of SKA.
• Functions of Staff Development
 
a. To maintain staff efficiency and effectiveness;
b. To create quality employees;
c. To meet the staff needs and address their problems,
such as deficiencies in knowledge, skills and attitude;
d. To motivate them and improve their self confidence;
e. To help them for greater responsibilities, e.g. in
planning, orientation, continuing education- in
service patient education, advisory and research.
• In service Training and Continuing Education
service training
- develop skills in a specific discipline or occupation.
- takes place after an individual begins her work
responsibilities.
- in service training is conducted during a break in the
individual’s work schedule.
 professional continuing education programs
- specific learning activity generally characterized by the
issuance of a certificate or continuing education units (CEU)
- documenting attendance at a designated seminar or course of
instruction.
4. Coordination

– Links the different components of an organization

– Lead towards goal achievement.
– Creates harmony on all activities to facilitate success
of work
– Well-coordinated organization, everything has been
delegated to guard against leaving loose ends.
 
5. Collaboration
 
• All together with other members of the health
care team participate in the decision making
process.
• Sometimes they join forces with another as a
medical group or larger group, like another
health care team or one fulfilling a different
role for this purpose.
6. Communication
 
- ensures common understanding via various
routes.
- process by which a message is sent, received and
understood as interest.
- goal is to narrow the gap between the intended
and the received message
- directions have to be reasonable and
understandable
-not merely trying to make people understand;
but aim to changing people’s behavior.
 Communication process
6 steps:
1. Ideation- decides to share
content of a message
2. Encoding -meaning into symbolic
form
3. Transmission
4. Receiving- receiver’s senses of
seeing and hearing are activated
5. Decoding- receiver defines words
and interprets gestures
6. Response or feedback
LINES OF COMMUNICATION
Four dimensional flow in Nursing care

UPWARD
(to superior)

HORIZONTAL NURSES OUTWARD

(peer) (IFC)

DOWNWARD
( subordinates)
1. Downward- ex: policies, rules,
regulations, performance
appraisal
2. Upward – ex: grievance
procedure, incident reports,
written reports
3. Horizontal/ lateral -
endorsements
4. Outward - image to the public
7. Evaluation

• important role of the manager is to

determine performance and state desired
outcome of what has been done. 
• purpose of evaluation is to determine how
far or how many of the organization’s
objectives were accomplished.
• Purpose of Evaluation

a. Provide constructive feedback;

b. Determine progress and worthiness of
individual nurse for greater responsibilities;
c. Serve as basic for promotion and increase in
salary or other similar rewards.
 
• Evaluation is also meant to:

a. Recognize and further develop strengths;

b. Minimize weakness;
c. Provide security for patients, personnel,
agency and the community;
d. Develop a fair employments practice and
performance appraisal process that is in
accordance with the law.
• Different Types of Evaluation

a. OUTCOME OR PRODUCT EVALUATION: which

takes note of the response of patients after
nursing care is done.
b. PROCESS EVALUATION: nursing action is
examined to determine if client goals have been
met or have not been met.
c. STRUCTURE EVALUATION: the goal is to obtain
feedback on the systems such as financial and
material resources, nursing personnel, policies
and procedures.
 Legally Sound Performance Evaluation
1. It should be in writing and carried out at least once a year.
2. The information should be shared with the employee.
3. employee should have the opportunity to respond in writing to the
appraisal, mechanism to appeal or question
4. The manager should have adequate opportunity to either directly
observe the employee’s job performance
5. Anecdotal notes on the performance should be kept throughout the
evaluation period and should be shared to the employee.
6. The evaluator should be trained to carry out the appraisal process,
including:
– What constitutes reasonable job performance
– How complete the form
– How to carry out feedback interview

 ** appraisal system is non-discriminatory.

** focus on employee behavior and results rather than an personal traits
or characteristics
• Change Process
 
• Means substituting one thing for another,
• Experiencing a shift in circumstances that cause
differences
• Becoming different from before.
e.g. changing methods and systems to improve the
accomplishment of objectives, changing objectives
and retrenchment to adjust depleted resources to
meet competitions and fluctuations of
environmental factors I a health care system
• Factors that influence change

a. External forces : events or happenings that

influence the organization as a whole or its top
administration.
e.g. population explosion, legislation, or economic
forces.
b. Internal forces: originate primarily from inside
operations
e.g. results of external changes such as the
composition of staffing pattern, and quality of life.
• Steps in change process
a. Begins if needs for change is perceived
b. Identify external and internal forces for
change,
c. Activities during above interaction
 To state the problem;
 Identify constraints;
 List change strategies or possible approaches to
problem solving;
 Select the best change strategy;
 Formulate as a group a plan for implementation
and or develop or select tools for evaluation
• Strategies for managing process
a. Empirical-Rational
- an assumption that people are rational and behave
according to rational interest.
- assume that people are willing to adopt to change if
justified and determine how he can benefit from the
change process
b. Normative Re-Educative
• - based on assumption that people are consistent to
their commitment to socio-cultural norms and values
c. Power-coercive
- use sources of power to bring change
e.g. strikes, sit-in, negations, and conflict confrontation
and administration decision.
• Resistance to change
reason:
-lack of trust
- vested interest in status quo
- fear of failure
- loss of status or income
- misunderstanding and belief that the
change is not necessary.
 
 strategies in handling:
• Communicate
• Clarify information and provide accurate feedback.
• Be open to revisions but firm and clear about what
must remain.
• Present negative
• Emphasize positive
• Keep those resisting change in face to face contact with
supporters, encourages proponents to emphasize with
their opponent, recognize valid objections and relieve
unnecessary fears.
• Maintain a climate of trust, support and confidence.
• Create a different disturbance to distract the attention
of those involved.
• Ability of a change agent:
1. Ability to combine ideas from unconnected
sources
2. Ability to energize others by keeping the
interest level up and demonstrating a high
personal energy level.
• 3. Skills in human relations can be attained with:
– Well-developed interpersonal communication
– Group management and problem solving skill
– Skills in integrating thinking
– Ability to retain a picture focus while dealing with each
part of the system considered all factors in problem
solving and decision making.
4. Sufficient flexibility to modify ideas but firm
enough
5. Enhances confidence level and the tendency
not easily discouraged
6. Realistic on pragmatic thinking in order to
learn how to cope and adapt to change.
7. Trustworthiness, .
8. Ability to articulate a vision
9. Ability to handle resistance through
influence and support
Conflict

• natural, inevitable condition in organizations

• often a prerequisite to change in people and
organizations.
• consequence of real or perceived differences in
goals, values, ideas, attitudes, beliefs, feelings and
actions.
These can occur on several levels namely:
Intrapersonal or within one individual
Interpersonal or within 2 or more individuals
Intragroup or within one group
Intergroup or between 2 or more groups
2 Types of conflicts
1. Competitive conflicts
- 2 or more groups’ attempts the same goals
- only 1 group can attain them.
- victory for one side and a loss for the others.
- resolve by set of rules
2. Disruptive Conflicts
- occur in an environment filled with fear, anger and
stress.
- no mutually acceptable set of rules
- goal of each party is the elimination of its
opponent.
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION:
1. Avoidance – reduce tension(no difference)
2. Accommodation - self sacrifice
3. Collaboration /Integrative (mutual attention)
4. Compromise (agreement of solution)
5. Withdrawing – one party is removed
6. Forcing – immediate end but cause unresolved
7. Win-lose strategy (dominance & suppression)
8. Restriction (autocratic, coercive style)
9. Smoothing Behaviour (diplomatic, persuasion)
10. Major Rules
11. Win-win (goals to meet needs of both parties
12. Lose Lose (no one wins, solution is unsatisfactory)
13. Confrontation (most effective, use knowledge & reason)
14. Negotiation (give and take)
 
 
Conflict Resolution
 
• The use of Dominance and Suppression or win-lose
strategy is a method that represses rather than
settles conflict, creating a win-lose situation in which
the loser is left feeling angry and antagonistic.
• Restriction is an autocratic, coercive style than often
leads to indirect and destructive expression of
conflicts.
• Smoothing Behavior is a more diplomatic way
of suppressing conflict wherein one
persuades the opponent to give in to the
other side.
• Avoidance behavior creates situation in which
there are no differences.
• Major Rule resolves conflict by majority vote.
• Compromise or Consensus Strategy is a
method where each side agrees upon
solutions that meet everyone’s needs.
• Integrative Problem-solving is a constructive
process in which the parties involved
recognize that conflict exists and openly try
to solve problems.
• A win- win Strategy focuses on goals and
attempts to meet the needs of both parties.
• A lose- Lose Strategy is one in which neither
side wins; the settlement reached is
unsatisfactory to both sides.
• Confrontation is regarded as the most
effective means of resolving in which it is
brought out in an open and attempts are
made to resolve it through knowledge and
reason.
• Negotiation is a technique where conflict
parties give and take on various issues.
• Team Building
 
– purpose of sharing and applying their individual
skills towards the achievement of goals
– work together towards achieving a more
productively.
– focuses on both the task and relationship
aspects of group performance to maximize
diffidence and productivity.
• Characteristics of an effective team
1. Has defined goals
2. Work cooperatively and collaboratively
towards achieving these goals
3. Has agreed goals that reflect members need
and values.
4. Has a good definition of its member’s role.
 
Cohesiveness of a Team

1. Share similar values and beliefs;

2. Are motivated by the same goals and tasks;
3. Must interact to achieve their goals and tasks;
4. Work in proximity to each other on the same
unit and on the same shift;
5. Have specific needs that can be satisfied by
involvement in the group.
 INTRA-DISCIPLINARY
AND MULTI-
DISCIPLINARY TEAM
WORK AND
COLLABORATION
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 Collaboration in health care is defined as
health care professionals assuming
complementary roles and cooperatively
working together, sharing responsibility
for problem-solving and making decisions
to formulate and carry out plans for
patient care (Fagin, 1992).

Collaboration between physicians, nurses,

and other health care professionals
increases team members’ awareness of
each others’ type of knowledge and skills,
leading to continued improvement in
decision making (Christensen & Larson,
1993) .
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 Effective teams are characterized by trust,
respect, and collaboration.

Deming (1982) is one of the greatest proponents

of teamwork. Teamwork, he believes, is endemic
to a system in which all employees are working for
the good of a goal, who have a common aim, and
who work together to achieve that aim.

When considering a teamwork model in health

care, an interdisciplinary approach should be
applied in which each team member is responsible
only for the activities related to his or her own
discipline and formulates separate goals for the
patient, an interdisciplinary approach coalesces a
SLIDESMANIA.C

joint effort on behalf of the patient with a common

goal from all disciplines involved in the care plan.
 Components of Successful
Teamwork (Hughes, 2008)

1. Open communication
2. Non-punitive environment
3. Clear direction
4. Clear and known roles and
tasks for team members
5. Respectful atmosphere
6. Shared responsibility for team
success
7. Appropriate balance of member
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participation for the task at hand

 8. Acknowledgment and processing
of conflict
9. Clear specifications regarding
authority and accountability
10. Clear and known decision-
making procedures
11. Regular and routine
communication and information
sharing
12. Enabling environment, including
access to needed resources
13. Mechanism to evaluate outcomes
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and adjust accordingly

 Common Barriers to Interprofessional
Communication and Collaboration (Hughes,
2008)

1. Personal values and expectations

2. Personality differences
3. Hierarchy
4. Disruptive behavior
5. Culture and ethnicity
6. Generational differences
7. Gender
8. Historical interprofessional and
intraprofessional rivalries
9. Differences in language and jargon
SLIDESMANIA.C
 10. Differences in schedules and
professional routines
11. Varying levels of preparation,
qualifications, and status
12. Differences in requirements,
regulations, and norms of professional
education
13. Fears of diluted professional identity
14. Differences in accountability,
payment, and rewards
15. Concerns regarding clinical
responsibility
16. Complexity of care
17. Emphasis on rapid decision making
SLIDESMANIA.C
 SBAR (Situation-Background-Assessment-
Recommendation) Communication Tool.
> This technique has been implemented widely at
health systems
> provides a framework for communication
between members of the health care team about a
patient’s condition.
> is an easy-to-remember tool used to create
mechanisms useful for framing any conversation,
especially critical ones, requiring a clinician’s
immediate attention and action.
> It allows for an easy and focused way to set
expectations between members of the team for what
will be communicated and how, which is essential for
information transfer and cohesive teamwork. 
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Situation – What is going on with the patient? “I am
calling about Mrs. Joseph in room 251. Chief complaint
is shortness of breath of new onset.

Background – What is the clinical background or

context? “Patient is a 62-year-old female post-op day
one from abdominal surgery. No prior history of cardiac
or lung disease.”

Assessment – What do I think the problem is? “Breath

sounds are decreased on the right side with
acknowledgment of pain. Would like to rule out
pneumothorax.”

Recommendation – What would I do to correct it? “I

feel strongly the patient should be assessed now. Are
SLIDESMANIA.C

you available to come in?”

 Collaborative care
> is a healthcare model which aims to improve
patient outcomes through inter-professional
cooperation.
> commonly include a primary or tertiary care
team working with allied health professionals –
such as dieticians, physiotherapists or mental
health professionals – or medical specialists. 
> effective collaboration encourages patients,
families and healthcare providers to be active
participants in the treatment process which in turn
promotes improved quality outcomes,
improvements in patient experience, patient
safety, and effective use of resources.
SLIDESMANIA.C
 The role of nurses in collaborative care
1. adaptability, empathy, and communication skills,
which allows for them to be excellent leaders and
members of a care team.

2. understand and assess a patient’s clinical,

emotional, and social needs can help them to call
upon available resources and create a patient-
focused care plan.

3. unique and focused view of how that care should

be provided.

4. role models in their honest and open

communication with team members about the quality
of patient care which is being provided and the work
SLIDESMANIA.C

environment.
 The benefits of collaborative nursing:
1. Allows nurses from various backgrounds and
levels of expertise to perform their duties effectively.

2. Ensures that temporary staff and ‘transitioning to

practice’ nurses have improved supervision by
senior nursing staff.

3. Takes advantage of knowledge and experience of

each team members, which also leads to
professional development and increased knowledge
for junior staff.

4. Reduction in staff isolation and a more supportive

working environment
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 5. Patient outcomes and satisfaction is improved
 
6. Individual team members can familiarise
themselves with each other’s skills and capacities
 
7. Significantly reduced risk of missed care (any
patient care which is omitted or delayed)
 
8. The workload is shared which can reduce nurse
stress levels and potential manual handling injuries
 
9. Increased job satisfaction and morale
 
10. Nursing duties are made easier if team members
are working together in a close environment and can
assist and support one another
SLIDESMANIA.C
 APPLICATION OF
RESEARCH IN NURSING
LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT
SLIDESMANIA.C
  defined as patient-reported outcome measure
while the structures and processes of care can be
measured by patient-reported experiences
(Oyvind, 2011). 

 pointed out that patient satisfaction mostly

appears to represent attitudes towards care or
aspects of care (Jenkinson C et al., 2002 & Ahmed
et al., 2011). 

 patient satisfaction as patients’ emotions, feelings

and their perception of delivered healthcare
services (Mohan et al, 2011).

 patient satisfaction as a degree of congruency

between patient expectations of ideal care and
SLIDESMANIA.C

their perceptions of real care received (Iftikhar,

2011).
SLIDESMANIA.C
 > is a strategic process that involves
identifying the organizational goals,
competency gathering and analyzing the
information, determining the gaps
between the current situation and the
future requirement. 

> a useful tool for the managers to design

the training programs properly as it
focuses on the actual needs of the
employees.

> it helps explain where, when, how, and

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what types of training activities are given

to the workers.
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Action Research in Healthcare is a practical guide to
using research for improving practice in healthcare
contexts. As an increasingly popular method of
inquiry, action research is widely used in healthcare
to investigate professional practice and patients'
experience while simultaneously:

- introducing innovations

- planning, actioning and evaluating new ideas

- seeking to improve patient care

- working collaboratively.
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Referenc
es
Fagin CM (1992). Collaboration between nurses and physicians: no
longer a choice. Nurs Health Care. ;13(7):354–62.
Oyvind AB, Ingeborg S. S., &Hilde, H., I. (2011). Overall patient
satisfaction with hospitals: effects of patient-reported experiences and
fulfillment of expectations, British Medical Journal Quality Safety, 
Christensen C, Larson JR (1993). Collaborative medical decision
making. Med Decis Making. ;13:339–46. Iftikhar, A., Allah N., Shadiullah, K., Habibullah, K., Muhammad, A.,
R.,Muhammad, H., K. (2011). PREDICTORS OF PATIENT
Deming WE (1982). Out of crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Center for SATISFACTION,Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol: 9, No. 2, pp.:
Advanced Engineering Study. 183-188.

Hughes RG (2008). Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Jenkinson C, Coulter A, Bruster S, Richards N, Chandola T (2002).
Handbook for Nurses. Patients' experiences and satisfaction with health care: results of a
Chapter 33, Professional Communication and Team Collaboration. questionnaire study of specific aspects of care. Qual Saf Health Care.
Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US) 2002 Dec; 11(4):335-9.

Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Guidelines for communicating Koshy E, Koshy V & Waterman H (2021). Action Research in
with physicians using the SBAR process. http://www​.ihi.org/IHI​/Topics/ Healthcare. Retrieved from https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/action-
PatientSafety​/SafetyGeneral/Tools​/ research-in-healthcare/book233457
SBARTechniqueforCommunicationASituationalBriefingModel​.htm. 

https
://healthtimes.com.au/hub/nursing-careers/6/guidance/ht1/nurses-in-col
laborative-care-teams/2879
SLIDESMANIA.C

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2637/
SLIDESMANIA.C
• FILIPINO VALUE
SYSTEM
  Models of Filipino values
F. Landa Jocano - identified two models of the
Filipino value system. The first is the
exogenous model or the foreign
model, while the second is the indigenous
model or the traditional model.
 Filipino values in a fourfold
sense:

1. although mankind shares universal human

values, it is obvious that certain values take
on for us a distinctively Filipino flavor. The
Greek ideal of moderation or meden agan,
the Roman in medio stat virtus, the
Confucian and Buddhist "doctrine of the
Middle", find their Filipino equivalent in
hindi labis, hindi kulang, katamtaman
lamang.
 Filipino values in a fourfold sense:

2. when we speak of Filipino values, we do not mean that

elements of these Filipino values are absent in the value
systems of other peoples and cultures.
 Filipino values in a fourfold sense:

3. universal human values in a Filipino context

(historical, cultural, socio-economic, political,
moral and religious) take on a distinctive set of
Filipino meanings and motivations.
 Filipino values in a fourfold sense:
4. The Filipino concept of justice has evolved
from inequality to equality, and to human
dignity; from the tribe, to the family, and to
the nation. Filipino consciousness of these
different values varies at different periods of
our history. It is only in the last two decades
that the Filipino people have become more
conscious of overpopulation and family
planning, environmental pollution (Kawasaki
sintering plant) and wildlife conservation
(Calauit Island), and the violation of human
rights (Martial Law), active non-violence and
People Power (1986 non-violent Revolution).
Generally, there are Six types of Value System:
 Theoretical - places high importance on discovery

of truth through a critical and rational approach.

 Economic - emphasizes on the useful and practical

form of values.
 Aesthetic - places highest value on form and

harmony
 Social - highest value is given to love of people

 Political - emphasizes on acquisition of power and

influence.
 Religious - concerned with unity of experience and
understanding of cosmos as a whole.
FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES: (The Filipinos
have different kinds of values, such as):

1. hospitable to their guests and kind to other

people.
2. The Filipino children are very respectful to elders
especially their parent. They take their hand and
hit it gently in their foreheads. They do this every
time they meet an elder or a sign of respecting
them.
3. Many Filipino cultural values reflect the desire to
be together as a group.
 * Many Filipino cultural values reflect the
desire to be together as a group:
examples are:
a. pakikisama. This is the ability to get along in
a group, and to enjoy camaraderie and
togetherness. One who understands pakikisama will
yield to group opinion and sacrifice individual
welfare for group welfare.
b. utang na loob. This is the Filipino obligation
to repay a debt or favor upon request, and repay it
with interest. Every Filipino has utang na loob to
someone, while others have utang na loob to him.
Filipinos also believe strongly in suki, which is the
building of personal bonds between businesses and
customers and loyal patronage.
FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES: (The Filipinos
have different kinds of values, such as):

4. Filipinos believe strongly in saving face.

This is why, in response to an invitation,
when a Filipino says yes, it might mean “yes”,
but could mean “maybe”, or even “I don’t
know.” It is often difficult for Filipinos to bring
themselves to say no, and it is a good idea to
confirm a dinner invitation several times to
ensure that they did not say yes because they
could not find a proper way to say no.
Examples of saving face are:
a.amor propio, - which means self respect;

b.Hiya - which means shame.

A Filipino would be thought of as lacking amor

propio if, for example, they accepted criticism
weakly or did not offer honored guests the
proper hospitality. Hiya is felt by those whose
actions are seen as socially unacceptable, and
one of the ultimate insults in Philippine society
is to be labeled walang-hiya, which roughly
translates to being shameless.
FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES: (The Filipinos have
different kinds of values, such as):

5. Another value that is common in Philippine

culture is bahala na - which means, literally,
leaving things to God.
It indicates the Filipino’s fatalistic view of life, and is
a way of coping with conflicts that can result from
tight kinship within groups. By adopting this
attitude, one lets the circumstance take care of
itself.
Generally, common Filipino
Cultural Values are:
1. Irrationalism. This refers to a certain
superstitious beliefs of Filipinos that still
practiced up to now. People still believed in
gods of the nature and spirits and offer them
foods and placate the sprits to heal the illness
and provide them a good harvest.
Another common Filipino
Cultural Values:

2. Social Belongingness. Filipinos

want to be accepted by the group or to the
community, so, sometimes Filipinos are doing
things just to please somebody. We are not
true to ourselves. Sometimes we avoided to be
franked to others just not hurt others feelings,
because we are so sensitive.
Another common Filipino
Cultural Values:

3. Close family ties. The family

is the most important in our life. We are totally
dependent with our family. We are doing things
for the common good or for the benefits of the
family. Children should obey their parents
because if they will defy parental advises it will
bring misfortune or their life becomes tragic.
Another common Filipino Cultural
Values:

4. Sense of debt gratitude. In

Filipino term, it is “utang na loob”. We are
obliged to do something in return for what others
do for us. We are very particular in stressing this
owing a debt of gratitude, that’s why we are
always expecting for repayment. This value has
been taken advantage by others especially the
politicians. This “utang na loob” may result to
faithfulness and a cause for graft and corruption.
Another common Filipino
Cultural Values:

5. Emphasis on authority.
Father is the head of the family; Mayor is the
head of the town and whatsoever. We give
more emphasis to what the person is. The
status of the person depends on his wealth
and acquisition of land.
Another common Filipino Cultural
Values:

6. Personal improvement. Most

Filipinos are aiming to raise their family in standard
living. We believed that we will obtain success only
when we will finish our education. Education has
played a major role in obtaining success that’s why
parents would sacrifice themselves just to send their
children to school. In return, older brother and sister
would help their younger ones to go to school and
would not get married until they help their parents.
Another common Filipino Cultural
Values:

7. "Mano po“ - "Mano po" (pronounced

mah-noh poh) refers to a physical gesture of
taking the hand of an elder and bringing it towards
your forehead. This is a sign of respect for the
elder and is usually done at the point of greeting
or farewell. Children are expected to perform this
gesture towards adult relatives & adult family
friends. Failure to perform "mano po" would be
considered as disrespectful.
Another common Filipino
Cultural Values:
8. "Kuya" or "Ate“. The Filipino culture
is very big on respect. The older an individual
is, the more they call for respect. The term
'kuya' (pronounced koo-yah) refers to an older
male person; it means 'big brother.' Its verbal
usage indicates that you respect the older
male and recognize the difference in age.
Another common Filipino Cultural
Values:
9. The power of the eyebrows.
In American culture, the eyebrows usually convey
emotion via a variety of facial expressions. In Filipino
culture, raising your eyebrows can also communicate
a positive affirmation of "yes" when a yes/no
question have been asked. So, should a Filipino fail to
verbally answer your question, look at their eyebrows
before feeling like you were being ignored. In reality,
they may just be answering you non-verbally through
the raising of their eyebrows. Raising your eyebrows
accompanied with strong eye contact can also serve
as a greeting or farewell to an individual you cannot
physically touch.
Another common Filipino Cultural
Values:

ningas-kugon / ningas kugon

10.
- "flaming cogon grass" = quickly
going up in flames, refers to the Filipino
cultural trait of very enthusiastically
starting things, but then quickly losing
enthusiasm soon after.
Categories of Filipino Values:
a.Core Value or kapwa: (kapwa, means “togetherness”)
– is the core construct of Filipino Psychology.
Two categories of Kapwa:
1.Ibang tao (“outsider”): there are five domains

* pakikitungo (civility)
* pakikisalamuha (act of mixing)
* Pakikilahok (act of joining)
* Pakikisama (being united with the group)
* Pakikibagay (conformity)
2.Hindi Ibang Tao (“one – of – us”): there are three domains

* pakikipagpalagayang-loob (act of mutual trust)

* Pakikisangkot (act of joining others)
* Pakikipagkaisa ( being one with others)
Categories of Filipino Values:

b. Pivotal Interpersonal Value

* Pakiramdam ( Shared inner

perception).
Filipinos use damdam, or the
inner perception of others’ emotions, as
a basic tool to guide his dealings with
other people.
Categories of Filipino Values:

c. Linking Socio-personal Value

* kagandahang-Loob ( Shared humanity).

This refers to being able to help
other people in dire need due to a
perception of being together as a part of
one Filipino humanity.
Categories of Filipino Values:
d. Accommodative Surface values
* Hiya (Loosely translated as “Shame”) , by
Western psychologists, hiya is actually “Sense of
Propriety” (sense of good conduct or behavior)
* Utang na Loob (norm of Reciprocity). Filipinos
are expected by their neighbors to return favors –
whether these were asked for or not – when it is
neded or wanted.
* Pakikisama and Pakikipagkapwa (SIR -
Smooth Interpersonal relationship). This attitude
is primarily guided by conformity with the
majority.
e. Confrontative Surface values
* Bahala Na (This attitude, loosely translated into
English as “FATALISTIC PASSIVENESS”). This
actually describes the Filipino way fo life, in
which, he is determined to do his best, hence,
the term bahala na, which actually came from
the phrase “Bathalan Na” – which means “I will
do all my best, let God take care of the rest”.
* Lakas ng Loob – This attitude is characterized
by being courageous in the midst of problems
and uncertainties.
* Pakikibaka (in English, it means CONCURRENT
CLASHES. It refers to the ability of the Filipino
to undertake revolutions and uprisings against
a common enemy.
Filipino Society & Culture

A.Filipino Family Values

The family is the centre of the social structure and includes
the nuclear family, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and
honorary relations such as godparents, sponsors, and close
family friends.
People get strength and stability from their family. As such,

many children have several godparents.

Concern for the extended family is seen in the patronage

provided to family members when they seek employment.

It is common for members of the same family to work for the

same company.
 In fact, many collective bargaining agreements state that

preferential hiring will be given to family members.

Filipino Society & Culture

B. Filipino Concept of Shame

Hiya is shame and is a motivating factor behind behaviour.
 It is a sense of social propriety and conforming to societal

norms of behaviour.
Filipinos believe they must live up to the accepted standards

of behaviour and if they fail to do so they bring shame not only

upon themselves, but also upon their family.
 One indication of this might be a willingness to spend more

than they can afford on a party rather than be shamed by their

economic circumstances.
 If someone is publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not

live up to expectations, they feel shame and lose self-esteem.

Etiquette & Customs:

A. Meeting Etiquette
Initial greetings are formal and follow a set protocol

of greeting the eldest or most important person first.

 A handshake, with a welcoming smile, is the

standard greeting.
 Close female friends may hug and kiss when they

meet.
Use academic, professional, or honorific titles and

the person's surname until you are invited to use

their first name, or even more frequently, their
nickname.
Etiquette & Customs:
B. Gift Giving Etiquette
If you are invited to a Filipino home for dinner

bring sweets or flowers to the hosts.

If you give flowers, avoid chrysanthemums and

white lilies.
 You may send a fruit basket after the event as a

thank you but not before or at the event, as it

could be interpreted as meaning you do not think
that the host will provide sufficient hospitality.
Wrap gifts elegantly as presentation is important.

There are no color restrictions as to wrapping

paper.
Gifts are not opened when received.
Etiquette & Customs:
C. Dining Etiquette: (If you are invited to a
Filipino's house):
It is best to arrive 15 to 30 minutes later than

invited for a large party.

 Never refer to your host's wife as the hostess.

This has a different meaning in the Philippines.

Dress well. Appearances matter and you will

be judged on how you dress.

Compliment the hostess on the house.

Send a handwritten thank you note to the

hosts in the week following the dinner or party.

It shows you have class.
Etiquette & Customs:
D. Table manners
Wait to be asked several times before moving into the
dining room or helping yourself to food.
Wait to be told where to sit. There may be a seating plan.

Do not start eating until the host invites you to do so.

Meals are often served family- style or are buffets where

you serve yourself.

A fork and spoon are the typical eating utensils.

 Hold the fork in the left hand and use it to guide food to

the spoon in your right hand.

Whether you should leave some food on your plate or

finish everything is a matter of personal preference rather

than culture-driven.