CASSAVA (MANIHOT ESCULENTA) AND SWEET POTATO (IPOMOEA BATATAS)

AS RAW MATERIALS FOR BIOPLASTICS: A META-ANALYSIS STUDY

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Laboratory High School

General Tinio Campus, Cabanatuan City

A Research Paper

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

Research and Capstone Project

By:

Ariola, Ralph Godwin M.

Baldonado, Hiro Miko S.

Dela Peña, Chelsy Gayle S.

Gabaldon, Allana Joyce R.

Legaspi, John Christian V.

2021

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 APPROVAL SHEET

This study entitled “CASSAVA (MANIHOT ESCULENTA) AND SWEET POTATO

(IPOMOEA BATATAS) AS RAW MATERIALS FOR BIOPLASTICS: A META-

ANALYSIS STUDY” prepared and submitted in A.Y 2020-2021 by:

Ariola, Ralph Godwin M.

Baldonado, Hiro Miko S.

Dela Peña, Chelsy Gayle S.

Gabaldon, Allana Joyce R.

Legaspi, John Christian V.

Has been examined and accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in the subjects

Capstone and Research Project of Laboratory Senior High School Grade 12 – STEM

Nanette B. Salasac Gervin S. Tandingan

Capstone Project Adviser Research Project Adviser

Ronelia Santos Lorenzo Gabriel

Quijano Reeves Jomell Santiago

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 ABSTRACT

In this meta-analysis study, researchers gathered several published literatures available on

the internet that were analyzed as a preparation for the discussion of several factors of bioplastics

based on cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomea batatas). Overall effects of

plasticizers on bioplastic properties were determined as well as the most effective methodology

used in producing starch-based bioplastics. With this determination, an analysis in terms of

physical properties: such as color, transparency, thickness, film solubility, moisture absorption,

and biodegradability, and mechanical properties such as tensile strength and elongation at break

were also conducted. It is concluded that starch-based bioplastics is highly affected by the

plasticizer used, along with its concentration percentage, specifically its mechanical properties.

Moreover, cassava and sweet potato starch-based bioplastics have a high potential on replacing

synthetic plastics and could also be used as a substitute for conventional plastics with further

improvements.

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 Table of Contents

Title…………………………………………………………………………….. i

Approval Sheet……………………………………………………………..…… ii

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. iii

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………… iv

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………..…… vi

Dedication………………………………………………………………..…….. vii

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 1

Objectives……………………………………………………………………… 3

Materials and Methods…………………………………………………………. 6

Results and Discussion………………………………………………………… 9

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 59

References…………………………………………………………………….... 60

Appendices……………………………………………………………………… 69

Profile of the Researchers………………………………………………………. 77

List of Tables

Table 1. Methods used from various studies related to Cassava Bioplastics……… 28

Table 2. Methods used from various studies related to Sweet Potato Bioplastics… 34

Table 3. Thickness Value of Sweet Potato Bioplastics………………………...… 41

Table 4. Film solubility Values of Sweet Potato Bioplastics……………………… 43

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Table 5. Moisture Absorption Values of Sweet Potato Bioplastics……………… 46

Table 6. Tensile Strength and Elongation Values of Cassava Bioplastics……… 51

List of Figures

Figure 1. Research Paradigm……………………………………………………… 4

Figure 2. Casting process; Production of Starch-Based Bioplastics……….……… 35

Figure 3. Color Appearance of Cassava Bioplastics …………………………… 36

Figure 4. Color Appearance of Sweet Potato Bioplastics……………………… 39

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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 Though in this time of pandemic, communicating and consulting becomes a difficult

approach as a part of the completion of this meta-analysis study, therefore the researchers would

like to express our deepest appreciation and special gratitude to our mentor in Capstone Project

Ma’am Nanette B. Salasac and our Research adviser Sir Gervin S. Tandingan, as they

continually guided and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to this paper as

well as an excitement in regard to teaching. The researchers extend their sincere thanks to the

distinguished members of the panels, Ma’am Ronelia Samtos, Sir Lorenzo Gabriel, Sir Quijano

Reeves, and Sir Jomell Santiago for their exemplary recognition and rendering constructive and

valuable recommendations that significantly helped the researchers in improving the quality and

content of the study. Without their guidance, this meta-analysis study would not have been

possible.

Above all, the Almighty God for his wisdom he bestowed upon the researchers, the

strength, and the gracious blessing, which helped the researchers to overcome the obstacles and

propelled them to pursue this study.

DEDICATION

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 First of all, this meta-analysis study is wholeheartedly dedicated to God who guided and

helped us throughout our research journey, that despite of the requirements needed to be passed

on time, we were still able to finish every single one of them.

Secondly, this is dedicated to our parents who gave us unconditional support as we’ve

been doing our thesis. They never gave up on providing us a lot of advice and being patient for

releasing our emotions.

We have also dedicated this study to our siblings, relatives, teachers, and classmates for

motivating us to continue to conduct our study.

Last but not the least, this research study is dedicated to our two advisers, Ma’am Nanette

Salasac and Sir Gervin S. Tandingan, who kept advising us and were considerate in terms of our

requirements.

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Introduction

As plastics have been abundant due to its convenience, such materials now pose several

amounts of environmental concerns due to the chemicals that compromise the material. The

composition of plastics are usually non-biodegradable, has a life cycle that ends in waste

disposal facilities posing a threat to several factors or are usually difficult to decompose, and if

so, such waste management are not implemented properly. In the present time, plastics are

widely used as packaging in the Philippines due to their imperviousness to water, noncomplex

production processes, versatility, excellent mechanical and thermal properties, and (Biona et al.,

2015). As a consequence, it leaves a mark in the environment that will take centuries to fix. It is

reported from Jambeck et al., (2015) that Philippines ranked third among the top 20 countries

that produces an abundant amount of plastic wastes. In a study conducted by Monsada (2009),

Metro Manila alone produces plastic 248 tons of plastic waste each day in which 62% were

plastic sando bags. The immense plastic production continues to add risks to several

environmental concerns specially the clogging of drains which then results to flooding; a main

concern of most places in Metro Manila. Furthermore, the degradation of air quality from open

dumps has also poses a threat to the human health.

Additionally, one of the most significant factor that affects the increasing volume of

plastic waste in the country is the “sachet culture” which is sachet based products that are often

used in Filipino households specially in the poorer segments of the Philippine society; studies

showed that an estimated amount of 164 million plastic sachets are disposed daily (Rola 2019).

Moreover, these plastic wrapper or food sachets are the most abundant plastic litter on the

beaches of the Philippines specifically southwestern Luzon which makes up to 85% of plastic

beach wastes (Paler et al., 2019). This interconnects with the study of Superio & Abreo (2020) in

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which they stated that plastics have the potential to increase the concentration of toxic substances

in marine bodies by absorbing chemical pollutants. Not only that, contaminated water can be

drawn out from wells that are consumed for some rural areas that are dependent on underground

tap water; this makes them highly exposed to carcinogenic compounds that are produced and

absorbed by marine plastic wastes. Aside these, some plastics, particularly microplastics

eventually accumulate in the tissues of living organisms such as fish, making them harmful for

human consumption. With this, several researchers have come up with by-products that also

provide the same convenience as these plastics but are more eco-friendly in order to lessen the

waste produced from synthetic food wrappers or plastics— bioplastics which have the capability

to degrade easily when disposed.

An ample amount of researchers have investigated the preparation and production of

bioplastics from starch-based materials such as cassava and sweet potato. It is reported that these

starch-based bioplastics have a promising potential that can substitute the polyethylene plastics

that are currently often used in commercial food products. Moreover, the by-product of thee

starches have promising qualities in terms of physical and mechanical qualities such as film

solubility, tensile strength, elongation at break, color, transparency, thickness, and essentially its

biodegradability. Furthermore, several studies, which will be discussed on the following sections

of this paper, have also shown that bioplastics made from the said crops also produced appealing

materials that will not hinder the frequency of consumption so that more people are encouraged

to opt on using a much more eco-friendly substitute for synthetic plastics.

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Objectives

In this study, the researchers have evaluated, compared, and contrasted several literatures

regarding the production of starch-based bioplastics specifically using cassava (Manihot

esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) as the main ingredient in order to identify the

following objectives:

1) To provide an analysis on the overall effects of plasticizers on the bioplastic properties

2) To determine which methodology is the most effective in producing bioplastic

3) To provide an analysis between cassava and sweet potato starch bioplastic in terms of

physical properties such as:

a. color/transparency

b. thickness

c. film solubility

d. moisture absorption

e. biodegradability

4) To provide an analysis between cassava and sweet potato starch bioplastic in terms of

mechanical properties such as:

a. tensile strength

b. elongation at break

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 PROCESS
Literature Gathering Analysis of Analysis on cassava
and reviewing publish data and and sweet potato
articles literature starch-based bioplastics

INPUT OUTPUT

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

The figure illustrates the Input, Process, and Output of the study. The input states the

gathering of literatures which were collected from the internet using a variety of sites such as

Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com), SpringerLink (https://link.springer.com),

ScienceDirect (https://www.sciencedirect.com), ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net),

PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), Social Science Research Network

(https://www.ssrn.com/index.cfm/en/), and etc. The collected articles and journals were then

reviewed according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study. The process box shows

the analysis of data and literature in which the researchers compared and contrasted several

literatures by factor according to the parameters of this paper. This includes the analysis of

overall effects of plasticizers on starch-based bioplastics, methodology, physical, and mechanical

properties of bioplastics. Lastly, the output section shows the overall summary of the study that

the researchers have concluded from analysing the literatures reviewed.

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Definition of Terms

Bioplastics. These are type of plastics made of renewable resources through biological processes

that can protect the environment.

Microplastics. These are any type of plastic measuring less than 5 mm in length which can be a

consequence to plastic pollution.

Plasticizer. It is an additive incorporated into a plastic in order to soften a material and increase

its flexibility.

Polyethylene plastics. Plastics that are made from polymerization of ethylene which are the

mostly used in the world.

Biodegradable. Refers to any material that can be broken down into pieces by microorganisms.

Sachet. It is a small bag with a quantity of some substance.

Carcinogenic. Any substance that is known to produce carcinogenesis, a formation of cancer.

Degrade. It pertains to a break down of a material chemically.

Solubility. An amount of solute that dissolves in a solvent at a certain temperature.

Biodegradability. The capacity for breaking down of organic materials by living organisms to

base substances.

Tensile strength. An ability of a specific material without breaking.

Elongation at break. It is the ratio between the final length and the initial length after the

specimen breaks.

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Materials and Methods

Data acquisition and processing

This study is a meta-analysis of starch-based bioplastics focusing on cassava (Manihot

esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) as the main ingredient in which the researchers

assessed 58 published literatures. The data and information that are used in our study are

acquired from published journal articles and literatures available in the internet such as Google

Scholar (https://scholar.google.com), SpringerLink (https://link.springer.com), ScienceDirect

(https://www.sciencedirect.com), ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net), PubMed

(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), Social Science Research Network

(https://www.ssrn.com/index.cfm/en/), and etc. that are related to our study. A search strategy of

the following keywords combined are used in manual searching for the studies used in this

paper: starch-based bioplastics; cassava (Manihot esculenta) bioplastics; sweet potato (Ipomoea

batatas) bioplastics; glycerol; sorbitol; chitosan; mechanical properties; physical properties.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

For the criteria of the selection of literatures, the researchers gathered several

experimental or quantitative studies and articles involving the use of cassava and sweet potato as

the main ingredient in producing bioplastics. Any literature that focuses on the use of other crops

or raw materials such as sugarcane, rice, avocado seeds, and etc. are immediately excluded. A

requirement of at least one property: either physical or mechanical, each study is needed for the

literature to be included in the series of analysis. The literature was not limited to any language

as translations of studies are provided and available online. In cases in which translations are not

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provided, the literature was not included. The location of published literature used in the study

was not limited to any places as the researchers also aimed to show that bioplastic production is

not limited to any places and could be done in any country that has an access to the production of

cassava and sweet potato. Furthermore, all literatures used were in the range of 2010 until 2021

in order to keep the validity and credibility of data and information provided. Any studies that

did not meet these criterias are omitted.

Data Analysis

After data acquisition, the researchers will implement a series of discussion of

comparison of the information, data, and methods from several published studies by category

and/or objective. These studies were filtered and reviewed accordingly to the paper’s objectives

and the inclusion and exclusion criterias. Once the literatures have been reviewed, all needed

data are recorded on an Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to create a systematic review according to

the objectives of the study. These data are then used in screening for the comparison and

contrast with other existing literatures according to the study’s parameters.

Each literature were carefully analysed and compared to other articles and journals by

property or according to the study’s objective. To avoid the disorientation of discussion, each

property or factor were analysed one at a time in a systematic manner. Discussion and analysis of

study was done in paragraph form whilst providing data or information in pictorial, figurative,

and tabular manner to keep the presentation of data organized.

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 Mendeley Desktop was used as a reference manager to record all literatures used in the

study to keep track and to avoid the repentance of studies to evaluate for the meta-analysis. A

total of 62 literatures were used by the researchers of the study.

Results and Discussion

i. Plastic waste and management in the Philippines

This part aims to provide a brief overlook on the plastic packaging wastes produced,

segregation, and management in the Philippines. It is significant to know what has transpired

prior to the development of bioplastics so as to further understand what variables to consider in

determining which tuber crop and methodology produces a by-product that is most fit in

substituting synthetic plastics in view of modern day’s usage and concerns.

i.ii Plastic wastes

Plastics consist of long-chain polymer molecules that are extracted from petroleum, coal,

and natural gas that can take up to 500 years to decompose. Currently, the greatest number of

plastics produced is from polyethylene which is non-biodegradable. Compared to other materials

and substitutes, synthetic plastics appear to be more appealing due to its affordability and

durability. This has lead to an inflation of plastic usage with an increase of 5% plastic

consumption per year. Particularly, majority of plastics that are manufactured today are non-

biodegradable, causes medical implications, and environmental concerns. According to

Rajmohan et al., (2019) about 22-43% of plastic wastes end up in landfills that further causes

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damages to soil due to its properties which lead to loss of soil fertility. On the other hand,

Conservancy International 2009 Report has concluded that plastic bags make up 55% of the

Philippines marine debris items. Herewith, plastic wastes in marine environment are reported to

be capable of absorbing and accumulating contaminants from seawater which can then act as

vectors for transport of contaminants as it travels from one location to another (Zhang et al.,

2019). This raises several concerns as these plastics are hardly degradable and removal

processes for such wastes are only temporary solutions.

i.iii Plastic waste management

Although the country has implemented several regulations regarding waste management

in the country (from 1938 up to 2001) such as the Philippines Republic Act 9003 (RA 9003),

there is no doubt that Philippines have been suffering from poor waste management or inefficient

waste collection and lack of proper disposal facilities for the past decades due to the lack of

resources to purchase advanced technologies that will reinforce proper waste management

activities. Considering the needed load of money, developing countries like the Philippines may

result to greater financial debts and more environmental adversities if not properly managed.

Moreover, the inadequate waste management practices arises several challenges that affect the

flora and fauna health specifically water bodies as plastics tend to settle on oceans and beaches

that may result to serious health consequences such as congenital diseases and malignant cancers

as well as environmental concerns and biotic loss that also poses a threat to several species

(Kojima & Michida, 2011). More importantly, according to Jambeck et al., (2015) the

Philippines has 1.88 million metric tons of mismanaged plastic waste per year. In another study

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(Orale & Fabillar 2011) regarding waste transport and management in Catbalogan city,

Philippines, 60% of the coastal barangays have no direct access to waste disposal facilities, for

instance garbage trucks and waste landfills, leading to almost 50% of local waste are being

directly disposed into the sea while another 22% are thrown into the Maqueda bay daily.

Consequently, these wastes float among water bodies and transports to several places resulting to

a foul smell once it rots. For this reason, the production of bioplastics are highly significant in

order to reduce or more vitally, to avoid such events.

1. Cassava and Sweet Potato as Raw Materials

Bioplastics are by-products of biopolymers that are obtained from biomass such as starch,

cellulose, and proteins. Among these biomass, starch is reported to be the most fitting in the

production of bioplastics due to its contents that make it biodegradable, renewable, compostable,

and inexpensive (Abdullah et. al, 2019). Furthermore, the mentioned crops do not require high-

costs during its cultivation processes and are relatively easy to grow. With this, it is often sold

cheaply in local markets and are often available no matter the season. As a result, cassava

(Manihot esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) are one of the common picks when

conducting a study on bioplastics specifically for tropical countries such as the Philippines,

Vietnam, India, and Indonesia.

It is reported that starch is a promising biodegradable raw material due to its low-cost

production and properties (Ogunrinola & Akpan 2018). Accordingly, it has been profusely used

as an alternative raw material in replacing petroleum-based synthetic materials in the production

of plastics (Oluwasina et. al, 2019). One of the easily accessible raw materials that contain high

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content of starch is cassava or Manihot esculenta; it contains 34% of starch; starch is mainly

composed of two polymers — amylose and amylopectin. Cassava starch encompasses around

83% amylopectin and 17% amylose (Pulungan et. al, 2020). This tuber crop is the third major

source of carbohydrates in the world and is particularly suitable for producing starch-based

bioplastics due to its amylose and amylopectin content as well as the interaction of its molecules

that determine the physical, mechanical, and physicochemical properties of bioplastics which

regulates the quality and applications of the produced bioplastics (Mukuze et. al, 2019). The

starch extracted from cassava exhibits a resistance to moisture and heat which significantly

benefits the production of plastic food packaging. Not only this, cassava starch-based films are

described as odourless, tasteless, colorless, flexible, non-toxic, and biodegradable (Souza et. al,

2012 and Amri et. al, 2018) making it highly suitable for bioplastic production.

On the other hand, sweet potato or Ipomea batatas are also often used in producing

bioplastics. Ranking as the seventh most important food crop next to cassava, it is globally

cultivated in 111 countries. Moreover, Asia alone produces 88.51 million tonnes of sweet potato

annually making about 52% of sweet potatoes cultivated in the said continent (Tavva &

Nedunchezhiyan 2012). According to Zhou et. al, (2015) sweet potato contains 50-80% starch on

a dry basis. For this reason, sweet potato has 70-80% of highly branched amylopectin, and 20-

30% of linear and slightly branched amylose or 16-19% higher than cassava (Ballesteros-

MÃrtinez 2020). The amylose content is responsible for the film-forming properties of the starch

which results to relatively stronger and stiff films that could carry a heavier force before

breaking (Ballesteros-MÃrtinez 2020).The high percentage of such content has a significant

effect on its physical, mechanical, and physicochemical properties, hence the usage of sweet

potato in bioindustry is abundant.

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2. Plasticizers

Unfortunately, there are properties that strongly limit the usage of starch-based

bioplastics due to its poor mechanical properties compared to conventional films derived from

petroleum or crude oil (Souza et. al, 2012). For such cases, plasticizers are often used in

enhancing the mechanical properties or the capabilities of starch-based bioplastics. The

application of plasticizers is the simplest and most effective approach to enhance the potential of

starch-based bioplastics as they improve the flexibility and extensibility of these bioplastics.

Plasticizers are colorless and odourless esters that increase the elasticity of a material. As a

result, the produced bioplastic will be much more flexible and has a high workability potential

(Mukuze et. al, 2019). Starch-based bioplastics have a high potential in replacing petroleum

synthetic produced bioplastics but starch alone limits the potential of the bioplastics such as the

tensile properties, elongation at break, moisture absorption, and film solubility. Plasticizers allow

starch-based bioplastics to perform just like a conventional plastic (Mukuze et. al, 2019). The use

of plasticizers in producing bioplastics is one of the critical factors to consider in bioplastic

production as it creates a highly significant effect when used, since these polymers or starch

alone can’t produce a biodegradble film on its own (Ogunrinola & Akpan 2018). A single starch

component bioplastics creates a by-product with poor barrier and mechanical properties: too

rigid, brittle, and inflexible, compared to those that are made from single polymer films (Bharti

et. al, 2020). Moreover, plasticizers lessen the cracking of the films during handling and storage

along with the effects of external environment such as heat and humidity. Therefore, the use of

plasticizers will greatly affect the application of starch-based bioplastics as well as its potential in

taking over the food plastic industry.

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 One of the common plasticizers used in the starch-based bioplastic industry are glycerol

and sorbitol as it improves the film’s flexibility by reducing the hydrogen bonding between the

molecules whilst increasing the molecular spacing between the polymers upon their intercalation

into the starch polymer network (Lim et. al, 2020).

2.1. Glycerol

2.1.1 Glycerol on Cassava

As using starch itself has its strong limitations in manufacturing bioplastics, plasticizers

such as glycerol are used in order to present a higher tensile strength properties, elongation, and

thickness. The addition of plasticizers are also used to overcome the brittleness caused by high

intermolecular forces of cassava starch, hence it is usually the second major component in

starch-based bioplastics. This way, the association of glycerol on cassava starch bioplastics are

widely used in studies in order to develop a potential alternative for petroleum based plastics. In

2012, Souza et. al, conducted a study on the effect of plasticizers on cassava starch based

bioplastics in which they concluded that glycerol are compatible with the production of

bioplastics as it improves the film flexibility whilst in Ogunrinola & Akpan (2018), bioplastics

with reinforcement of glycerol produced significant in tensile strength. This ensures that the

produced bioplastics facilitates good handling and prevents cracks compared to those with starch

only biofilms. Furthermore, the application of glycerol positively affects the solubility of

bioplastics than those with the absence of glycerol or other types of plasticizers (Chiumarelli &

Hubinger 2012 and Ogunrinola & Akpan 2018). These results agree with the study of Fakhoury

et. al, (2012) where they also observe a great improvement on the film solubility, thickness, and

well as the mechanical resistance properties of the bioplastics. Bioplastics made with glycerol

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and cassava starch are also compared to those with other plasticizers such as fructose, but it is

still concluded that glycerol produces better results (Mukuze et. al, 2019). Therefore, the

reinforcement of glycerol in cassava starch bioplastics are recommended for food packaging as it

greatly affects the mechanical properties of bioplastics which make it much more usable for

everyday use and as a limited substitute for conventional plastic usage as it needs more

enhancement.

2.1.2 Glycerol on Sweet Potato

Varying amount of glycerol on sweet potato bioplastics also produces different results for

different variables. On Abdullah et. al, (2019)’s study, the varying ratio of glycerol to starch

yield a great bioplastic by-product as the glycerol ratio increased as it has the highest recorded

tensile strength of 2.57 mPa, density, and stiffness. Their findings also agree with Ballesteros-

MÃrtinez et. al, (2020) in which it is recorded that the addition of glycerol increases water

solubility, elongation, and water vapour permeability. Meanwhile, the Book — Development of

a Bioplastic Film for Food Packaging also recommended the application of glycerol on sweet

potato biofilms as their study produced a value of 9.26 Mpa in tensile strength. This indicates

that the reinforcement of glycerol on sweet potato bioplastics will make it durable enough for

food plastic usage such as sachets, fruits and vegetable packaging, and etc. Although on another

study, it is reported that the higher the concentration of glycerol input, the lower the elongation at

break (Abdullah et. al, 2019), puncture strength decreased (Ballesteros-MÃrtinez et. al, 2020)

and does not guarantee complete biodegradation (Sinha & Chitis 2020); this imply that

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increasing the percentage of glycerol is not the solution in making bioplastics fit for conventional

use.

2.1.3 Other Plasticizers on Cassava

Glycerol being the prominent plasticizer in the bioplastic industry has been discussed that

its effect further enhance the properties of bioplastics. With this, some researchers have

conducted studies with the use of other plasticizers such as sorbitol in the study of Siagian &

Tarigan (2016). In their study, the bioplastics showed an improvement in tensile strength with

20% sorbitol. Herewith, they reported that the higher concentration of sorbitol resulted to an

increase in elongation at break as it gives elastic properties to the bioplastics. This agrees with

the study of Ballesteros-MÃrtinez et. al, (2020) and Lim et. al, (2020). It is reported that sorbitol

has lower elongation at break than those made with glycerol; bioplastics with sorbitol produced

much higher tensile strength than those with high glycerol content. Furthermore, it is concluded

that the higher the concentration of sorbitol, the lower solubility value of bioplastics will be

produced (Abel et. al, 2021). On the contrary, other study (Ballesteros-MÃrtinez et. al, 2020),

stated that sorbitol increased the film solubility of the biofilm. Hence, sorbitol has a potential in

enhancing bioplastics but requires further investigation to regulate whether which bioplastic type

it is most fit and if it’s as effective as those with glycerol or petroleum based plastics.

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2.1.4 Other Plasticizers on Sweet Potato

There is no doubt that glycerol is often used in the production of plasticizers due to its

enhancement effect on starch-based bioplastics. But some studies have also conducted with the

use of other plasticizers in hopes of manufacturing a better bioplastic than those made with

glycerol. In 2010, Xiao et. al, studied the effects of incorporating potassium sorbate and chitosan

on the physical properties and the antimicrobial properties on sweet potato biofilms. Results

showed that the incorporation of potassium sorbate lowers the tensile strength, elongation at

break, and film solubility of the bioplastics. This indicates that the application of potassium

sorbate hinders the possibility of bioplastic usage. On the other hand, the incorporation of

chitosan showed the opposite effect due to the hydrogen bonds that formed with the sweet potato

starch. It is therefore implied that the use of chitosan improves the mechanical properties of

biopllastics such as the tensile strength, elongation at break, and film solubility. There is a lack

of study to further prove that this can replace the conventional plastics used daily, but from the

said study, chitosan has a huge potential in starch-based bioplastic industry.

Another plasticizer used in sweet potato based bioplastics are egg whites, a study

(Nuriyah 2018) aimed to determine the effects of egg whites in terms of mechanical properties. It

is then discovered that egg whites increase the tensile strength by 49% whilst glycerol produces a

by-product with a lower tensile strength of 90%. Meanwhile, the elongation at break fluctuated

for egg whites while glycerol decreased its elongation by 32.8% making egg white a better

plasticizer. There is a lack of studies with the use of egg whites as plasticizer for sweet potato

starch based bioplastics hence it is not highly recommended. But with more investigation and

comparison with glycerol produced biofilms, egg whites may have a high probable in bioplastic

industry.

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 Additionally, sorbitol are also used as a plasticizer; in the same study by Nuriyah (2018),

sorbitol reduces the tensile strength of the bioplastics by 75% and decreased the elongation value

by 16.1%. This is an indication that sorbitol may not be fit as an enhancement in starch-based

bioplastics but on another study conducted by Ballesteros-Mártinez et. al, (2020), sorbitol

produced a promising biofilm. The by-product of their study produced a bioplastic with no

significant effect after the analysis using ANOVA when it is compared to those made with

glycerol, but it is concluded that water solubility significantly increased as the plasticizer

increases. In terms of mechanical properties, sorbitol had a better effect in tensile strength than

glycerol whilst a lower result in elongation and film solubility. The effects of sorbitol as

plasticizer is promising buy further investigation is recommended in order to determine if its

application does actually produce an enhanced bioplastic that can potentially replace petroleum

based plastics.

3. Methods of Reviewed Literatures

Cassava

Cassavas are abundant in use for producing bioplastics, therefore various studies have

different ways in terms of application. In accordance to all conducted research studies related to

cassava, preparation, as well as extraction had been done before conducting any tests.

Research Title Author Plasticizer(s) used Method(s) used

17
Influence of oxidized Oluwasina et al. Glycerol Exactly 5 g starch and
starch on 95 g deionized water
physicomechanical, was stirred in a
thermal properties, and beaker for about 5
atomic force min, after which 1 g
micrographs of cassava glycerol was added,
starch bioplastic film in order to increase
the hydrophobicity of
the bioplastic films.

Comparison of Mukuze et al. Fructose and Glycerol Distilled water (50

Fructose and Glycerol ml) was placed in a
as Plasticizers in 50 cm³ graduated
Cassava Bioplastic cylinder. Cassava
Production starch (7.5 g) was and
placed in a 50 cm³
beaker. White vinegar
(5 ml) was placed in a
5 cm³ graduated
cylinder. Food
colouring (2 drops)
was added to 2 ml of
distilled water in a 5
cm³
graduated cylinder.
Glycerol/fructose/gly
cerol and fructose
(7.5 g) were placed in
a 500 cm² beaker.
RCBD was used in
this research study.

Cassava starch Lim et al. Glycerol Casting technique for

biodegradable films: film preparation, as
Influence of glycerol well as usage of
and clay nanoparticles gravimetric method
content on tensile and and XRD analysis.
barrier properties and
glass transition
temperature

18
Production of Souza et al. Glycerol Starch washing was
biodegradable plastic applied for starch
packaging film from preparation. A
cassava starch mixture of 1kg
powdered cassava
starch, 2kg polyvinyl
alcohol liquid, 100g
talc powder, and 100g
urea was prepared.
The resulting mixture
was added to 400ml
of glycerin. The
whole mixture was
stirred to yield a semi
dry powder.
Thereafter, the
mixture was then
extruded with a
Blown film extruder
to produce a
biodegradable film,
which can either be
used directly or
modified/processed
further for use.

Tensile Strength and Ezeoha, S. L., & Glycerol, sorbitol, Casting technique for
Elongation Ezenwanne, J. N. and egg white film preparation
Characteristics of
Bioplastics Made from
Cilembu Sweet
Potatoes Starch with
Various Types of
Plasticizers

Stability, solubility, Chiumarelli, M., & Glycerol Cassava starch

mechanical and barrier Hubinger, M. suspensions were
properties of cassava prepared at 75 C with
starch – Carnauba wax constant stirring.
edible coatings to Glycerol was added
preserve fresh-cut after the
apples gelatinization of
starch. Carnauba wax
and stearic acid were
melted at 85 C and

19
 homogenized in the
cassava starch
suspensions with a
rotor-stator
homogenizer for 3
min at 12,000 rpm.

Biogradable Starch Mopelola et al. Glycerol and Sucrose 7g each of

Film from Cassava, homogenized starch
Corn, Potato and Yam powder was weighed
into 400ml beaker,
10ml of distilled
water and 5ml of
0.1M hydrochloric
acid were added. The
mixture was heated
slowly on hot plate to
gentle boiling with
continuous stirring for
10minutes.

Production of cassava Ogunrinola, T. M., & Glycerol reinforced All the component
starch bioplastic film Akpan, U. G. with Polylactic acid was pre-measured
reinforced with poly- (PLA) according to the
lactic acid (PLA) formulation. The
water was then placed
in a 500ml beaker
into which the
cassava starch was
added and thoroughly
mixed for 30 minutes
to obtain a
homogeneous
mixture. Acetic acid
and glycerol was then
added and also mixed
before placing the
beaker on a heating
mantle set to 120oC.

Analysis of Wahyuningtiyas, N. Glycerol The solutions were

biodegradation of E., & Suryanto, H. heated in a magnetic
bioplastics made of stirer at a temperature
cassava starch of ± 80°C, while
being stirred with a

20
 magnetic stirrer for ±
45 minutes at 900
rpm. SEM was also
used for optical
observations.

Edible films made Fakhouri et al. Sorbitol/Glycerol The solution was

from blends of manioc heated to 70 C and
starch and gelatin– maintained at this
Influence of different temperature for 10
types of plasticizer and min. The plasticizer
different levels of (sorbitol or glycerol)
macromolecules on (10 g/100 g of the
their properties GEL) was then added
with constant, gentle
stirring in order to
avoid forming air
bubbles and also to
avoid gelatin
denaturation until
complete
homogenization.

Properties of Cassava Wahyuningtiyas, N. Glycerol reinforced Glycerol with

Starch based Bioplastic E., & Suryanto, H. with Nanoclay concentration 1.5 %
Reinforced by (v/v) was dissolved
Nanoclay into the distilled
water of 98.5 ml
while stirred on a
magnetic stirrer at
900 rpm for 5 min.
The solution was
added with nanoclay
by concentrations of
5.0% (b/b) and heated
on a hot magnetic
stirrer for ±45 min at
±80°C. Analyzation
using XRD was
applied as well.

21
Food packaging Saridewi, N., & Glycerol mixed with The mixture is heated
development of Malik, M. Chitosan at a temperature of
bioplastic from basic 80-90 ° C while
waste of cassava peel stirring with a stirrer
(manihot uttilisima) for 40 minutes. The
and shrimp shell mixture is poured in
the mold and then
dried in an oven at a
temperature of 40-50
° C for 5-6 hours,
subsequently left at
room temperature
until the mixture
separated from the
mold. TGA and XRF
is used.

Electrically conductive Arrieta et al. Glycerol , Casting technique,

bioplastics from glutaraldehyde, SEM, and TGA
cassava starch polyethyleneglycol
and lithium
perchlorate

Effect of precipitated Syafri et al. Glycerol The starch

calcium carbonate on /CaCO3/glycerol
physical, mechanical solution was heated to
and thermal properties 100 0C with constant
of cassava starch stirring (350 rpm)
bioplastic composites until gelatinization,
cast into 20 x 20 x 0.3
cm3 rectangular glass
molds then oven dried
at 500C for 17 h.
XRD, TGA, SEM,
and FTIR were also
applied.

Properties Amri et al. Glycerol Starch intercalation

enhancement of method using glycerol
cassava starch based plasticizer with
bioplastics with variation of 5 – 15 %
addition of graphene v/v GO filler and
oxide mixing time of 30 and
60 minutes.
Properties by using

22
 SEM and FTIR were
determined.

Optimisation on the Pulungan et al. Chitosan Chitosan 2% (w / v)

production of was mixed with 50 ml
biodegradable plastic of 1% acetic acid then
from starch and stirred with a spatula
cassava peel flour at 100°C for 15
using response surface minutes until chitosan
methodology gel was obtained. A
Central Composite
Design (CCD) in
Response Surface
Methodology (RSM)
design was used with
the drying
temperature (X1) and
drying time (X2) as
variables.

Enhancing Cassava Abel et al. Sorbitol The ration of 10 g

Peels Starch as mixture of starch and
Feedstock for sorbitol without MCC
Biodegradable Plastic were initially
prepared in the
following proportion;
5 : 5, 6 : 4, 7 : 3, 8 : 2,
9 : 1 and 10 : 0.
Starch solution was
heated and stirred on
a hot plate at 70oC to
ensure gelatinization.
The second phase of
analysis also used a
10 g mixture of starch
and MCC also
prepared in the
following proportion;
5 : 5, 6 : 4, 7 : 3, 8 : 2,
9 : 1 and 10 : 0.
Starch solution were
heated and stirred on
a hotplate for 10
minutes.

23
Production of starch Maulida et al.
based bioplastic from
cassava peel reinforced
with microcrystalline
celllulose avicel
PH101 using sorbitol
as plasticizer
Sorbitol Starch (10 gram) was
added to the solution
and heated using hot
plate while stirred
until it gelatinized (70
o
C). After mixing, the
solution was cast onto
flat and dried with
temperature 60oC for
24 hours. FTIR was
used as well.

Preparation and Qin et al. Glycerol TGA, SEM, FTIR,

characterization of and XRD were used.
active and intelligent
packaging films based
on cassava starch and
anthocyanins from
Lycium ruthenicum

Cassava starch– Mbey et al. Glycerol In a 5% aqueous

kaolinite composite suspension of starch
film. Effect of clay containing 30% (w/w)
content and clay glycerol with respect
modification on film to the mass of starch,
properties various amounts of
clay (raw or DMSO
intercalated) were
added. The
suspension was then
hot mixed at 80 ◦C
during 5 min before
being cast and air
dried.XRD, FTIR,
DMTA, DSC, SEM
were used.

Study of SEM, XRD, Sangian et al. Glycerol with Ethanol XRD, SEM, FTIR,
TGA, and DSC of TGA, and DSC were
Cassava Bioplastics the instruments used
Catalyzed by Ethanol in this study.

24
Effect of carbon for Rahmawati et al. Glycerol About 5 g of cassava
enhancing degradation starch was added to
and mechanical each three different
properties of amounts of stilled
bioplastics composite water, then stirred
cassava using magnetic stirrer
starch/glycerin/carbon for 5 minutes at rpm.
Afterwards, glycerin
was added to each
solution, then stirred
again for 5 minutes at
900 rpm. Solutions
were then heated at
160°C, 900 rpm for
30 minutes, poured
into mold, then dried
for 12 hours. XRD
analysis was also
used.

Properties of cassava Tamara, T., & Arni, Sorbitol Traditional method

starch-based S. was applied to extract
bioplastics and CMC the starch from the
with sorbitol as a cassava. Casting
plasticizer technique, SEM,
FTIR, and XRD were
used.

Effect of ultrasonic Wahyuningtiyas, N. Glycerol reinforced Glycerol 1.5 % (v/v)

treatment on E., & Suryanto, H. with nanoclay was dissolved into
morphology and 98.5 ml
mechanical properties water/aquades then
of bioplastic from the stirred using a
cassava starch with magnetic stirrer for 5
nanoclay min at 900 rpm. The
reinforcement solution was added
with concentrations,
i.e. 2.5%, 5.0%,
7.5%, 10.0% (b/b)
nanoclay and heated
on hot magnetic
stirrer temperature of
80°C for 45 min, 900
rpm, the solution was
using sonication

25
 methods for 30 min
(20 kHz).

Table 1. Methods used from various studies related to Cassava Bioplastics

Table 1 showcases all different studies that are related to cassava. Although majority of

the plasticizers were glycerol, some used sorbitol. Several research studies used Scanning

Electron Microscopy (SEM) for optical observations, specifically in order to determine the

surface morphology of biocomposites, and one of them was Field Emission Scanning Electron

Micros-copy (FE-SEM). Bioplastic samples were scanned using a beam of electrons to produce a

magnified image of an object. When SEM characterization of a sample fails to provide a clear

morphology due to its higher resolution, FE-SEM is used. On the other hand, Fourier Transform

Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was also used by numerous studies in order to detect the presence

of functional groups in the bioplastic / PCC composite for each PCC concentration. By

producing an infrared absorption spectrum, compounds were determined. Some underwent X-ray

Diffraction (XRD) analysis for the identification of biocomposite structure by irradiating a

material with incident X-rays, then scattered intensity were measured. Few studies have

determined the degradation of bioplastic/PCC composites with heating using Thermogravimetric

Analysis (TGA), wherein samples were monitored as they were heated at a constant rate. Two

studies have used Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) to assess the heat energy uptake by

observing the heat flow difference between the sample and reference. In terms of experimental

designs, (Mukuze, S., Magut, H., & Mkandawire, F., 2019) used Randomized Complete Block

Design (RCBD) which is normally used in agricultural experiments, while (Arrieta, A. A.,

Gañán, P. F., Márquez, S. E., & Zuluaga, R., 2011) used Taguchi method which improves the

quality of manufactured goods, and is applied in biotechnology. In conclusion, almost every

26
study related to cassava almost had similar processes with different inputs, and that mechanical

and physical properties are significant variables. Results did vary and the mostly used and best

method is casting process due to easier construction of mold and easier methods (Figure 2),

though it also varied from one study to another.

Sweet Potato

Sweet potatoes are often used in bioplastic making and numerous studies have already

been conducted regarding to them, thus different methodologies have been conducted. All

research studies had extraction and preparation before conducting any tests.

Research Title Author Plasticizer(s) used Method(s) used

Fabrication and Abdullah et al. Glycerol Bioplastics were

Characterization of prepared by mixing
Sweet Potato Starch- starch with glycerol
based Bioplastics using different starch:
Plasticized with glycerol w/w ratio
Glycerol (2.5:1, 2.75:1, 3:1 and
3.5:1). The mixtures
were heated in an
oven at 50°C for 1.5 h
and were poured into
iron molds of 20×20
cm. The samples were
pressed by using
compression molding

27
 at 135°C for 10 min
under a load of 50 kg
cm-2 to form
bioplastic sheets. The
samples then were
stored at 25°C and
55±5% RH for further
characterization.

Environmental Impact Abioye et al. Glycerol A soil sample from

on Biodegradation the study area was
Speed and taken at a depth of
Biodegradability of 10.16 cm to
Polyethylene and determine particle
Ipomoea Batatas size composition.
Starch Blend Organic matter
content (OMC) was
determined using the
ASTM D-2974-
standard test method.
Soil temperature was
obtained by inserting
digital thermometer
with sensor to get
precise measurement.

Packaging potential of Bharti et al. Glycerol FFS was prepared by

Ipomoea batatas and κ‐ dispensing
carrageenan biobased polysaccharides in
composite edible film: presence of plasticizer
Its rheological, into de-ionized water
physicomechanical, under continuous
barrier and optical stirring for
characterization homogenization and
heating over a hot
plate with a magnetic
stirrer. The
temperature of the
mixture was slowly
raised to 90°C
maintaining the
continuous stirring
but avoiding frothing.
The temperature and
stirring of FFS were

28
 maintained for 5 hr
with the maintenance
of the level of
deionized water. SEM
was used in this
study.

Extraction and Sinha, K., & Chitnis, Glycerol All ingredients were
Characterization of S. added and mixed in
Starch from Tubers blender. After
and its Application as blending, the slurry
Bioplastic was poured in a Petri
plate and was heated
in the microwave till
the slurry clarified to
become semi-
transparent (~100ºC,
for 7 to 10min). The
plate was then kept
for drying in
incubator at 40 ºC for
24 hrs.

29
Effect of glycerol and Ballesteros-Mártinez Glycerol/Sorbitol Casting technique:
sorbitol concentrations et al. The film-forming
on mechanical, optical, solutions were
and barrier properties prepared by
of sweet potato starch dissolving sweet
film potato starch in 6%
w/v in distilled water.
Solutions were
mechanically stirred
for 15 min at room
temperature (25°C)
and adding plasticizer
(glycerol or sorbitol)
at different
concentrations (10–
50% w/w starch
basis). This
suspension was
heated on a hot plate
at 95 °C with constant
stirring (500 rpm) for
30 min to accomplish
complete
gelatinization.

Tensile Strength and Nuriyah et al. Glycerol, sorbitol, The bioplastics are
Elongation and egg white produced in four
Characteristics of stages, such as starch
Bioplastics Made from producing, heating
Cilembu Sweet and adding of the
Potatoes Starch with plasticizers, casting,
Various Types of and measuring the
Plasticizers tensile strength and
elongation.

Development of a Ijagbemi et al. Glycerol The plastic solution

Bioplastic Film for formed is carefully
Food Packaging cast in an aluminum
mould which has
been prepared to give
a uniform thickness
of the film, the 0
liquid plastic was
placed in a drying

30
 cabinet set at a 50 C
heating temperature.
This process was
continued for about
20 hours and the
plastic polymer film
was obtained. Instron
Universal Tester was
also used.

Antimicrobial and Shen et al. Potassium 4 g of sweet potato

physical properties of sorbate/chitosan starch was dispersed
sweet potato starch in 100 mL H2O,
films incorporated with moderately stirred for
potassium sorbate or 20 min at room
chitosan temperature, and then
heated to 100 C for
over 30 min. After
gelatinization,
glycerol was added as
a plasticizer at a
concentration of 3%
(w/w, on dry basis of
the weight of starch)
and the resulting
dispersion was
subjected to further
mixing for 5 min. To
prepare the
antimicrobial film,
potassium sorbate or
chitosan was added at
different
concentrations (0, 5,
10, 15 g/100 g starch)
in one time during the
mixing period. FTIR
was used as well in
this study.

Table 2. Methods used from various studies related to Sweet Potato Bioplastics

31
 Table 2 exhibits the methods used from different studies in relation with sweet potato.

Majority of them have used glycerol as a plasticizer, though some applied sorbitol as a

plasticizer. In terms of methods, casting technique is the most used in contrast to other methods.

Collection of Extraction of Dissolving the

Materials Materials extraction in
distilled water

Stirring of
Drying of mixture Heating of mixture solution and
adding plasticizer

Films subjected to
Storage of Films Testing

Figure 2. Casting process; Production of Starch-Based Bioplastics

Figure 2 displays the process done in casting method. Collection and extraction of

materials are being done in all methods. Film-forming solutions are prepared through dissolution

32
of starch from distilled water, then mechanically stirred at a certain time and temperature while

adding plasticizer at different concentrations. Afterwards, the suspension is heated at a

temperature desired with constant stirring to achieve gelatinization. These mixtures are then

dried and stored at a certain time and temperature before testing. In relation to other methods, the

study of (Ballesteros-Mártinez et al., 2020), puncture strength and gravimetric methods were

used in order to determine the mechanical properties wherein each film was mounted on a 30-

mm-diameter puncture cell and perforated by a smooth-edged cylindrical probe moving at

1mm/s. Meanwhile, another research study by (Ijagbemi, C. O., Oloruntoba, D. T., & Adeoye,

A. O., 2014) tested the samples using Instron Universal Testing Machine, in which the test

continues until the specimen fails under load and that the force and deformation were determined

at rupture. One study prepared film-forming solutions by dispensing polysaccharides in presence

of plasticizer into de-ionized water under continuous stirring for homogenization and heating

over a hot plate with a magnetic stirrer (Bharti et al., 2020). Overall, the methods almost had the

same processes with different inputs: starch production, heating and adding of the plasticizers,

and measuring its mechanical properties, and that the results varied. Casting method was the

most commonly used and the best way due to its easier way to make a mold out of the material

and its basic methods.

4. Color and Transparency

Cassava

33
 Figure 3. Color Appearance of Cassava Bioplastics (Arrieta 2011)

Color is therefore becoming an increasingly important aspect in the material selection

process, and today is almost exclusively accomplished using color masterbatches made up of

polymer carrier materials and corresponding pigments. Earth tones are specified as bio-material

as it is obvious that they are made by biodegradable materials. But color changes as the effects of

plasticizers happen. As displayed in Figure 3, all bioplastic samples had different concentrations

though each of them almost had the same transparency. Based on the figure, the kind of

transparency that B possessed was significant as the peel that will be applied for a sausage food

wrap will not be required to remove. Additionally, the plastic was transparent at first then turned

opaque and yellowish. This phenomenon occurs because the plasticizing concentration exceeds

the compatibility in the polymer which causes separation of the phases and physical exclusion of

the reactant. What were added to the mixture are Glycerol (GLY), glutaraldehyde (GLU),

polyethylene glycol (PEG) and lithium perchlorate (LP). In Oluwasina (2019)’s study, cassava

starch is color white and the oxidized starch is color brown due to the the effect of formation of

carboxyl and carbonyl groups and reduction of hydroxyl group of the oxidized starch. In

34
Saridewi (2019)’s study, the bioplastic turned transparent which is great for wrapping sausages.

The use of bioplastics can provide three benefits at once, namely: more effective (no need to

peel), not a waste, mineral content is good for the body. It became transparent as 3g of starch

with glycerol concentration of 25% w and added chitosan with a mass of 2 and 3% w glycerol

was added to the mixture. While the study of Arrieta (2011), the plastic was transparent at first

then it turned opaque and yellowish. This phenomenon occurs because the plasticizing

concentration exceeds the compatibility in the polymer which causes separation of the phases

and physical exclusion of the reactant. What were added to the mixture are Glycerol (GLY),

glutaraldehyde (GLU), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and lithium perchlorate (LP). Starch films are

colorless according to Qin’s (2019) study, oxidized starch are amaranth. Both studies with

glycerol mixture made the bioplastics transparent but after days its color will change.

Sweet Potato

Sweet potatoes are diverse in terms of colors. Its skin can be white, yellow, red, purple,

or brown, and its flesh ranges from white to orange-red. Variations in the flesh color of the sweet

potato varieties are attributed to the different phytochemicals and natural pigments they produce.

Two of the main pigments, carotenoids and anthocyanins, are even known for their antioxidant

properties which provide a host of health benefits. (Amoanimaa-Dede et al., 2020). The color

when choosing sweet potatoes as a key material for bioplastics is a significant factor, though

there is no significant effect on the type of plasticizer used. However, concentrations of

plasticizer play a role on the color value. One study shows that for both glycerol and sorbitol-

plasticized films, the lowest color values of sweet potato starch films are obtained at high

35
concentrations of plasticizer (50%) (Ballesteros-Mártinez et al., 2020). Although as stated in

(Abdullah et al., 2019)’s study, the sample displayed a yellow color regardless of starch and

glycerol ratio.

Figure 4. Color Appearance of Sweet Potato Bioplastics (Abdullah et al., 2019)

As figure 4 shows, all bioplastics that were prepared had the same color despite of

its ratio differences. To summarize, the color depends on the material and can only be affected

through concentrations of plasticizer and not the type of plasticizer used.

5. Thickness

Cassava

Thickness is important to be checked because the thicker the bioplastic, the smaller the

permeability of the gas and better protect the packaged product. In Arrieta’s (2011) study, Most

of bioplastics portrayed small resistance to breaking after being tried in the hand traction trial.

According to Oluwasina’s (2019) study, the mean film thickness was an average of fifteen

36
different measured points on the film with a digital Vernier caliper to the nearest 0.0001 mm.

The results revealed that there was no significant difference between the thicknesses of film0

film20 and film40, having recorded 0.21, 0.22 and 0.22% respectively. It is thicker with oxidized

starch solution. The thickness increases as the number of materials are added to the starch, they

might have higher tensile strength and high opacity with the mixture of sodium hypochlorite,

potassium periodate, potassium permanganate and H2O2 added. In the other researcher Saridewi

(2019) with 3 g of starch with glycerol concentration of 25% w and added chitosan with a mass

of 2 and 3% w glycerol added, the thickness was observed with the determination of levels of

heavy objects, food safety testing. The bioplastic didn’t tore apart which is a good thing. With

both plasticizers, the thickness is resistant to breaking.

Sweet Potato

Research title Author Plasticizer Color Thickness

used

Effect of glycerol Ballesteros, M., Glycerol and Transparent No data

and sorbitol et. al. Sorbitol
concentrations on
mechanical,
optical, and barrier
properties of sweet
potato starch film.

Thorough Dash, K., et. al. Glycerol White 0.27 ± 0.002

evaluation of sweet mm to 0.30 ±
potato starch and 0.004 mm
lemon-waste pectin
based-edible films
with nano-titania
inclusions for food

37
 packaging
applications.

Effects of Li, J., et. al. OSS with Greenish 0.0134 mm

octenylsuccination Glycerol Yellow and 0.0236
on physical, mm
mechanical and
moisture-proof
properties of
stretchable sweet
potato starch film

Characterization Ehivet, F., et. al. Sweet potato Yellowish 18.43 mm2
and Antimicrobial starch with Translucent
Activity of glycerol.
Sweetpotato
Starch‐Based SPS with
Edible Film Sorbitol
Containing
Origanum
(Thymus capitatus)
Oil.

Table 3. Thickness Value of Sweet Potato Bioplastics

According to Ballesteros (2020), results obtained were 3.77 to 4.83 for glycerol-

plasticized films and 4.10 and 4.80 sorbitol-plasticized films at concentration range of 10–50%.

For both plasticizers, the lowest color values of sweet potato starch films are obtained at high

concentrations of plasticizer (50%). It should be noted that, in fruit coating applications, high

transparency and lightness are desirable. In the third study from Dash (2019), the thickness

reached 0.30 mm where the average thickness is only 0.28 mm. The thickness is great so the

plastic wouldn’t tear apart quickly if it carried a heavy object. In color which happened to be

white, the whiteness index varied from 59.83 to 75.64 when the nanoparticle concentration (0–

4% w/w) was moderately increased. Whilst Li (2015), with OSS mixed with glycerol it turned

38
greenish yellow. In thickness, the OSS plasticizer is thinner from OSS induced with glycerol that

made it 0.0325 and 0.0425 which made it thicker compared to the one without glycerol mixed.

6. Film Solubility

Cassava

Lower solubility in water is a vital property towards an effective bioplastic property. In

Abel’s (2021), the study highlights 30% sorbitol concentration with a lower solubility.

According to Pulungan (2020), the solubility indicates a reduction in biodegradable plastic mass

of 58.30% for a 12 days period that has chitosan 2% (w / v) mixed with 50 ml of 1% acetic acid.

It takes days before the bioplastic dissolves in water. Decomposition of bioplastics with MCC

addition occurred at a relatively same temperature around 312–317ºC which corresponded to the

temperature of thermal depolymerization of polysaccharide. Bioplastics were slightly improved

with the addition of MCC due to the higher content of higher thermal stability components in the

bioplastics. According to Oluwasina, oxidized starch did not form into paste and remained

insoluble from 90 degrees celsius boiling water. The process of entering the water into the starch

will cause the granules to expand and eventually break resulting in cavities in the starch structure

and cause the amylose and amylopectin to diffuse out of the granules. The more GO (graphene

oxide) added, more rate mass will be reduced. Only the bioplastic that used only starch was

dissolved quickly. With lithium perchlorate the plasticizing makes hydrogens bridges weaken the

action of inter and intra molecules from Arrieta (2011).

39
Sweet Potato

Research title Author Plasticizer Film

used solubility

Effect of glycerol and sorbitol Ballesteros, Glycerol 23.21 to

concentrations on mechanical, M., et. al. 33.37%
optical, and barrier properties and
of sweet potato starch film.
Sorbitol
18.15 to
37.51%

Thorough evaluation of sweet Dash, K., et. Glycerol 23.12% to

potato starch and lemon-waste al. 15.15%
pectin based-edible films with
nano-titania inclusions for food
packaging applications.

Effects of octenylsuccination Li, J., et. al. OSS with 20.8%

on physical, mechanical and Glycerol
moisture-proof properties of
stretchable sweet potato starch
film

Table 4. Film solubility Values of Sweet Potato Bioplastics

As illustrated in table 4, from Ballesteros’s study (2020), among the two plasticizers,

sorbitol at a concentration of 50% was found to have the highest solubility water. ANOVA

shows that the plasticizer concentration (p < .001) and the interaction between the type and

concentration of plasticizer (p < .001) have a significant effect on the water solubility films. For

40
all plasticized SPS films (glycerol and sorbitol), the WS increased significantly as plasticizer

concentration increases from 10 to 50%.

In water absorption, the results show that increasing the plasticizer concentration from 10

to 50% increased WVP values from 116.0% for glycerol-plasticized films and 87.8% for

sorbitol-plasticized films. The SPS films contending glycerol as plasticizer presented the highest

WVP, due to the hydrophilic character of the glycerol molecule, thus it can be placed between

adjacent starch chains resulting in a decrease in the molecular attraction. In films without

plasticizers, microcracks or porosities may form that facilitates the escape of water vapor,

allowing it to equalize or even exceed the WA values of plasticized films.

In Dash’s study, moisture content (MC) value is a representative parameter related to the

total void volume occupied by water molecules in the microstructure network of the edible film.

With the increasing nano-TiO2 content between 0 and 4% w/w, the MC parameter exhibited a

steady declining trend from a value of 23.12% to 15.15%. The WS and MC values of the blended

films followed slightly different trends with the increasing nano-titania content.

According to Li (2015), The water solubility and water vapor permeability of OSS/NS

blend films with the DS of 0.0425 decreased by 23.7% and 20.8%. Generally, lower values in

water solubility and water vapor permeability and/or higher values in contact angle and oil

permeability implied more desirable moisture-proof properties of the tested films. OSS with

Glycerol blend film were decreased by 23.7% and 20.8% respectively, and the contact angle and

oil permeability were increased by 43.6% and 181.1% respectively, on the basis of

corresponding values of the control film. The more OSS with glycerol added, the greater the

amplitudes were generated in moisture-proof parameters.

41
7. Moisture Absorption

Cassava

The water absorption data is important to understand the performance of the polymeric

materials during processing. Since bioplastics can be used as food packaging, it is necessary to

know if the plastic absorbs the heat of food to avoid spoilage of food quickly. According to the

study of Dasumiati (2019), Bioplastics are resistant to hot temperature with the addition of 3g

of starch with glycerol concentration of 25% w and added chitosan with a mass of 2 and 3% w

glycerol to the process of making the bioplastic. Good for food packaging. It is similar if

microcrystalline cellulose was added as plasticizer (Putri, 2020), Bioplastic without MCC had a

moisture content of 20.33%, whereas the addition of 20% MCC decreased the moisture content

to 9.16%. If added 25% of sorbitol (Abel, 2021), water uptake increases. Therefore, there is a

need to add more MCC to decrease the water uptake.

Oxidized starch has 12.38% moisture absorption (Oluwasina, 2019). Plasticizers used are

sodium hypochlorite, potassium periodate and potassium permanganate and H2O2. MCC still

has the lowest water absorption. Higher water absorption leads to microbial growth resulting in

fast spoilage of foods. Graphene Oxide has less water absorption as well according to Amri

(2018). Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is more effective as Graphene Oxide than sorbitol and

cassava starch without oxidation.

42
Sweet Potato

Research title Author Plasticizer Moisture

used absorption

Effect of glycerol and sorbitol Ballesteros, Glycerol 4.08 and

concentrations on mechanical, M., et. al. 9.59 ×
optical, and barrier properties and 10−10 g/m2
of sweet potato starch film. sPa
Sorbitol
3.70 and
6.95 ×
10−10 g/m2
sPa

Thorough evaluation of sweet Dash, K., et. Glycerol 23.12% to

potato starch and lemon-waste al. 15.15%
pectin based-edible films with
nano-titania inclusions for food
packaging applications.

Effects of octenylsuccination Li, J., et. al. OSS with 20.8%

on physical, mechanical and Glycerol
moisture-proof properties of
stretchable sweet potato starch
film

Table 5. Moisture Absorption Values of Sweet Potato Bioplastics

In the study of Dash (2019), with Glycerol at 30% added to the aqueous solution, the

moisture content parameter exhibited a steady declining trend from a value of 23.12% to

15.15%. Which is still high considering low moisture content ranges between 10-12%.While

43
according to Li et. al., moisture content with glycerol is determined by the thickness of the

bioplastic. Higher moisture absorption means the thicker the material is. The use of sorbitol has

low water vapor permeability while Glycerol-plasticized films were more affected in its

mechanical properties. Glycerol affects the thickness of the material but increases the percentage

of water content but it affects other properties better than sorbitol that only lowers the water

content but increases the effects on other properties.

8. Biodegradability

The biodegradability of bioplastics are one of the essential properties to consider for the

by-product to serve its purpose. This makes the bioplastics eco-friendly and a great substitute for

synthetic plastic that takes several years to break down causing harm to the environment which

contributes to environmental pollution that initiates several problems. Due to this property,

bioplastics have become a promising alternative as they compose due to their biotic factors.

Starch-based bioplastics are easily degraded due to its natural materials that can be easily

digested by microbes, but the reinforcement of plasticizers effect its degradation time.

Cassava

Wahyuningtiyas et. al, (2017) observed the biodegradability of cassava starch-based

bioplastics with glycerol for 12 days. In their study, more than 50% of the mass of the bioplastics

was reduced by the 6th day which further broke down into small pieces on the 7th day and

completely degraded by the ninth day. Therefore, they concluded that the application of glycerol,

44
specifically with a high concentration, led to a much more rapid mass reduction making these

bioplastics eco-friendly. Similar results were also found in Mukuze et. al, (2019)’s study where

bioplastics with glycerol degraded from 0.30g to 0.08g by the 14 th day. Although the

incorporation of fructose was much more recommended as it degraded from 0.58g to 0.05g by

the 14th day. This means that fructose helps in degrading the mass of bioplastics faster than

glycerol. In addition, another study (Abel et. al, 2021) reported that starch-based bioplastics can

be degraded as their cassava starch-based bioplastics with sorbitol showed a 55.46% degradation

after two weeks. Their findings also agree with Pulungan et. al, (2020) where cassava starch-

based bioplastics with chitosan, chitosan gel, and acetic acid degraded 58.30% of its mass after

12 days. But further biodegradability test up to one month showed no impact on mass reduction

due to the lack of nutrient that in order to degrade. Conversely, Amri et. al, (2018) performed

degarability tests on bioplastics with grapheme oxide (GO) where the bioplastics degraded faster

as more GO was applied into the solution and had a 60% mass reduction by the 8 th day. Whilst

the study of Wahyuningtiyas & Suryanto (2018) reported that when cassava starch-based

bioplastics sare reinforced with 5.0% nanoclay, degradability time takes up to 6 days which is

faster than those made with cassava starch and chitosan (8days) and cassava starch only (12

days). Not only do cassava starch produce promising quality in terms of mechanical properties, it

also manufactures eco-friendly bioplastics that has a significantly huge impact on the industry of

petroleum based plastics.

Sweet Potato

45
 Sweet potato starch-based bioplastics also produced good degradation quality. In the

study of Abdullah et. al, (2019) bioplastics made of sweet potato starch and glycerol exhibited

signs of degredation after 7 days of degradability test. The bioplastic with the highest glycerol

content showed half degradation after 7 days compared to those with lower concentration of

glycerol. This is because of the high content of nutrition which cases more microbes to grow

hence it degrades faster. Abioye et. al, (2019) also stated that sweet potato starch-based

bioplastics are environmentally compatible and biodegradable and has a steady degradation rate

and percentage over the 28 day period of the experiment and will not degrade too rapidly or too

slow even in uncontrolled environment. Similar data was also reported in another study (Sinha &

Chitnis 2020) where 90% of the bioplastic produced from the study have degraded in soil within

30 days. In case the bioplastic is disposed in water, it can be degraded within only 2 hours.

Overall, sweet potato starch-based bioplastics are highly promising in terms of degradation; the

amount of nutrient or plasticizer will determine its degradation rate as microbes require nutrients

for mass reduction.

9. Tensile Strength and Elongation at Break

Cassava

Title Author Plasticizer/ Tensile Elongation At

Strength Break
Added
substances

Heat-sealing property Lim, W. S., Glycerol 197.71 ± to 1.27

of cassava starch film et al., (2020) %.
plasticized with
glycerol and
30.3 MPa -
sorbitol. Food
1.77 MPa

46
Packaging and Shelf
Life
Sorbitol (used both) 197.71 % to 20.18
%,

Cassava starch Souza, A. Glcyerol 1.85 ± 0.34 158.78 ± 26.35b

biodegradable films: C., et al., MPa to 6.06 ± to 89.85 ± 15.15a
Influence of glycerol (2012) 1.04 MPa
and clay nanoparticles
content on tensile and
barrier properties and
glass transition 113.60 ±
temperature 4.51 ± 0.69b,B 19.09a,B to
to 2.07 ± 200.24 ±
Clay
0.33a,A 33.50c,B

Production of Ezeoha, S. Glcyerol TS of A = No test done

Biodegradable Plastic L., et al. 24.87N/mm²
Packaging Film from (2013)
Cassava Starch (biofilm)
TS of B =
10.86N/mm²
(polyethylene)
TS of C =
8.29N/mm²
(paper)

Stability, solubility, Chiumarelli, Glcyerol 0.252 MPa to 10 %to 51%

mechanical and barrier M., & 2.138 MPa
properties of cassava Hubinger, With
starch e Carnauba wax M. D. Carnauba
edible coatings to (2012). wax
preserve fresh-cut
apples

Properties of Cassava Wahyuningti Glycerol 5.2 MPa 11.9 %

Starch based yas, N. E., et
Bioplastic Reinforced al., (2018)
by Nanoclay
With Nano 6.3 MPa 13.5 %
clay
particles

Edible films made Fakhouri, F.

from blends of manioc M., et al.,

47
starch and gelatin e (2012)
Influence of different
types of plasticizer Glycerol 6.03 N to 3.44% to 4.78%
and different levels of and Gelatin 15.96 N
macromolecules on
their properties

Production of Starch Siagian, M., Sorbitol

Based Bioplastic from & Tarigan, with MCC
Cassava Peel P. (2016)
Reinforced with
0.88 MPa to
Microcrystalline
9.12 MPa
Celllulose Avicel No data given
PH101 Using Sorbitol
as Plasticizer

Comparison of Mukuze, S., Glcyerol

Fructose and Glycerol et al. (2019)
as Plasticizers in
Cassava Bioplastic
No data given No data given
Production

Influence of oxidized Oluwasina, Oxidized 1.14b ± 0.26 to 0.220% to

starch on O. et al. starch 1.88a ± 0.15 0.4500%.
physicomechanical, (2019)
thermal properties,
and atomic force
micrographs of
cassava starch
bioplastic film

Biogradable starch Omotoso, Glycerol 5.33MPa –

film from cassava, M. A., et al. 1.16MPa
corn, potato and yam (2015)
No data given
5.33 MPa –
Sucrose 0.51 MPa

Starch content affects Luchese, C. Varying 1.6 ± 0.1 - 8.8 21% – 124 %
physicochemical et al. (2017) Starch ± 0.5
properties of corn and Content
cassava starch-based
films

Structural and Gutiérrez, T. Glycerol 1.88 ± 0.08c to 13.9 ± 0.6d to 3.9

mechanical properties J., et al. with 0.95 ± 0.02a ± 0.3a
of edible films made (2015) cassava

48
 from native and starch and
modified cush-cush cush-cush
yam and cassava yam
starch

Table 6. Tensile Strength and Elongation Values of Cassava Bioplastics

In Lim, W. S., et al., (2020) study, the results showed that the biofilm with sorbitol

content has much more tensile strength than the starch films with glycerol content. The S40 film

had the highest tensile strength (30.3 MPa), while the lowest tensile strength (1.77 MPa) was

reported for the G40 film. The result was different in the elongation at break test. With the

sorbitol content, the elongation at break of biofilms decreased from 197.71 % to 20.18 %, while

with the glycerol content, the elongation at break of G40 film has 197.71 ± 1.27 %. In which it

was concluded that a film with glycerol has higher extensibility and flexibility than the films

with sorbitol.

In Souza, A. C., et al., (2012) study, the result from the first phase in tensile strength of

films is varied from (1.85 0.34) MPa to (6.06 1.04) MPa. The addition of glycerol, causes to

lower the TS (Tensile Strength) of the films. The use of glycerol, which is independent of its

content, lowered the TS of the films. The use of glycerol changed the percent elongation at break

of the films and caused to decrease of its elongation at break as observed where the glycerol

content increased from (0.17 to 0.75) g/100 g. For films formulated without clay nanoparticles,

the E decreased as glycerol content increased. In the second phase, adding amounts of clay and

glycerol contents caused a decrease in the tensile strength of the films. Increase content of clay

nanoparticles and increase of glycerol content from 0.75 g to 1.25 g caused a significant decrease

of TS (P < 0.05). The result from the second phase has an opposite effect. Films produced with

clay nanoparticles and increasing glycerol content, the Elongation at Break of the films

49
increased. This effect was more pronounced and significant (P < 0.05) with higher clay

nanoparticles content (0.10 g/100 g).

For Ezeoha, S. L., et al. (2013), the biodegradable film has the highest tensile strength

among the three and resulting the use of glycerol in the film production to more effective in

improving its mechanical strength. The paper with the least tensile strength shown in the table,

therefore it failed at a very short period of time when load was applied.

From Chiumarelli, M., & Hubinger, M. D. (2012) study, the results in tensile strength of

cassava starch and carnauba wax based films varied between 0.252 and 2.138 MPa. Only the

linear parameter of glycerol was statistically significant for this response (p < 0.05) and the

increase of glycerol concentration resulted in lower tensile strength. Lower values of this

response were obtained in runs with lower cassava starch concentrations (2% w/ w). On the other

hand, higher values for this response were obtained in films without the addition of lipids. The

elongation at break of films prepared according to the 23 central composite rotatable design

ranged from 10 to 51%. Lower values of elongation were obtained in tests with lower cassava

starch concentration (below 3% w/w) and the highest values for this response were obtained in

tests with higher concentrations of cassava starch and glycerol.

In Wahyuningtiyas, N. E., et al., (2018) study, the result of increasing the amount of

Nano clay in bioplastic caused to increase the tensile strength due to a large number of nano clay

particles tend to interact with larger particles, which affect the intercalation effect of nano clay

particles in the bioplastic. The result of increasing the amount of Nano clay in bioplastic caused

it to elongate more with glycerol as plasticizer.

50
 As can be seen from the study of Fakhouri, F. M., et al., (2012), there has been an

increased in tensile strength as the starch concentration increase. It produced higher values from

6.03 N to 15.96 N for its Tensile Strength when gelatin was added to the starch. An increase for

the percentage elongation at break was also observed and it also produced higher values from

3.44% to 4.78% when the gelatin was added to concentration.

Siagian, M., & Tarigan, P. (2016)’s study shows the results of tensile strength as a

function of MCC content for plasticized starch based bioplastic. It indicated that tensile strength

increased with the increasing of MCC content. Results showed an increase of tensile strength

from 0 to 6% MCC content for bioplastics with 20 and 30% sorbitol. The sample bioplastic with

MCC content 6% and 20% sorbitol provided the maximum tensile strength for 9,12 MPa. A drop

in tensile strength value is shown for bioplastic with MCC content 4% and sorbitol content 25%.

It is possibly due to higher content of MCC contributed to retarding the intermolecular

interaction thus resulting in aggregates and heterogeneous film structure. Contrary to tensile

strength value, the results of elongation at break as the addition of MCC content decreased the

value. Results showed a decrease in elongation at break with the increasing MCC content from 0

to 6. Addition of plasticizers to bioplastics have the opposite effect on elongation at break. An

increase in elongation at break with higher sorbitol content was linked to the addition of

plasticizers that act as the compatibilizer to improve the interaction between matrix and fillers.

Mukuze, S., et al. (2019)’s study on Cassava Film Thickness, bitter cassava bioplastic

with glycerol and bitter cassava bioplastic with no plasticizer had the greatest film thickness for

bitter cassava. The p-value was 0.140 which is greater than the alpha value of 0.05 and therefore

the difference between the means is not statistically significant. Compared to the synthetic

51
plastics, it has less tensile strength and the bioplastic is brittle without its plasticizer. No

elongation at break test done.

Oluwasina, O. et al. (2019)’s study, showed the tensile strength of the bioplastic film

increased with the addition of the oxidized starch. The more oxidized starch added, the more

compact the bioplastic will become which makes it be harder to break for its higher tensile

strength. The result is the same as tensile strength. The more amount of oxidized starch the more

its elongation increases. The biofilm (film0) has the lowest value (0.220%), while film60 has the

height value of 0.4500%.

From Omotoso, M. A., et al. (2015) study, the test for tensile strength were made for 4

different starch from crops. Using 0% - 46% amount of glycerol content for cassava starch

resulted a tensile strength of 5.33MPa – 1.16MPa for films prepared from cassava starch. As the

amount of the plasticizer increases the tensile strength decreases. With the amount of glycerol

increasing resulted its tensile strength to decrease while it increases its ability to bend or the

percentage elongation at break. A test for tensile strength were made for 4 different starch from

crops. Using 0% - 59% amount of sucrose content for cassava starch resulted a tensile strength of

5.33 MPa – 0.51 MPa for films prepared from cassava starch. As the amount of the sucrose

increases the tensile strength decreases. With the amount of glycerol increasing resulted its

tensile strength to decrease while it increases its ability to bend or the percentage elongation at

break.

For Luchese, C. et al. (2017)’ study, the results showed as the starch content increase,

there is also an increase in the tensile strength (TS) of the starch-based films. Therefore, the

increase in the starch content occured an improvement in the resistance properties at break and in

the film stiffness which can be seen clearly from the results of the film cassava starch film 5(C5).

52
Corn starch films also showed an increase in the maximum elongation with the increase in the

starch content. Although, for cassava starch films, the increase in the percentage elongation

occurred until the formulation with 40 g kg−1 of starch; when were used 50 g kg−1 of starch

(C5), the film presented a more rigid behavior, represented by the high values of TS and low

percentage of elongation.

In the study of Gutiérrez, T. J., et al. (2015), results showed a decrease in Young's

modulus, maximum stress and toughness, while an increase in the strain at break, resulting to the

increase the elasticity of the films. These results indicate that glycerol plays a more effective role

during the plasticization of the modified starch than during that of the native starch. In cassava

films, the strain at break increased slightly in crosslinked starch films, but this difference was not

significant (p 0.05) Cush-cush yam starch is great for covering use because of its great

resistance. In the other hand, cassava starch is more flexible that is great for film coatings.

Sweet Potato

Research title Author Plasticizer Tensile Elongation

used Strength

Tensile strength and elongation Nuriyah, L., Glycerol 3.6% to 4.9% to

characteristics of bioplastics et. al. 40.5% 32.8%
made from cilembu sweet And
potatoes starch with various
Sorbitol
types of plasticizers.
10.2% to 5.0% to
And 40.5% 16.1%
Egg white

25.2% to 4.2% to
28.9% 4.0%

53
 Effect of glycerol and sorbitol Ballesteros, Glycerol 1.76 to 1.82% and
concentrations on mechanical, M., et. al.  9.78 MPa 13.24%
optical, and barrier properties And
of sweet potato starch film.
Sorbitol
 4.95 and 1.84% and
9.37 MPa 9.00%

Thorough evaluation of sweet Dash, K., et. Glycerol 29.01

potato starch and lemon-waste al. MPa
pectin based-edible films with
nano-titania inclusions for food
packaging applications. 

Effects of octenylsuccination Li, J., et. al. OSS 1.7 to 0.7 0.4% to
on physical, mechanical and MPa 1.2%
moisture-proof properties of
stretchable sweet potato starch
film

Characterization and Ehivet, F., Sweet 29.69 3.77% and

Antimicrobial Activity of et. al. potato and 7.99%
Sweetpotato Starch‐Based starch with 22.50
Edible Film Containing glycerol. MPa
Origanum (Thymus capitatus)
Oil.
SPS with 90.77%
Sorbitol
6.53 MPa

Table 7. Tensile Strength and Elongation Values of Sweet Potato Bioplastics

Several researches has found out that adding more concentration to the starch can

heighten the tensile strength of a biofilm. Making it harder and tends to resist if it interacts with

water substances. As illustrated in Table 1, In Nuriyah’s (2018) study, it shows the result for

using different plasticizers with varying concentration 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. For glycerol, it

showed an elongation at 4.9% using the lowest amount of plasticizer and 32.8% at the highest

amount of plasticizer. For sorbitol, the elongation is at 5.0% at the lowest amount of plasticizer

54
and 16.1% at the highest amount of plasticizer. With the addition of egg white, it showed that the

elongation is at 4.0% with the highest amount of egg white. While in tensile strength using

glycerol, it showed the tensile strength at 3.6% using the lowest amount of plasticizer and

15.7%-40.5%% at the highest amount of plasticizer. For sorbitol, the strength is at 10.2% at the

lowest amount of plasticizer and 36.3-40.5% at the highest amount of plasticizer.  With the

addition of egg white, it showed that the tensile strength is at 28.9% with the highest amount of

egg white.

In the second study, according to Ballesteros (2020) ANOVA showed that the

concentration of plasticizer (p < .001), the type of plasticizer (p < .001), and the interaction

between the type and concentration of plasticizer (p = .024) have a significant effect on puncture

strength. It could be observed that as the plasticizer concentration increased, the resistance to

breakdown decreased regardless of the type of plasticizers added (glycerol or sorbitol), this

behavior could be related to the structural modifications of the starch network when the different

amounts of plasticizer are incorporated. Compared to sorbitol, glycerol has lower molecular mass

(glycerol 92 g/mol and sorbitol 182 g/mol) this may allow it to more easily induce the creation of

intermolecular spaces between the polymer chains and thus decrease the number of hydrogen

bonds attached to the starch chains. In elongation, both plasticizers accomplished the blocking

effect by interfering with the direct intermolecular interactions and increasing the free volume

between the starch polymers. This effect is the main plasticization mechanism. The highest

concentration was found in glycerol plasticizer.

In Dash’s study (2019), the tensile strength reached 29.01 MPa. This could be explained

by the fact that the incorporation of nanotitania into the film solutions effectively increased the

interfacial interactions within the control film network. On the other hand, Lin’s study which is

55
focused on OSS blend films presented higher values in EAB but lower values in TS, which

confirmed the potential of starch octenylsuccinate in improving the stretchability of starch films.

Plasticizer destroys the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between starch chains and enhances their

mobility, which is accompanied with an increase in EAB and a decrease in TS. However, with

the addition of glycerol of the same amount, there will be a change in the mechanical properties.

According to Evihet’s study (2011), sweet potato starch with glycerol had high tensile

strength of 29.69 and 22.50 MPa. The plasticizer made the bioplastic stretchable compared to the

material with only SPS used that has the strength of 4.58 and 4.40 MPa. While in sorbitol, it

reached 6.53 MPa. The sps mixed with glycerol has high tensile strength. While in elongation,

sps with glycerol mixed reaches 3.77% and 7.99%. Compared to sps with glycerol, sps with

sorbitol reached the value of 90.77%. Sps with sorbitol have the highest ductility.

Conclusion

As the global demand of plastics continue to rise, starch-based bioplastics can be used as

a replacement for food packaging and can be limitedly used as a replacement for petroleum

based plastics. The reinforcement of plasticizers make it much more fitting for everyday use as it

increases its mechanical properties. Additionally, starch-based bioplastics with plasticizers are a

great substitute for synthetic plastics as it is eco-friendly due to its degradation properties and

will not cause harm to environment like synthetic plastics. This leaves the future of bioplastic

industry with a great potential in replacing synthetic plastics which could significantly bring

positive results to the environment.

56
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Appendices

Summary of Laws and Regulations Related to Solid Waste Management in the Philippines from

Kojima & Michida (2011)

Year Enacted Laws and Regulations

1938 Commonwealth Act No. 383 – Anti-Dumping Law
Prohibits dumping of refuse or substances of any kind into rivers.
1975 Presidential Decree No. 825 – Garbage Disposal Law
Provides penalties for improper disposal of garbage and other forms
of uncleanliness.

1975 Presidential Decree No. 856 – Code of Sanitation

Requires cities and municipalities to provide an efficient collection,
transportation and proper disposal of refuse in food establishments,
markets and abattoirs.

1976 Presidential Decree No. 600, as amended by PD 979 – Marine Pollution

Control Law of 1976
Prevents and controls the pollution of the seas by prohibiting
dumping of waste and other matter that creates hazards to human
health or harms living resources and marine life.

1976 Presidential Decree No. 984 – Pollution Control Law

Provides guidelines and implementing rules and regulations for the
prevention and control of pollution from solid, toxic, and hazardous
Wastes.

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1978 Presidential Decree No. 1151 – Philippine Environmental Policy
Recognizes the right of the people to a healthy environment, and the
duty of everyone to contribute to the preservation and enhancement
of the environment. Section 4 requires the preparation of
Environmental Impact Statements for any project or undertaking that
May significantly affect the environment.

1978 Presidential Decree No. 1152 – Philippine Environmental Code

Requires the preparation and implementation of waste management
Programs by all provinces, cities and municipalities.
1990 Executive Order No. 432
Orders the strict implementation of PD 825 by all law enforcement
agencies and officers. Enjoins the Metro Manila Development Authority
to do for Metro Manila.
1990 Republic Act 6969- Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste
Control Act of 1990
Regulates the importation, use, movement, treatment and disposal of
toxic chemicals and hazardous and nuclear waste in the Philippines.
1991 Republic Act 7160 – The Local Government Code
Mandates LGUs to exercise powers and discharge functions and
Responsibilities as necessary or appropriate and incidental to the
efficient and effective provision of services and facilities related to
general hygiene and sanitation, beautification, and solid waste
collection and disposal systems.
1998 Department Administrative Order No. 98-49
Provides technical guidelines for proper disposal of municipal solid
Waste
1998 Department Administrative Order No. 98-50
Provides procedures in identifying sanitary landfill site and screening
Criteria for municipal solid waste disposal facilities.
1999 Republic Act 8749 – The Clean Air Act
Provides a comprehensive air pollution control policy and for other
purposes. Section 20 bans the use of incineration for burning municipal,
bio-medical, and hazardous waste but allows the
traditional method of small-scale community burning.
2001 Republic Act 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
Declares the policy of the state to adopt a systematic, comprehensive,
and ecological solid waste management program.

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Mendeley; Reference Manager

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Microsoft Excel; Data Guide

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Profile of the Researchers

Ariola, Ralph Godwin M.

:#010 Purok 1 Brgy. Militar Fort Magsaysay Palayan City Nueva Ecija

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ariola.ralphgodwin.m@gmail.com

Birthdate: August 04, 2003

Educational Background

Pre-School: Barangay Militar Day Care Center

Elementary School: Fort Magsaysay Elementary School

Junior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Sciend and Technology

Senior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Baldonado, Hiro Miko, S.

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Blk. 2 Lot 3 Goldenville Subdivision, Cabanatuan City

mikohmsb22@gmail.com

Education Background

Pre-School: Flowerlane Montessori Children’s House

Elementary School: Flowerlane Montessori Children’s House

Junior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Sciend and Technology

Senior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Dela Peña, Chelsy Gayle S.

Lot 10 Block 17 Sergio street, Doña Adela Subdivision, Cabanatuan City

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chelsy.delapena@gmail.com

Education Background

Pre-School: Menreum School Incorporated

Elementary School: Flowerlane Montessori Children’s House

Junior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Sciend and Technology

Senior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Gabaldon, Allana Joyce R.

#63 Melencio Ext. Kapitan Pepe Subdivision Cabanatuan City

allanagabaldon00@gmail.com

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Education Background

Pre-School: Lazaro Francisco Elementary School

Elementary School: Lazaro Francisco Elementary School

Junior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Sciend and Technology

Senior High School: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Legaspi, John Christian V.

Blk. 6 Lot 30 Camella Homes, Mabini Homesite, Cabanatuan city

legaspijc141@gmail.com

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Education Background

Pre-School: College of the Immaculate Conception

Elementary: College of the Immaculate Conception

Junior High: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

Senior High: Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

79