Techniques Type of Justification and Objective Case Used

Analysis Scales
Frequency Descriptive Nominal and Identify the Eating Out
Distribution Univariate ordinal population and Habit
sample for the
study
Rank Order Descriptive Ordinal scale Identify the Most Eating Out
Univariate Preferred and the Habit
Least Proffered
variable
Cross Tabulation Descriptive Nominal with Identify the Eating Out
Bivariate Nominal, Nominal Relationship Habit
with ordinal, between 2
ordinal with ordinal variables
Chi Square Test Inferential Nominal with Identify the Eating Out
Bivariate Nominal, Nominal Association Habit
with Ordinal, between 2
Ordinal with variables
Ordinal
One Sample t-Test Inferential Interval/Ratio scale Identify the Perception
Univariate favorable and on Plastic
unfavorable Bags
parameters for the
study
Two Independent Inferential 2 variables; Identify the Perception
Sample t-Test Bivariate variable 1 - favorable and on Plastic
Interval/Ratio scale unfavorable Bags
variable 2 - perception amongst
Nominal scale with 2 different groups
2 options
Paired Sample t- Inferential Two variables; Identify the Comparative
Test Bivariate variable 1- comparative Perception
Interval/Ratio scale perception between of Mess
variable 2 - two products or Food and
Interval/Ratio scale companies etc Dhabas –
Interval-Interval IIFT Case
Ratio-Ratio
One-Way ANOVA Inferential 2 variables; Identify the Paid Kids
Multivariate variable 1 - favorable and Care Unit in
Interval/Ratio scale unfavorable a Mall
variable 2 - perception among
Nominal scale with more than two
more than 2 options groups
Two-Way Inferential More than 2 Identify the Malhotra
ANOVA Multivariate variables; variable favorable and Spices Co.
unfavorable Pvt. Ltd.
 1 - Interval/Ratio perception among
scale more than two
2 or more variables groups
- Nominal scale
with 2 more than 2
options
Correlation Inferential All variables are on Identify the MRP
Multivariate Interval/Ratio scale relationship among Biscuits
the variables
Regression Inferential Independent Impact of all the MRP
Multivariate Variable – independent Biscuits
Variable 1 – variables on
Interval/Ratio scale dependent
Dependent variables
Variables – more
than 2 variables –
Interval/Ratio scale

If Independent
variable is being
taken as a Nominal
variable then add 1
random error term
Factor Analysis Inferential Interval/Ratio scale Identify the main Purchase of
Multivariate factors for the B-Segment
study Cars
1. Steps to Test Reliability of an Instrument Using ‘Cronbach Alpha’ in SPSS

Analyze → Scale → Reliability Analysis → Take all the relevant variables to “items” on RHS →
“Model” selected should be “Alpha” → Go to “Statistics” → Tick on “Scale if item deleted” under
“Descriptives for” head → Tick on “Correlations” under “Inter-Item” head → Click on Ok

Value of .7 to .8 is an acceptable value for

Cronbach’s α; values substantially lower
indicate an unreliable scale.

2. Steps to Test Validity of an Instrument In SPSS

Analyze → Dimension Reduction → Factor → Take all the relevant variables to “Variables” on
RHS → Go to “Descriptives” → Tick on “Coefficients” and “KMO and Barlett’s test of sphercity”
under “Correlation Matrix” head → Click on Continue

→ Go to “Extraction” → Method selected should be “Principal Components” → Click on Continue

→ Click on Ok

KMO and Barlett’s test of sphercity value indicates whether the selected sample size is adequate
or not.

Value ≥ 0.8 indicates that our sample size is adequate and in case the value < 0.8, the researcher
needs to increase the sample size before carrying out any hypothesis testing.

Significance value of KMO and Barlett’s test of sphercity should be less than 0.05 (level of
significance). If it exceeds 0.05 that means set of questions that the researcher has taken are
not meeting his research objectives and the questions need to be changes/reframed before
carrying out any hypothesis testing.
Total variance explained indicates in totality all the questions put together are able to explain
how much of the objective.
3. Recoding a Variable in SPSS

Transform → Recode into Different Variables → Take the variable to be recoded to RHS → put
the name of the variable being created (variable name cannot have special characters except _ ;
length of variable name should not exceed 8 characters) under “Name” → Enter the name of this
created you want to appear in all the results under “label” → Click on Change → Go to Old and
New Values → Click on Range → Put old range in “Old Value” and the new coding scheme in
“New Value” Click on Continue → Click on Ok

Recoded variable will be created

 Descriptive Analysis

Univariate Analysis

Nominal – Frequency Distribution

Charts - Bar Graph and Pie Charts

Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Frequencies → Take all the relevant variables to “variables”
on RHS → Go to Charts → Select Bar Chart or Pie Chart under “Chart Type” → Select
Frequencies or Percentages under “Chart Values” → Click on Continue → Click on OK → Once
the output is received double click on the chart → Select “Show Data Labels” under “Elements”

Ordinal – Frequency Distribution & Rank Order Correlation

Charts - Bar Graph and Pie Charts

Rank order correlation is carried out in Excel

Interval/Ratio – Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Variance, Quartiles, Percentiles,

etc.

Charts - Histograms

Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Frequencies → Take all the relevant variables to “variables”
on RHS → Go to Statistics → Tick on all the required statistics → Click on Continue

Go to Charts → Select Histograms under “Chart Type” → Click on Continue → Click on OK →

Once the output is received double click on the chart → Select “Show Data Labels” under
“Elements”

Bivariate Analysis

Nominal/Ordinal – Cross Tab (Use to find out relationship between nominal & nominal
variable; nominal and ordinal variable; ordinal and ordinal variable)

Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Crosstabs → Take any variable in row and another in column
→ Go to Cells and tick on “Total” under “Percentages” → Click on Continue → Click on OK
 Inferential Analysis – Testing of Hypothesis
Univariate Analysis
Interval/Ratio

One-Sample t-Test

Analyze → Compare Means → One-Sample T Test → Take all the relevant variables (on
Interval/Ratio Scale) to RHS under “Test Variable(s)” → Put the Test Value (value of mean to be
tested) → Click on OK

Test Value is generally the mid-point of the likert scale

If p-value is less than α (0.05), we reject H0

If H0 is rejected somewhere (indicating perception is not neutral) then Group Statistics is used to
find out the better perception

Bivariate Analysis

Nominal/Ordinal – χ2 Test (Use to find out association between nominal & nominal variable;
nominal and ordinal variable; ordinal and ordinal variable)

Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Crosstabs → Take any variable in row and another in column
→ Go to Statistics → Tick on Chi Square → Tick on the test which is applicable (Phi and Cramer’s
V or Contingency Coefficient) under the head “Nominal” → Click on Continue →Go to Cells and
tick on “Total” under “Percentages” → Click on Continue → Click on OK

Step 1: Compute cross table also known as contingency table

Step 2: Formulate the hypothesis and carry out chi-square test to see if there exists any relationship
between the variables

 In case H0 is rejected then there is a relationship between the 2 variables and hence to identify
how much relationship exists, we use

➢ Contingency Coefficient in case the matrix is a square matrix (i.e. no. of categories in both
the variables is same)

➢ Phi and Cramer’s V test (Phi in case of 2X2 matrix and Cramer’s V in all the cases where
matrix is not square)

 In case H0 is not rejected then there is no relationship between the 2 variables and hence there
is no need to do any further test
Interval/Ratio with Nominal having 2 categories

Two Independent Sample t-Test

Analyze → Compare Means → Independent-Samples T Test → Take all the relevant variables (on
Interval/Ratio Scale) to RHS under “Test Variable(s)” → Take the relevant Nominal/Ordinal
Variable with 2 categories under “Grouping Variable” → Enter the categories no. you have used
while coding say 1 for male and 2 for female → Click on OK

Step 1: First we need to find out whether the populations from which samples have been obtained
have equal variances or not. For this Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances is carried out.

Step 2: If the variances are equal, p-value corresponding to top row is picked for further hypothesis
testing to be carried out on equality if means otherwise p-value corresponding to bottom row is
picked for further analysis

Step 3: If H0 is rejected somewhere (indicating there is a significance difference in means) then

Group Statistics is used to find out the better perception

Interval/Ratio (Same sample responds to the variables under comparison)

Paired Sample t –Test

Analyze → Compare Means → Paired-Samples T Test → Take all the relevant variables (on
Interval/Ratio Scale) to be compared to RHS under “Paired Variables” → Click on OK

If H0 is rejected somewhere (indicating there is a significance difference in means) then Group

Statistics is used to find out the better perception

Multivariate Analysis

Interval/Ratio with Nominal variable having more than 2 categories

One-Way ANOVA

Analyze → Compare Means → One-Way ANOVA → Take the dependent variable (on
Interval/Ratio Scale) to RHS under “Dependent List” → Take the independent variable (on
Nominal/Ordinal scale with more than 2 categories) under “Factor” → Click on OK

 In case H0 is not rejected then the means between the groups are same, i.e. the Interval/Ratio
scale variable is independent of nominal variable
 In case H0 is rejected then there is a dependency of the Interval/Ratio scale variable on nominal
variable. In this case we find out the groups which show difference in means. For that we carry
out Independent Sample t-Test considering 2 categories at a time

Interval/Ratio with 2 or more Nominal variables

Two-Way ANOVA

Analyze → General Linear Model → Univariate → Take the dependent variable (on Interval/Ratio
Scale) to RHS under “Dependent Variable” → Take the required Nominal variables under “Fixed
Factor(s)” → Click on OK

All the Variables are on Interval/Ratio Scale

Correlation

Analyze → Correlate → Bivariate → Take all the relevant variables (on Interval/Ratio Scale) to
RHS under “Variables” → Click on OK

Step 1: Find out the value of coefficient of correlation (r) between variables

Step 2: Test whether these values of r are significant or not (this is done to find out if any variable
needs to be dropped from regression analysis)

Regression

Analyze → Regression → Linear → Take the dependent variable (on Interval/Ratio Scale) to RHS
under “Dependent” → Take all the independent variables (on Interval/Ratio Scale) to RHS under
“Independent(s)” → Click on OK

Step 1: Find out the value of coefficient of determination R2 (consider R2 in case of simple
regression and adjusted R2 in case of multiple regression)

Step 2: Test whether the model is significant or not by testing the value of R2 is significant or not
(this is done to find out whether model is statistically significant or not)

Step 3: Formulate the Regression Model

Step 4: Test whether the estimated coefficients are significant or not

Step 5: For the independent variables that are significant, relative importance is determined by the
standardized coefficients called Beta