BASIC CALCULUS: ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

(LINEAR, QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL AND

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS)
for Quarter 2 / Week 1- 4

1
 FOREWORD

This Self-Learning Kit for Basic Calculus is designed especially for grade
10 students at Science High School of the Division of Negros Oriental. A modest
background in grade school mathematics is important. It is the portal to
greater knowledge and understanding of further mathematical endeavors.
Thus, this SLK is written in a precise, readable, and conventional manner to
facilitate students’ understanding of the subject.
It is aligned with the BEC of the Department of Education following the
prescribed Learning Competencies given by the Division Supervisor of
Mathematics.
It has the following features proven to be valuable aids to learning
Mathematics even at home:

I. What Happened
This section contains the properties Algebraic Functions, Linear
Functions, Quadratic Functions, Polynomial functions, and Rational Functions
and their corresponding graphs.

II. What I Need To Know

This section discusses how to rewrite linear function in the form y= mx + b
and transform it to standard form, identify quadratic function, write quadratic
function in vertex form, and later transform it to standard form, identify
polynomial functions, determine the degree and the number of terms of
polynomial functions, find the zeroes of polynomial functions and find the
domain, range, asymptote, and x-&y-intercepts of rational functions. Examples
and corresponding solutions are clearly illustrated essential in discussing the
said topics. Explanations and illustrations of graphs for every algebraic function
are further provided.

III. What I have Learned

The task of every section is guaranteed to build mathematical

comprehension, skills, and competence. This serves as an assessment tool to
check the learners’ capabilities in assessing their strengths and their
weaknesses.

2
 LESSON PROPERTIES OF LINEAR FUNCTION
1

OBJECTIVES:
K: Identify linear function from other functions;
S: Rewrite the linear function in the form y = mx + b; and
A: Observe patience and determination in transforming linear
function to a standard form.

I. What happened

Pre-test
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter that corresponds to your choice.

1. Standard form for a linear equation is:

𝑦 −𝑦
a. Ax + By = C b. y = mx + b c. y = x d. 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1

2. In the linear function in the of y = mx + b, the variables that represent

constants are:
a. x and y b. m and b c. x and m d. y and b

3. If a line has a slope of -2, the line would be:

a. A straight vertical line c. a straight horizontal line
b. Going downhill from left to right d. going uphill from left to right

4. Find the slope and y-intercept of the linear function, y = -7x + 2.

1 1
a. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: − 7 ; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 2 c. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 2 ; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: − 7
b. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: − 7; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑡: 2 d. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 2; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: − 7

3𝑥
5. What is the standard form of linear function, if the given is + 2𝑦 = 4?
4
a. 3x + 2y = 16 b. 3x + 8y = 4 c. 3x + 8y = 16 d. 3x – 8y = 16

3
 II. What I need to know

PROPERTIES OF LINEAR FUNCTION

The linear function is a function widely used in real-life situations and in
many fields, such as mathematics, economics, science, and technology. Its
graph is a slanting line. A linear function is a polynomial function of the first
degree.

Linear Function is a function of the form

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
+3=1 → −
𝑓(𝑥)==1 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,
−5 3 5

Where m and b are real numbers, and m≠ 0.

The domain of a linear function is the set of real numbers. Its range is also
the set of real numbers.
Some examples of linear function in different forms are:
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4
𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥
1
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 15 = 0

Each of these forms can be easily rewritten in another form. For this
purpose, the function 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 will be used synonymously as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,
which suggests that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 1. Rewrite each linear function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. Then determine

the value of 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.
3 1 𝑥 𝑦
a. 4x – y =1 b. 2x + 3y = 6 c. 2 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 + 1 = 0 d. 2 + 5 = 3

Solution:
For each of the given linear function, solve for y in terms of x to transform them
in the prescribed form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. In solving for y, use the properties of equality.

a. Given 4x – y = 1
Add y to both sides 4x = 1 + y
Subtract 1 from both sides 4x – 1 = y
Apply symmetric property. y = 4x – 1
Thus, m = 4 and b = -1

4
 b. Given 2x + 3y = 6
Subtract 2x from both sides 3y = - 2x + 6
2
Divide both sides by 3 𝑦 =− 𝑥+2
3
2
Therefore, m = − 3 and b = 2

3 1
c. Given 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 1 = 0
2
Multiply both sides by the LCD 6 9x + 2y + 6 = 0
Subtract (9x + 6) from both sides 2y = -9x – 6
9
Divide both sides by 2 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 3
9
Hence, 𝑚 = − 2 and b = -3

𝑥 𝑦
d. Given +5=3
2
Multiply both sides by the LCD 10 5x + 2y = 30
Subtract 5x from both sides 2y = -5x + 30
5
Divide both sides by 2 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 + 15
5
Therefore, 𝑚 = − 2 and b = 15

Linear functions can also be written in the form Ax + By = C. as an

equation, this form is referred to as standard form.

Example 2. Transform each linear function in standard form.

3 2𝑥 𝑦 1
a. y = -9x + 2 b. 𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑥 c. 3 − 4 = 1 d. 𝑦 − 2 = 2(𝑥 + 1)

Solution:
a. y = -9x + 2 given
9x + y = 2 add 9x on both sides

3
b. 𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑥 given
2y = 3 – 4x multiply both sides by 2.
4x + 2y = 3 add 4x on both sides.

2𝑥 𝑦
c. −4=1 given
3
8x – 3y = 12 multiply both sides by the LCD 12

1
d. 𝑦 − = 2(𝑥 + 1) given
2
2y -1 = 4(x + 1) multiply both sides by 2
2y – 1 = 4x + 4 apply distributive property
-1 = 4x + 4 – 2y subtract 2y from both sides
-5 = 4x – 2y subtract 4 from both sides
4x – 2y = -5 apply symmetric property

5
Example 3. Determine if each is a linear function or not.
a. 3(x + 4) = -2(y – 1) c. 2x – 9y = 3(x – 3y) + 4

2 3
b. -2x(1 - x) – (y + 3) = 0 d. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1

Solution:
A function is linear if it can be expressed in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
a. 3(𝑥 + 4) = −2(𝑦 − 1)
3x + 12 = -2y + 2
2y = -3x -10
3
𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 − 5, thus, 3(x + 4) = -2(y – 1) is a linear function with
3
m= − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −5.

b. -2x(1- x) – (y + 3) = 0
-2x + 2x2 – y – 3 = 0
Since the polynomial in x is of the second degree, therefore it is not a
linear function.

c. 2x – 9y = 3(x – 3y) + 4
2x – 9y = 3x – 9y + 4
-x = 4
The graph of 2x – 9y = 3(x – 3y) + 4, which is equivalent to x = -4, is
shown below

x=-4

Since the graph is not a slanting, it is not linear function. Moreover, the
vertical line test suggests that it is not a function at all

2 3 (2𝑦+3𝑥)
d. +𝑦 =1 → = 1 → 2x +3y = xy , the presence of xy-term in the
𝑥 𝑥𝑦
2 3
equivalent equation suggests that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 is not a linear function.

6
 III. What I Have Learned
Evaluation/Post Test:

Do this!

a. Transform each linear function into the form y = mx + b.

1. 2(y + 1)= x + 3 3. -2(x + 3y)= 4x – (y – 3)
2. 4x – (2y – 7) = 3(y + 2x)

b. Give the equivalent linear function in standard form.(Ax + By = C)

1. 8y – 3x = -5(3 – 2x) + 2x 3. -3(2x + 3y) = 4x - 2(7 + y)
2. 3(2 – 4y) + 2(x + 3) = 0

c. Tell which of the following relations are linear functions or not.

𝑥 𝑦 5 3
1. 2(x + 1) = y 2. + = 1 3. − = 1
2 3 𝑥 𝑦

7
Answer key:

Pre-test
1. a 2. b 3. b 4. b 5. C

Post Test
1 1 2 7
a. 1. 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 2. 𝑦 = − 5 𝑥 + 3. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2
2 5
b. 1. 13x – 8y = 15 2. 2x – 12y = -12 3. 10x + 7y = 14
c. 1. Linear function 2. Linear function 3. not

8
 LESSON GRAPHS OF LINEAR FUNCTION
2

OBJECTIVES:
K: Know the characteristics of the graph of linear
function;
S: Sketch the graph of linear function; and
A: Observe cleanliness in graphing linear function.

I. What I Need To Know

Pre-test:

Multiple choice: Encircle the letter that corresponds to your choice.

1. Find the slope and y-intercept of the graph of the linear function:
2x + y =7.
a. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 7; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 2 c. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: − 2; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 7
1
b. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 2; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 7 d. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 2 ; 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 7

2. Write in point-slope form an equation of the line that passes through

3
the given point and has the given slope: (4, 8); 𝑚 = 4
3 3
a. 𝑦 − 4 = 4 (𝑥 − 8) c. 𝑦 − 8 = 4 (𝑥 − 4)
3 3
b. 𝑦 + 8 = (𝑥 + 4) d. 𝑦 + 4 = (𝑥 + 8)
4 4

3. A linear function written in the form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) is in _________.

a. Slope-intercept form c. point-slope form
b. Standard form d. x- and y-intercept form

9
4. Graph the line with given slope that passes through the given point:
Slope=2; (-1, 4)

5. Graph the linear function using slope-intercept form: y = x – 8

10
6. Which linear function represents the graph?

a. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 2

b. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2

1
c. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 2

1
d. 𝑦 = 𝑥– 2
3

1
7. Write the linear equation in slope-intercept form: 3 𝑥 + 𝑦 = −2.
1 1 2
a. 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 + 2 b. 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 – 2 c. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 – 2 d. 𝑥 = −3𝑦 + 3

1
8. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the linear function. y = - 3 𝑥 + 3
a. x-intercept is 1 & y-intercept is 3 c. x-intercept is 3 & y-intercept is 1
1
b. x-intercept is − & y-intercept is 1 d. x-intercept is -3 &y-intercept is 3
3

9. Write an equation of the line in slope-intercept form.

4
a. 𝑦 = −5𝑥 – 3

4
b. 𝑦 = −5𝑥 + 3

5
c. 𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 3

5
d. 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 3

10. Which lines are parallel?

a. line 2 & 3

b. Line 1 & 3

c. Line 2 & 4

d. Line 3 & 4

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 II. What I Need To Know

GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS

The graph of a linear function whose domain is the set of real numbers is
a slanting continuous line.

• Graphing Using Any Two Points

There are many ways of graphing linear functions. One method is to
identify two points on the graph of the linear function, and then draw a line
through these points. The justification for this method is the Line Postulate which
states that two points determine a line. However, plotting a third point serves
as a check against possible errors in plotting the two points.

Example 1. Graph each linear function.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2 b. 4x + 3y = 12

Solution:
a. To determine points that are on the graph of the given function,
construct a table of values. Plot these points and draw a line through
these points.

X 3x-2 f(x)
-1 3(-1) – 2 -5
0 3(0) - 2 -2
2 3(2) - 2 4

(2,4)
*

(0, 2)
*

12
 b. Since the function is not of the form y = mx + b, it is more convenient to
express the given function in this form.

4
4x + 3y = 12 → 3y = -4x + 12 → y = − 3 𝑥 + 4

x 4 y
− 𝑥+4
3
-3 4 8
− (−3) + 4
3
0 4 4
− (0) + 4
3
3 4 0
− (3) + 4
3

Some points on the graph are (-3, 8), (0, 4), and (3, 0). Plot these points
and draw a line through these points.

*
(-3,8)

* (0,4)
(3,0)
*

4
In the graph of 4x + 3y = 12 , which is equivalent to 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 + 4,
4
− 3 is the slope.
To go from (-3, 8) to (3, 0), go down 4 units( or rise -4) then go 3 units to
the right(or run 3). Intuitively, the slope of a line is a measure of steepness of the
line. It is the ratio of the “rise” of the line to the “ run” of the line.

Y2 P2(x2, y2)

P1(x1, y1)

13
 In the figure, the “rise” is 𝑦2 - 𝑦1 which is the distance of the vertical
projections of two points P1 and P2 of the line f(x) = y. The “ run” is 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 which
is the horizontal projection of these points. Hence, the slope m is

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚= = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
𝑟𝑢𝑛 2 1

𝑦 −𝑦
Note that the slope is also equal to 𝑥2 −𝑥1 .
2 1

The Slope of a line

If 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are points of the line representing
the linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, then the slope 𝑚 of the line is
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝑚= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

Example 2. Determine the slope of the linear functions that passes through
the given of points. Then draw the graph of the linear functions.
a. (3, 2), (5, 6) b. (-2, 0), (1, -2)

Solution:

a. Let 𝑃1 (3,2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 (5,6)

x1 = 3, y1 = 2 and x2 = 5, y2 = 6

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 6 − 2
𝑚= = =2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 5 − 3

*(5,6)
(3,2)
*

The trend of the function represented by this graph is said to be

increasing all throughout. This means that as the value of the
independent variable increases, the value of the function also increases.

14
 b. Let 𝑃1 (1, −2) and 𝑃2 (−2, 0)
𝑥1 = 1, 𝑦1 = −2 and 𝑥2 = −2, 𝑦2 = 0

𝑦 −𝑦 −2−0 2
𝑚 = 𝑥1−𝑥2 =1−(−2) = − 3
1 2

(-2,0)
*
*(1,-2)

The trend of the function represented by this graph is said to be

decreasing. This means that as the value of the independent variable
increases, the value of the function decreases.

The Slope, the Trend, and the Graph of Linear Function

• If the slope is positive, the graph of a linear function points
upward to the right, and the linear function increases all
throughout.
• If the slope is negative, the graph of a linear function points
upward to the left, and the linear function decreases all
throughout.

• Graphing of Linear Function Using the Slope and a point

Another method of graphing a linear function is to plot a given slope of

the function and then, identify another point using the given slope of the
function.

Example 3: Graph each function y whose slope and one of its points are
given.

3
a. m = 2; (3,2) b. m = − ; (0, 7)
2

15
Solution:
2 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
a. plot (3, 2). The given slope is 2 = 1 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 . From the given point (3, 2), go 2
units up, and then go 1unit to the right. These steps give another point
(4,4) of the function. Connect (3, 2) and (4, 4).

*(4,4)
*(3,2)

An alternative way is to go 2 units down from the given point(3, 2), and
then go 1 unit to the left. These steps give another point(2, 0) of the
function.

b. From (0, 7), go 3 units down, then 2 units to the right, or go 3 units up
then 2 units to the left.

*(0,7)

*(2,4)

The y-intercept
The 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 is the ordinate of the point of intersection of
the graph of a function and the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
A 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the function 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑓(0).

16
 • Graphing Using the Slope and the y-intercept
A Third method of graphing linear function is to use the slope and
the y-intercept of the function. Since y-intercept is an ordinate of a point
on the y-axis, it is easy to determine the coordinates of this point. If the
function is of the form y = mx + b, a known point is (0, b). then use the
procedure in graphing linear function using the slope a point.

Example 5: Draw the graph of the function given its slope m and y-
intercept b.

3
a. m = 3, b = 2 b. m = − 2, b = -5
Solution:
a. the y-intercept is 2. Therefore, (0, 2) is a point of the function. Using
3
𝑚 = 3 = 1, other points on the graph are (-1, 5) and (-1, -1).

*(-1,5)

*(0,2)

*(-1,-1)

b. the y-intercept is -5. Hence, (0, -5) is a point of the function. Using
3
𝑚 = − 2, other points on the graph are (-2, -2) and (2, -8).

*(-2,-2)

The x-intercept
The x-intercept is the abscissa of the point of intersection
of the graph of a function and the x-axis.
An x-intercept of the function f(x) is the value of x when
f(x) = 0.

17
 • Graphing using the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔

Another method of graphing linear function is to determine first

the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎 and the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏, and then connect the points (a, 0)
and (0, b).

Example 7: Draw the graph of the function given the x-intercept a and the y-
intercept b.

a. a = 2, b = 3 b. a = -4, b = 4

Solution:
a. Since the x-intercept a = 2 and the y-intercept b = 3, then (2, 0) and
(0, 3) are on the graph of the function. Plot these points , and then draw
the line through these points.

Note that the slope of this function is negative, and that the intercepts
are both positive.

b. Since a = -4 and b =4 , then (-4, 0) and (0, 4) are on the graph of the
function.

Note that the slope of this function is positive, and that the intercepts
have different signs.

18
 The Intercepts and the Slope of Linear Function
If the intercepts have the same sign, the slope of the linear function
is negative.
If the intercepts have different signs, the slope of the linear function
is positive.

III. What I Have Learned

EVALUATION/ POSTTEST: (use graphing as your answer sheets)

A. Identify at least three points of the given linear function. Then use these
points to draw the graph of the function.
1. y = 5x – 8 2. 2x – y = 6 3. 3(y – 5) = 4(x – 3)

B. Determine the slope of the graph of the linear function that passes
through the given pair of points. Then draw the graph of the function.
1. (4, 6) , ( 3, 4) 2. (-4, 2) , (-5, 4) 3. (-4, 8) , (6, -1)

C. Identify the slope and a point of the given linear function. Then use
them to draw the graph of the function.
4
1. 𝑦 = − 5 𝑥 + 4 2. 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −2 3. 𝑦 + 5 = 2(−𝑥 − 1)
D. Identify the slope and the y-intercept of the given linear function. Then
use them to graph the function.
1. 9x – y = 6 2. y = -4 + 3x 3. 5x – 2y = 4

E. Identify the x- and the y-intercepts of the given function. Then use them
to graph the function.
1. a = 3, b = -6 2. a = -5, b = 8 3. a = 3, b = 7

19
 LESSON PROPERTIES OF QUADRATIC FUNCTION
3

OBJECTIVES:

K: Define and identify quadratic function;

S: Write quadratic function in vertex form and transform it to
standard form; and
A: Develop perseverance in using the second difference
method in determining the given tabulated relation is a
quadratic function or not.

I. What Happened
Pre-test

1. Identify which of the following are quadratic functions. Write Q if

it is quadratic function and N if it is not.
a. f(x) = x(-x + 5) – 8 c. g(x) = x2(x – 7)
b. h(x) = (x + 7)(x – 9) d. F(x) = x(2x + 1)2

2. Write each quadratic function in vertex form. Then give the value
of h and k.
a. y = x2 – 2x + 7 b. h(x) = x(x – 2) + 1

3. Transform each function in standard form. Then identify the

values of a, b, and c.
a. y = (x – 6)2 + 4 b. 3x2 + y = (2x – 1)2

20
 II. What I Need To Know

II. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

• Identifying Quadratic Functions

Not all relations can be described linearly. Some can be
presented as curved graphs. Here are some models that show
nonlinear relations.

a. The area A of a rectangle lot has a length which is 3m longer than

twice its width w. In symbols,
A = w(2w + 3) or A = 2w2 + 3w

b. The distance S(in meters) traveled by a freely falling body after t

seconds can be expressed as
S = 4.9t2

c. The mileage M in mi/gal of a car driven at the rate of r mi/h is

𝑟 1
M = (72 − 𝑟) or 𝑀 = (72𝑟 − 𝑟 2 )
36 36

These physical relations have one thing in common – these are the
second degree.
A polynomial function of the second degree is called a quadratic
function.

Definition of Quadratic Function

A function f is a quadratic function defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where a, b, and c are real numbers
and a ≠ 0.

The equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 will be referred to as the standard form

of the quadratic function.

Example 1. Identify which of the following are quadratic functions.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 c. ℎ(𝑥) = −𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥(𝑥 + 2) d. 𝐹(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 3

21
Solution:
According to the definition of quadratic function, the coefficient of the
second-degree term must be nonzero.
a. Since a = 2, and f(x) is of the second degree, then it is a quadratic
function.

b. g(x) = 3x(x + 2)
= 3x2 + 6x
Since a = 3, and g(x) is of the second degree, then it is a quadratic
function.

c. h(x) = -x(x+1)2 = -x(x2 + 2x + 1)= -x3 – 2x2 – x

h(x) is of third degree. Hence, h(x) is not a quadratic function.

d. F(x) = 2(x – 1)2 + 3 = 2(x2 – 2x + 1) + 3

=2x2 – 4x + 5

Since a = 2, F(x) is of the second degree, then it is a quadratic function.

The quadratic 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be written in the form

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 through the use of the method of completing the square.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 standard form
𝑏
= 𝑎 (𝑥 + (𝑎) 𝑥)
2
regroup and factor a
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑏2
= a(x2 +(𝑎) 𝑥 + 4𝑎2 ] + c - add and subtract 4𝑎
4𝑎
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2
= a[x +2𝑎] + factor the PST and combine the
4𝑎
Constant terms
𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) = a(x – h)2 + k rename, where h = 2𝑎 and
4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2
K= 4𝑎

This form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + k of the quadratic function called the vertex form.

Example 2
Write each quadratic function in vertex form. Then give the value of h and k.
a. f(x) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 b. g(x) = -3x2 – 24x + 11

22
Solution:

a. use the method of completing the square. Remember to produce a

PST, square half the numerical coefficient.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 – 6x + 2
= (x2 – 6x) + 2
= (x2 – 6x + 9) + 2 -9
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 + (−7)
h = 3 and k = -7
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
using the formulas ℎ = − 2𝑎 and 𝑘 = , where a = 1, b = -6, and c = 2
4𝑎
(−6) 6 4(1)(2) − (−6)2 8 − 36
ℎ = − 2(1) = 2 = 3 , 𝑘 = = =7
4(1) 4

Hence, f(x) = 1(x – 3)2 + (-7) or f(x) = (x – 3)2 + (-7)

b. using the method of completing the square,

g(x) = -3x2 – 24x + 11
= -3(x2 + 8x) + 11
= -3(x2 + 8x + 16) + 11- (-3)(16)
= -3(x2 + 8x + 16) + 11 + 48
g(x) = -3(x + 4)2 + 59
h = -4 and k = 59

𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2
Using the formulas h = − 2𝑎 and k = where a = -3, b = -24, and c = 11
4𝑎

(−24) 24 4(−3)(11)−(−24)2 −132 − 576 −708

h = − 2(−3) = − = −4 k= = = = 59
6 4(−3) −12 −12

thus, g(x) = -3[x – (-4)]2 + 59 or

g(x) = -3(x + 4)2 + 59

Example 3: Write each quadratic function in standard form. Then identify the
values of a, b, and c.
a. F(x) = -(x – 3)2 + 9 b. G(x) = -3(2x + 1)2 – 4

Solution:
First expand the squared binomial. Then collect similar terms.
a. F(x) = -(x – 3)2 + 9
= -(x2 – 6x + 9) + 9
= -x2 + 6x – 9 + 9
= -x2 + 6x
Therefore, a = -1, b = 6, and c = 0

b. G(x) = -3(2x + 1)2 – 4

= -3(4x2 + 4x + 1) – 4
= -12x2 – 12x -3 – 4

23
 = -12x2 – 12x – 7
Therefore, a = -12, b = -12, and c= -7

If a relation is expressed as a set of ordered pairs or as a table of values,

one can identify whether the relation is a quadratic function or not. In this case,
the test called second difference method is used.

Second Difference Method

A relation f is a quadratic function if equal difference
in the independent variable x produce nonzero equal
second differences in the function value f(x).

Example 4: Determine whether each relation is a quadratic function or

not.
a. A = {(0, 3), (1, 4), (2, 7), (3, 12), (4, 19)}
b.
x 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
B(x) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Solution:
A. Test is there is a common second difference.

x 0 1 2 3 4

Difference in x 1 1 1 1
A(x)
First difference 3 4 7 12 19
In A(x) 1 3 5 7
Second difference
In A(x) 2 2 2

Note that as x increases, A(x) also increases. Also, an equal difference

of 1 is product in x. No equal difference is produced in the first difference in
A(x) but an equal difference of 2 is produced in the difference of the first
differences. This is called the second difference. Hence, the relation A is a
quadratic function.

24
 B. Remember that the common second difference is not zero

X 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1 1 1 1 1
B(x) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

First difference 1 1 1 1 1 1
Se2cond difference 0 0 0 0 0

Note that equal differences in x produced equal second difference in

B(x). However, the second difference are 0. Thus, B(x) is not a quadratic
function. In fact, B(x) is a linear function since the equal differences in x
produced equal first differences.

III. What I Have Learned

Evaluation/Post Test
A. State whether each relation y = f(x) describes a quadratic function. Write
quadratic if the given relation is a quadratic function and write your
name it is NOT.
1. y = 2 – x2 _________________
2. y = x -2 _________________
3. y = x2 – 5x + 2 _________________
4. y = (x – 4)2 _________________
5. y = 3x + 3 _________________
6. y = (x – 2)2 – x2 _________________
7. y = 2x(5x – 1) + 6x _________________
8. 3y = 2(x – 1) + 1
2 _________________
9. y = 2x2 + 4x – 2 – 2x2 _________________
10. y = x (3x + 1)
2 _________________

B. Transform each function in vertex form. Identify the value of h and k.

1. y = x2 + 8x + 20 4. f(x)= -2x(x + 1) + 3x
2. y = 3x(x – 2) + 1 5. g(x) = (x + 1)(x - 7)
3. f(x) = (3x + 1)(2x – 3)

C. Transform each function in standard form. Then identify the value of a,

b, and c.
1. y = (x + 4)2 + 1 4. H(x) = (3x2 - 1) + (-4x2 + 3x)
2. y = -2(x – 2)2 – 2 5. 3x2 + y = (2x – 1)2
3. f(x) = (x + 2)(x – 7)

25
D. Use the second difference method to determine if each of the following
tabulated relation is a quadratic function or not. Then complete the
table for those that are quadratic.
1.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 1 3 6
2.
x 10 8 6 4 2 0
y 102 66 38 18
3.
X 16 17 18 19 20 21
y 80 77 72 65
4.
X 0 4 8 12 16 20
y 1 10 17 22
5.
X -4 -2 0 2 4 6
y -14 -2 2 -2

26
 LESSON GRAPHS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTION
4

OBJECTIVES:
K. Determine the vertex, the axis of symmetry, the range of
quadratic function and the opening of the graph;
S: Draw the graph of quadratic function; and
A: Observe preciseness in sketching the graph of quadratic
function.

I. What Happened
Pre-test

Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter that corresponds to your choice.

1. The graph of a quadratic function of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is ____.

a. A line b. a parabola c. a circle d. an ellipse

2. What is the range of y = -2(x – 2)2 + 5?

a. {y|y≥ 5} b. {𝑦|𝑦 > 5} c. {𝑦|𝑦 ≤ 5} d. {𝑦|𝑦 < 5}

3. Which is the graph of y = (x – 2)2 + 4?

27
4. Identify the vertex and the y-intercept of the graph of the function
y = 2(x + 2)2 – 2.
a. Vertex: (2, 2); y-intercept: 8 c. vertex: (2, -2); y-intercept : 6
b. Vertex: (-2, -2); y-intercept: 6 d. vertex: (-2, 2); y-intercept: 2

5. Use vertex form to write the equation of the parabola.

a. y = (x – 2)2 – 3

b. y = 3(x + 2)2 – 3

c. y = 3(x – 2)2 – 3

d. y = 3(x + 2)2 + 3

6. Which set of data is correct for this graph?

7. Which set of data is correct for the quadratic function:y = -(x +20)2 +14?

28
 II. What I Need To Know
• Graphing Quadratic Functions

From the graph of a quadratic function, many properties of the

quadratic function can be read.

Example 1: Graph the simplest quadratic function y = x2.

Solution:
First construct a table of values for x and y.

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Y 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

*(-3,9) *(3,9)

(-2,4)* *(2,4)
(-1,1)* *(1,1)

The graph of y = x2 is a curve. This curve is called the parabola. This is the
reason why the quadratic function is also called parabolic function. The
parabola shows that the domain of a quadratic function is the set of all real
numbers.
Note that the parabola y = x2 has two parts: the on the left, which is
decreasing, and the part on the right which is increasing. The demarcation
point between those two parts is a point called the vertex of the parabola. The
vertex acts as the turning point of the graph of the quadratic function.
The vertex of y = x2 is (0,0). It is the lowest point in the parabola.
The parabola is symmetric with respect to a line that passes through the
vertex. This line is called the axis of symmetry. It divides the parabola into two
parts so that the one part is the reflection of the other part. In other words, if
the grid paper containing the parabola is folded along this line of symmetry,
the two parts will fit on top of each other.
The axis of symmetry of y = x2 is the line x = 0.

Example 2: Determine the vertex and the axis of symmetry and the range of
each quadratic function. Then draw its graph.
a. f(x) = x2 – 4x + 4 c. F(x) = -x2 + 6x – 5
b. g(x) = 2x + 1
2 d. G(x) = -4x2 + 8x – 5

29
Solution:
If the quadratic function is the form y = a(x – h)2 + k, then the vertex is
at the point (h, k), and the axis of symmetry is the line x = h.

a. f(x) = x2 – 4x + 4, a = 1, b = -4 and c = 4

𝑏 (−4) 4 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2 4(1)(4) − (−4)2

h= − 2𝑎 = − 2(1) = 2 = 2 , k= = =0
4𝑎 4(1)
Thus, the vertex is at (2, 0), and the axis of symmetry is the line x = 2.
Now, find some representative points. Plot them and draw a smooth
curve from the leftmost point to the right point.

X -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

* *

* *
* *

The graph shows that the range is {f(x)|f(x)≥ 0}

b. g(x) = 2x2 + 1, a= 2, b = 0, and c = 1

𝑏 0 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2 4(2)(1) −02 8

h = − 2𝑎 = − 2(2) = 0 , k = = =8=1
4𝑎 4(2)
Hence, the vertex is at (0, 1), and the axis of symmetry is x = 0.

X -2 -1 0 1 2
Y 9 3 1 3 9

* *

* *
*

The graph shows that the range is {g(x)|g(x)≥ 1}

30
c. F(x) = -x2 + 6x – 5
= -(x2 – 6x) – 5
= -(x2 – 6x + 9) – 5 – (-9)
= -(x – 3)2 + 4
h = 3 and k = 4
therefore, the vertex is at (3, 4), and the axis of symmetry is x = 3

X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y -5 0 3 4 3 0 -5

*
* *
* *

* *

The graph shows that the range is {F(x)|F(x)≤ 4}

d. G(x) = -4x2 + 8x – 5
= -4(x2 – 2x) -5
= -4(x2 – 2x + 1) – 5 – [(-4)(1)]
= -4(x – 1)2 – 5 + 4
= -4(x – 1) – 1
h = 1 and k = -1
Thus, the vertex is at (1, -1), and the axis of symmetry is x = 1.
X -1 0 1 2 3
y -17 -5 -1 -5 -17

* *

* *
The graph shows that the range is {G(x)|G(x) ≤ −1}

31
It is interesting to note that the value of a in the quadratic function f(x) = ax2 +
bx + c plays an important role in the opening of the parabola, as shown in the
previous examples.

The Opening of the Parabola and the value of a

The parabola opens upward (or has a minimum or lowest
point) if a>0, and opens downward(or has maximum or highest
point) if a < 0. Moreover, the graph
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is narrower that the graph of f(x) = x2 if |a|>1, and
wider if 0<|a|<1.

Example 3: Without graphing, determine the opening of the parabola for

each quadratic function. Then compare its opening to the graph of f(x) = x2.
1
a. g(x) = 3x2 c. G(x) = 2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
4 1
b. h(x) = -4x2 – 2x + 1 d. H(x) = − 3 𝑥 2 + 2

Solution:
a. g(x) = 3x2; a = 3
Since a = 3 > 0, the parabola opens upward, and since |a|=3>1,
its graph is narrower than the graph of f(x) = x2.

b. h(x) = -4x2 – 2x + 1; a = -4
Since a = -4 < 0, the parabola opens downward, and since
|a| = 4 > 1, its graph is narrower than the graph of f(x) = x2.

1 1
c. G(x) = 2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 1 ; a = 2
1
Since a = 2 > 0, its graph opens upward, and since
1
|a| = 2 < 1, its graph is wider than the graph of f(x) = x2.

4 1 4
d. H(x) = − 3 𝑥 2 + ; a = −3
2
4
Since a = − 3 < 0, its graph opens downward, and since
4
|a| = 3 > 1, its graph is narrower than the graph of f(x) = x2.
It is likewise interesting to note how a quadratic function
f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k is affected by the changes in h and k.

32
Example 4: In one Cartesian coordinate plane, draw the graph of each
quadratic function.
a. Y1 = (x – 1)2 + 1 c. y3 = (x + 1)2 + 1
b. Y2 = (x – 3)2 + 1 d. y4 = (x + 3)2 + 1

Solution:

* * * ** *

* * * * * *
* * * * *
* * * *

The shifting of the Parabola and the Value of h

The graph of a quadratic function f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k is

shifted c units to the right if f1(x) = a[x – (h + c)]2 + k, and
shifted c units b to the left if f2(x) = a[x – (h – c)]2 + k.

Example 5: In one Cartesian coordinate plane , draw the graph of each

quadratic function.
a. 𝑦1 = (x – 1)2 + 1 c. y3 = (x – 1)2 – 1
b. 𝑦2 = (x - 1)2 + 3 d. 𝑦4 = (x – 1)2 -3

Solution:

The shifting of the Parabola and the Value of k

The graph of a quadratic function f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k is shifted c units up if

f1(x) = a(x – h)2 + (k + c), and is shifted c units down if
f2(x) = a(x -h)2 + (k – c).
33
III. What I Have Learned
Evaluation/Post Test

A. Give the vertex, the axis of symmetry, the range, and the description of
the opening of the parabola for each quadratic function.
1. y = 2(x – 1)2 + 3 4. y = (x – 3)2 + 2
2. y = -3(x + 2)2 – 1 5. y = 3(x – 2)2
3. y = -(x + 2)2 -3

B. Use the vertex formula to find the vertex, the axis of symmetry, and the
range of each quadratic function. Then draw the graph.
1. y = x2 + 4 4. y = 2x2 + 20x + 51
2. y = -x2 + 3x + 7 5. y = 4x2 – 8x – 21
3. y = -2x(x + 4) + 5

C. Use the method of completing the square to find the vertex, the axis o
symmetry, and the range of each quadratic function. Then draw its
graph.
1. y = -3x2 + 12x – 1
2. 2. y = 3x2 + 6x + 8
3. 3. y = x(x – 2) + 8

34
 LESSON PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
5

OBJECTIVES:
K: Define and identify polynomial functions;
S: Determine the degree and the number of terms of the
given polynomial functions; and
A: Appreciate the value of patience in finding the zeroes
of polynomial functions.

I. What Happened
Pre-test
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter that corresponds to your choice.

1. Write the polynomial in standard form. Then name the polynomial

based on its degree and number of terms: 2 – 11x2 – 8x + 6x2
a. -5x2 – 8x + 2; quadratic trinomial c. -6x2 – 8x – 2; cubic polynomial
b. 5x2 – 8x – 2; quadratic trinomial d. 6x2 – 8x + 2; cubic trinomial

2. Determine the degree of the polynomial: 7m6n5

a. 5 b. 11 c. 6 d. 7

3. Find the zeroes of y = x(x – 3)(x – 2).

a. 3, 2 b. 0, 3, 2 c. -3, -2 d. 0, -3,

4. Write a polynomial function in standard form with zeroes at 5, -4, and 1.

a. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 19x – 9 c. f(x) = x3 – 21x2 + 60x – 9
b. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 19x + 20 d. f(x) = x3 + 20x2 – 2x – 19

5. Determine the number of real zeroes possible for the polynomial,

p(x) = x5 + 4x3 – 2x + 10.
a. 10 or less b. 1 or more c. five or less d. five or more

35
 II. What I Need To Know

• POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
As mentioned in the previous lesson, linear and quadratic
functions are special types of polynomial function. Cubic function or
function of the third degree and quartic function or function of the fourth
degree, are also classified under polynomial functions.

Polynomial Function
A function p is a polynomial function in n
defined by
P(x) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 +. . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 where
𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1, 𝑎𝑛−2 , . .., 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎0, 𝑎𝑟𝑒 real numbers, 𝑎𝑛 ≠
0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 n is a positive integer.

The domain of a polynomial function is the set of real numbers. Its

range depends on whether n is even or odd, and on the value of the
leading coefficient an. This will be discussed in detail when the graphs of
polynomial function are tackled.
By convention, polynomial functions are written with its terms
arranged according to descending powers of x.
The value of n in p(x) determines the degree of the polynomial.

Example1: Identify the polynomial functions from the given set of expressions.
a. F(x) = 2 – x + 3x2 – 4x4 d. f(x) = √(5𝑥) + 3
b. G(x) = 3x – 4x + 1 – x
2 -1 e. g(x) = (3x2 + 2x)2
3
c. H(x) = √5 x7 + 2x3 – x f. h(x) = -4x2 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

Solution:
To identify the polynomial functions from the given set of expressions,
use its definition.
Remember: n as a positive integer implies that n is not negative, 0, fractional,
radical, or imaginary.
a. F(x) which can be written as f(x) = - 4x4 + 3x2 – x + 2 is a polynomial
function.
b. G(x) is not a polynomial function because the exponent of the fourth
term is negative.
c. H(x) is a polynomial function.
d. f(x) is not a polynomial function because the first term including x is
under a radical sign. This connotes fractional n.
e. g(x) when expanded is 9x4 + 12x3 + 4x2. Thus, g(x) is a polynomial
f. h(x) has a fractional exponent in x in the second term. Hence, H(x) is
not a polynomial function.

36
Example 2: Determine the degree and the number of terms of the given
polynomial functions.
a. f(x) = -3x4 + 2x2 – 6x + 1
b. g(x) = x5 – 4x + 2
c. h(x) = 2

Solution:

function Degree Number

of the of terms
function
a. f(x) 4 4
b. g(x) 5 3
c. h(x) 0 1

Evaluating polynomial functions is an important skill in the succeeding

topics.
To evaluate a polynomial function means to find the value of the
function at a given value of x.

Example 3:

Find p(2) and p(-3) for each of the following:

a. p(x) = x3 + x2 – 7x – 3
b. p(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 18x + 7
c. p(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 – 8x2 – 7x – 9

Solution:
To find p(2) and p(-3), replace x by 2 and -3 in p(x), respectively.
a. p(x) = x3 + x2 – 7x – 3
p(2) = (2)3 + (2)2 – 7(2) – 3
= 8 + 4 – 14 – 3
= -5
P(-3) = (-3)3 + (-3)2 -7(-3) – 3
= -27 + 9 + 21 – 3
=0

b. p(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 18x + 7

p(2) = 2(2)3 + (2)2 – 18(2) + 7
= 2(8) + 4 – 36 + 7
= 16 + 4 – 36 + 7
= -9
P(-3) = 2(-3)3 + (-3)2 – 18(-3) + 7
= 2(-27) + 9 + 54 + 7
= -54 +9 + 54 + 7
= 16

37
 c. p(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 – 8x2 – 7x – 9
p(2) = 2(2)4 + 5(2)3 – 8(2)2 – 7(2) – 9
= 2(16) + 5(8) – 8(4) – 14 - 9
= 32 + 40 – 32 – 23
= 17
p(-3) = 2(-3)4 + 5(-3)3 – 8(-3)2 – 7(-3) – 9
= 2(81) + 5(-27) – 8(9) + 21 – 9
= 162 - 135 – 72 + 21 – 9
= -33

• ZEROES of POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

At this point in time, the reader may have noticed that zeros are very
important elements of functions because of its numerous applications.
The search for formulas for finding the zeroes of functions or roots of
equations dates back to the ancient times. It is believed that as early as
1800 B.C., Babylonians knew how to solve quadratic equations. The Strassburg
tablet can be cited as physical evidence proving that these ancient people
have ideas of solving quadratic equations.
The Yale tablet, possibly from 1600 B.C., mentioned about cubic
equations in a discussion of volumes of frustums of a pyramid.
Probably, the most spectacular mathematical achievement of the
sixteenth century was the discovery of the roots of cubic and quartic
equations.
Some of the Italian mathematicians who succeeded in solving different
forms of cubic equations were Scipione del Fierro (x3 + mx = n), Nicolo Tartaglia
(x3 + px2 = n), and Ferrari, a student of Girolamo Cardano,
(x4 + px2 + qx + r = 0).
The search for formulas that could be used to find the roots of equation
of the fifth or higher degree came to a halt in 1813 when P. Ruffini(1765 – 1822)
supplied a proof of what is now known to be a fact that the roots of a fifth or
higher equation cannot be expressed by means of an equation. This was
independently established later in 1824 by famous Norwegian mathematicians
Niels Henrik Abel.
When mathematicians were busy looking for formulas for the roots of
higher degree equations, Karl Friedrich Gauss of Germany, one of the greatest
mathematicians of all times, established and proved a theorem in 1797 called
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial equation in one
variable has at least one root, real or
imaginary.

The theorem guarantees the existence of the roots of any polynomial

equation in one variable.

38
 Other theorems concerning roots of polynomial equations evolved
from the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

Number of Roots Theorem

Every polynomial equation of a
degree n ≥ 𝟏 has exactly n roots.

Example 1
Determine the number of roots of each polynomial function.
1. f(x) = 3x31 + x21 – 2x11 + 7x
2. g(x) = (x + 2)4(3x -1)2(x -1)5
3. h(x) = (x – a)m(x – b)n
Solution:
a) f(x) is of the 31st degree. Hence, f(x) has 31 roots
b) When expanded, the degree of g(x) will be obvious; g(x) is of the
4 + 2 + 5 = 11th degree. Hence, it has 11 roots. The linear factor x + 2
occurs 4 times; the corresponding root -2 is said to be of multiplicity
1
4. The linear factor 3x – 1 occurs 2 times; the corresponding root 3 is
said to be of multiplicity 2. The linear factor x – 1 occurs 5 times, the
corresponding root 1 is said to be of multiplicity 5.
c.h(x) = 0 has m+n roots.

If the polynomial function p(x) is expressed in factored form, the

zeroes of the function are readily determined.

Example 2
Determine the degree and the zeroes of each polynomial function.
a. F(x) = (x – 3)2(x + 1)3(2x + 5)
b. G(x) = x3(x + 2)(x – 4)5
c. H(x) = (x2 – 1)(x2 + 4x + 4)

Solution:
a. F(x) is of the 6th degree. Its zeroes are 3 as a double zero, -1 as a
5
triple zero, and − 2 as a single zero.
b. G(x) is of the 9th degree. Its zeroes are 0 as a triple zero, -2 as single
zero, and 4 as a zero of multiplicity 5
c. H(x) = (x2 – 1)(x2 + 4x + 4)
= (x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 2)
H(x) is of the 4th degree. Its zeroes are -1, 1, and -2 as a double
zero.

The difficulty of finding the zeroes of a polynomial function or the roots

of a polynomial equation increases when the polynomial is not expressed in
factored form. In this case, the guess-and-check method may be employed.

39
Example 3
Find all the zeroes of p(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 .

Solution:
Remember, the zeroes of p(x) are those values of x that make p(x) = 0.
There are three of them since p(x) is of the 3rd degree.

Using synthetic division:

Trial 1: x = 1
1 6 11 6 |1
1 7 18
1 7 18 24 ← remainder

Since the remainder is not 0, 1 is not a zero of p(x). Note that if x will be
increased, the remainder will also increase. Thus, decrease x.
Trial 2: x = 0
p(0) = 03 + 6(0)2 + 11(0) + 6
=6
So, 0 is not a zero of p(x).

Trial 3: x = -1
1 6 11 6 |-1
-1 -5 -6
1 5 6 0 ← remainder

Since p(-1) = 0, according to the Factor Theorem, -1 is a factor of p(x).

𝑥 3 +6𝑥 2 +11𝑥+6
The third trial implies that = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6.
𝑥+1

The quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 is called the first depressed

equation. The coefficients of this depressed equation can be readily seen in
the 3rd line of synthetic division. The other zeroes of p(x) can be more readily
found from the 1st depressed equation.
x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
(x + 3)(x + 2) = 0
x = - 3 or x = -2
Therefore, the zeroes of p(x) are -1, -3, and -2.

Example 4. Find the zeroes of p(x) = x4 – x3 – 11x2 + 9x + 18

Solution:
Since, the zeroes of p(x) are those values of x that make p(x) = 0. There
are four of zeroes of p(x) because the degree is 4.
There are many possible ways to find the zeroes of the polynomial
function, you may use synthetic division, or the remainder theorem.

40
Using synthetic division:

Trial 1: x = 1
1 -1 -11 9 18 |1
1 0 -11 -2
1 0 -11 -2 16
Thus, x = 1 is not a zero.

Trial 2: x = -1
1 -1 -11 9 18 | -1
-1 2 9 -18
1 -2 -9 18 0
thus, x = -1 is a zero of p(x).

Trial 3: x = 3
1 -1 -11 9 18 |3
3 6 -15 -18
1 2 -5 -6 0
Thus, the remainder is zero, then, 3 is a zero of p(x).

What about using remainder theorem?

Trial 4: x = 2
p(x) = x4 – x3 – 11x2 + 9x + 18
p(2) = 24 – 23 – 11(2)2 + 9(2) + 18
= 16 – 8 – 11(4) + 18 + 18
= 8 – 44 + 36
=0
Therefore, 2 is a zero of p(x)= 0.

Trial 5: x = - 3
p(x) = x4 – x3 – 11x2 + 9x + 18
p(-3) = (-3)4 – (-3)3 – 11(-3)2 + 9(-3) + 18
= 81 – (-27) – 11(9) – 27 + 18
= 81 + 27 – 99 – 27 + 18
=0
When x = -3 , the p(-3) = 0. So, -3 is one of the zeroes of p(x).

Therefore, the zeroes of p(x) = x4 – x3 – 11x2 + 9x + 18 are -1, 2, -3 and 3.

41
Example 5: Find the zeroes of p(x) = 2x4 + 9x3 + 11x2 – 4

Solution:
The polynomial is of 4th degree; possibly it has four zeroes

Trial 1: x = 1
2 9 11 0 -4 |1
2 11 22 22
2 11 22 22 18
Hence, 1 is a not a zero of p(x)

Trial 2: x = -1
2 9 11 0 -4 |-1
-2 -7 -4 4
2 7 4 -4 0

Trial 3: x = 2
P(2) = 2(2)4 + 9(2)3 + 11(2)2 – 4
= 2(16) + 9(8) + 11(4) – 4
= 32 + 72 + 44 – 4
= 144
Thus, 2 is not a zero of p(x).

Trial 4: x = -2
P(-2) = 2(-2)4 + 9(-2)3 + 11(-2)2 – 4
= 2(16) + 9(-8) + 11(4) – 4
= 32 – 72 + 44 – 4
=0

1
Trial 5: x = 2, using the quotient when x = -1.

1
2 7 4 -4 |2
1 4 4
2 8 8 0
Thus, ½ is one of the zeroes of p(x).
Trial 6: x = -2 (to test for multiplicity of – 2) using the quotient when x = -1.

2 7 4 -4 |-2
-4 -6 4
2 3 -2 0

Hence, another -2 is another zero of p(x).

Therefore, the zeroes of p(x) = 2x4 + 9x3 + 11x2 – 4 are -1, 2, ½ and -2.
One interesting fact about zeroes of polynomial functions of degree n ≥ 2 is
that there are some zeroes that occur in pairs.

42
III. What I Have Learned
Evaluation/Post Test

A. Tell whether the given expression is a polynomial function or not. If it is a

polynomial function, give the degree and the number of terms for
polynomial functions but if the expression is not a polynomial function,
write the name of your teacher in basic calculus.

1. y = 3x2 – 2x + 4 6. y = log(4x – 3)
2. y = 1 – x3 + x5 – 3x9 7. y = √(6𝑥 2 + 1)
3. y = 𝑥 √3 − 4 8. y = 0.2 – 2x + √2x2
−1 2
4. y = 𝑥+3 9. y = 4𝑥 −2𝑥+1
𝑥2
5. y = (x – 3)(3x + 1) 10. y = + 2𝑥 + 4
3

B. Evaluate the given polynomial function for the given value of x.

1. p(x) = 4x2 + 3x -3 ; x = 1 4. p(x) = -2x3 + 4x – 1; x = 4
2. p(x) = 9x – 6x2 + x3; x = 2 5. p(x) = 15x2 – 4x – 3; x = -3
3. p(x) = 2x4 – 3x3 + 8 ; x = -2

C. Find all the zeroes of each polynomial function.

1. p(x) = x3 – 2x2 – x + 2
2. p(x) = x3 – 13x + 12
3. p(x) = x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15

43
 LESSON GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
6

OBJECTIVES:
K: Describe the graph of polynomial function based on its
degree and leading coefficient;
S: Draw the graph of polynomial function; and
A: Observe the neatness in sketching the graph of polynomial
function.

I. What Happened
Pre-test
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter that corresponds to your choice.

1. Write a polynomial with zeroes at 4, -2, and 1. Then the graph the
function.

44
2. Which of the following statements about the degree n and leading
coefficients an of the polynomial function, whose graph is given, is
true?

a. n is even, 𝑎𝑛 > 0 c. 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑎𝑛 < 0

b. 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑛 > 0 d. 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑛 < 0

3. Use the Leading Coefficient Test to determine the end behavior of the
polynomial function, p(x) = – 4x2 – 2x + 1. Then use this end behavior to
match the function with its graph.

4. Find the zeroes for the polynomial function, p(x) = 3(x + 1)(x + 2)3 and
give the multiplicity for each zero. State whether the graph crosses the
x-axis or touches the x-axis and turns around, at each zero.
a. -1, multiplicity 1, crosses x-axis; -2, multiplicity 3, touches x – axis and
turns around
b. 1, multiplicity 1, crosses x-axis; 2, multiplicity 3, crosses x-axis
c. -1, multiplicity 1, crosses x-axis; -2, multiplicity 3, crosses x-axis
d. 1, multiplicity 1, touches x – axis; 2, multiplicity 3, touches x-axis and
turns around.

5. What is maximum possible number of turning points for the graph of the
function? f(x) = (x + 2)(x – 1)(7x + 2)
a. 3 b. 0 c.7 d. 2

45
 II. What I Need to Know

• GRAPHING POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

In the previous lessons, zeroes of polynomial functions were considered

over the real numbers in the complex domain. However, in graphing
polynomial functions, the domain will be restricted to the set of real numbers.
In graphing a polynomial function, the technique of finding and plotting
as many points as possible will be helpful. But there are theorems concerning
roots of polynomial equations that will be of great help to obtain the sketch of
the graph of the polynomial function.
Often, the points that are easy to determine for the graph of a
polynomial function are the intercepts. At the x-intercepts, the graph crosses
the x-axis, or is tangent to it. The x-intercepts of a polynomial functions are easily
determined if the polynomial is in factored form. For instance, the
x-intercepts of f(x) = (x + 2)(x – 3)(x – 1) are -2, 3, and 1. These are also called
the zeroes of f(x).

REMEMBER
If f is a polynomial function, and r is a real number for f(r) = 0, then r is
an x-intercept of f.

For additional guidelines in graphing a polynomial function, consider

the following:

Graph of Odd-degree Polynomials

The extreme left and right parts of the graph of
p(x) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +. . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 are:
i)increasing, if n is odd and 𝑎𝑛 > 0.
ii) decreasing; if n is odd and 𝑎𝑛 < 0.

Illustrative examples:

f(x) is a polynomial where n = 3 and an > 0.

g(x) is a polynomial where g(x) = 5 and an < 0.
46
 Graph of Even-degree Polynomials
The graph of p(x) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
Has; i) decreasing extreme left and increasing extreme right parts, if n is
even and 𝑎𝑛 > 0.
ii) increasing extreme left and decreasing extreme right parts, if n is
even and 𝑎𝑛 < 0.

F(x) is a polynomial where n = 2 and 𝑎𝑛 > 0

G(x) is a polynomial where n = 4 and 𝑎𝑛 < 0

Another characteristic of a polynomial function that will help in sketching

its graph is the number of turning points. Turning Points are points where a
graph changes from increasing to decreasing function value, or vice versa.

REMEMBER
A polynomial function of degree n has n – 1 turning
points on the graph.

For instance, a polynomial function of degree 3 has 3 – 1 = 2 turning

points, and a polynomial function of degree 4 has 4 – 1 = 3 turning points.

Example 1
Graph each polynomial function.
a. f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 4x + 16 c. g(x) = -x5 + 15x3 + 10x2 – 24x
b. F(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 5x2 – 6x d. G(x) = -x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 6

Solution:
Make a preliminary investigation.
a. f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 4x + 16
possible zeroes: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8, ±16
we have to use the possible zeroes to find the extreme bounds(the
least integral upper bound) and the greatest integral lower bound and a
zero.

47
 Extreme bounds:
1 -4 -4 16 |5
5 5 5
1 1 1 21
So, 5 is the least integral upper bound

Lower bounds:
1 -4 -4 16 |-2
-2 12 -16
1 -6 8 0
So, -2 is the greatest integral lower bound and a zero

Location of zeroes:
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) 0 15 16 9 0 -5 0 21

DESCARTES’ RULE OF SIGNS

Let p(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation with real coefficients, the leading
coefficient
𝑎𝑛 > 0, and is arranged with decreasing with descending powers of x.
1. The number of positive roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number
of variations in signs in p(x), or is less than that number by an even
counting number.
2. The number of negative roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number
of variations in signs in p(-x), or is less than that number by an even
counting number.

48
b. F(x) = x4 + 2x3 - 5x2 – 6x
F(x): + + - - 1 variation
F(-x): + - - - 1 variation

Possible combination of zeroes:

Positive Negative Imaginary
roots roots roots
1 2 1
1 0 3

Extreme bounds:
1 2 -5 -6 0 |-4
-4 8 -12 72
1 -2 3 -18 72
-4 is the largest integral lower bound.

1 2 -5 -6 0 |2
2 8 6 0
1 4 3 0 0
2 is the smallest integral upper bound and a zero.

x -4 -3 -2 1 0 1 2
F(x) 72 0 -8 0 0 -8 0

*
* ** *

* *

c. g(x) = -x5 + 15x3 + 10x – 24x

possible zeroes: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24

possible combination of zeroes:

g(x): - + + - 2 variations
g(-x): + - - + 2 variations

49
 Positive Negative Imaginary
zeroes zeroes roots
2 2 1
2 0 3
0 2 3

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
g(x) 0 0 20 0 0 80 180 0

d. G(x) = -x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 6

G(x): - + + - + 3 variations
G(-x): - - + + + 1 variation
Possible combination of zeroes
Positive Negative Imaginary
zeroes zeroes roots
3 1 0
1 3 0
1 1 2

Location of zeroes:
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
G(x) -10 8 6 8 14 0

50
 III. What I Have Learned
Evaluation/Post Test
PERFORM THE FOLLOWING:

Graph the following functions. (use graphing paper)

1. F(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 2. F(x) = -x3 – 7x + 6

LESSON PROPERTIES OF RATIONAL FUNCTION

7

OBJECTIVES:
K: Define intercepts, zeroes and asymptotes of a rational
function;
S: Determine the properties of rational functions such as
intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes; and
A: Develop perseverance in determining the properties of
rational functions.

I. What Happened
Pre-test
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. Which of the following functions is not rational

1 √3𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+5
𝑥−4 𝑥 2 −1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+8 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
2. Which of the following has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0?
2𝑥 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
3−𝑥 𝑥−3
1 𝑥 2 −𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−4 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 +4

1
3. Which function has vertical asymptotes x = -3 and x = 2 ?
2𝑥−1 𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = − 2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −9 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = d. 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3 2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3

51
4. Which of the following functions has a slant asymptote when graphed?
3 2𝑥 2 +3
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
2𝑥+3 2𝑥 3 +3
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = d. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
(𝑥+6)(𝑥+2)(𝑥+8)
5. State the domain of the function y = (𝑥+9)(𝑥+7)
.
a. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ 9, 𝑥 ≠ 7} c. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ −6, 𝑥 ≠ −2, 𝑥 ≠ −8}
b. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ −9, 𝑥 ≠ −7} d. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅}

II. What I Need to Learn

• RATIONAL FUNCTION
A rational function is any function which can be written as the ratio of
two polynomial functions. Neither the coefficients of the polynomials, nor the
values taken by the function, are necessarily rational numbers.
Any function of one variable, x, is called a rational function if, and only
if, it can be written in the form:
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = where P and Q are polynomial functions of x and Q(x) ≠ 0.
𝑄(𝑥)

Note that every polynomial function is a rational function with 𝑄(𝑥) =

1. A function that cannot be written in the form of a polynomial, such as
f(x) = sin(x), is not a rational function. However, the adjective ”irrational” is not
generally used for functions.

A constant function such as f(x) = 𝜋 is a rational function since constants

are polynomials. Note that the function itself is rational, even though the value
of f(x) is irrational for all x.

• PROPERTIES OF RATIONAL FUNCTION

A. The Domain and the Range of a Rational Function

𝑃(𝑥)
The domain of a rational function f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥) is the set of all values of x
for
which the denominator Q(x) is not zero and the range of the function is the
set of all values that f takes.
1
For simple example, consider the rational function y = 𝑥. the domain is
comprised of all values of x≠ 0.

Domain restrictions can be calculated by finding singularities, which

are the x-values for which the denominator Q(x) is zero. The rational function
is not defined for such x-values, and these values are excluded from the
domain set of the function.

52
 Factorizing the numerator and denominator of rational function helps
to identify singularities of algebraic rational functions. Singularity occurs when
the denominator of a rational function equals 0, whether or not the linear
factor in the denominator cancels out with a linear factor in the numerator.

Example 1
(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 −2)
Consider the rational function f(x) = . The domain of this function
(𝑥 2 − 4)
includes all values of x, except x2 – 4 = 0. We can factor the denominator to
find the singularities of the function: x2 – 4 = (x + 2)(x – 2)
Setting each linear factor equal to zero, we have x + 2 = 0 and x – 2= 0.
Solving each of these yields solutions x = -2 and x = 2; thus, the domain
includes all x not equal to 2 or – 2.
Therefore: Domain: {x ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ −2 & 𝑥 ≠ 2} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑦 ≠ 1}
This can be seen in the graph below.

The domain of a function: graph of arational function equation

(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2)
. The domain of this function is all values of x except + 2 or -2.
𝑥2 − 4

Note that there vertical asymptotes at x-values of 2 and -2. This means that,
although the function approaches points, it is not defined at them.

1
Example 2: Find the domain and range of the funtion y = 𝑥+3 − 5.
To find the excluded value in the domain of the function, equate the
denominator to zero and solve for x.
x + 3 = 0 → x = -3, Domain: {x ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ −3}

53
So, the domain of the function is set of real numbers except -3.
The range of the function is same as the domain of the inverse function. So, to
find the range, define the inverse of the function.

Interchange the x and y.

1
𝑥= −5
𝑦+3
1 1 1
Solving for y you get, 𝑥 + 5 = 𝑦 + 3 → 𝑦 + 3 = 𝑥 +5 → 𝑦 = 𝑥+5 – 3
1
So, the inverse function is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − 3.
𝑥+5
The excluded value in the domain of the inverse function can be determined
by equating the denominator to zero and solving for x, x + 5 = 0→ 𝑥 = −5
So, the domain of the inverse function is the set of real numbers except -5. That
is the range of given function is the set of real numbers except – 5.
Range: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑦 ≠ −5}

Therefore, Domain: {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ −3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ −5}

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4
Example 2: Find the domain and range of the function y =
𝑥+1
When you factor the numerator and cancel the non-zero common factors,
the function gets reduced to linear function as shown
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
𝑦=
(𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥− 4
So, the graph is a linear one with a hole at x = -1

54
 ``
Use the graph to identify the domain and the range.
The function is not defined for x = -1. So, the domain: {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ 1} 𝑜𝑟
(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, +∞) and the Range: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦(−1) = 𝑘}.
For 𝑥 ≠ −1, the function simplifies to y = x – 4. The function is not defined at x =
-1 or the function does not take the value -1 -4 = -5. That is k = -5.
Therefore, Range: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ −5} 𝑜𝑟 (−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, +∞)

3
Example 3: Find the the domain and range of a rational function; y = 𝑥+1
Let us equate the denominator to zero, then find value of x.
𝑥 + 1 = 0 → 𝑥 = −1
Domain: {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ −1}
3
This can be read as the domain of the ration function y = 𝑥+1 are set of real
number except for negative -1.

To find the range of rational function, take the inverse function of the original
rational function.

55
 3
That is, y = 𝑥+1, interchange x and y.
3 3 3
𝑥= →𝑦+1= →𝑦 = −1
𝑦+1 𝑥 𝑥
3
So, the inverse function becomes 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
= 𝑥 − 1.
The domain of the inverse function is the set of real numbers except 0.
That is, the range of the given function is the set of real numbers except 0.
Range: {𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ 0}

Example 4: find the domain and range of the rational function.

2𝑥 − 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , equate the denominator to zero, x = 0
Therefore, Domain: {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ 0}
Find the inverse function:
2𝑥−3
y = 𝑥 , interchange x and y
2𝑦−3 3
that is, 𝑥 = → 𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑦 − 3 → 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 3 → 𝑦(𝑥 − 2) = 3 → 𝑦 = 𝑥−2 →
𝑦
3
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥−2
x – 2= 0, x = 2

Therefore, Range:{𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ 2}

𝑥+3
Example 4. Find the domain and range of the given function f(x) =
2𝑥−1
Equate the denominator to zero.
1 1
2x – 1 = 0→ 𝑥 = 2, Domain: {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 2}
To find the range, interchange x and y.
𝑥+3 𝑦+3
y= →𝑥= → 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 3 → 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 → 𝑦(2𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 + 3 →
2𝑥−1 2𝑦−1
𝑥+3
𝑦=
2𝑥 − 1
𝑥+3 1
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = , then, 2x – 1 = 0 → 𝑥 = 2
2𝑥−1

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 1
Range:{𝑦 ∈ 𝑅|𝑦 ≠ 2}

𝑥
Example 5: Find the domain and range of f(x) = 𝑥 2 −1
Equate the denominator to zero; x2 – 1 = 0→ 𝑥 2 = 1 → 𝑥 = ±1
Domain:{𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥 ≠ ±1}, Range:{𝑦 ∈ 𝑅} because no restriction upon getting the
𝑥
inverse function f(x)= 𝑥 2 −1

B. Asymptotes of a Rational Function

An asymptote is a line that the graph of a function approaches, but

1
never touches. In the parent function 𝑓(𝑥) = , both the x-and y-axes are
𝑥
asymptotes. The graph of the parent function will get closer and closer to but
never touches the asymptotes.

A rational functional can have at most one horizontal or oblique

asymptote, and many possible vertical asymptotes; these can be calculated.

Types of Asymptotes
In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the
distance between the curve and the line approaches zero as they tend to
infinity.
There are three kinds of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique.

57
*Horizontal asymptotes of curve are horizontal lines that the graph of the
function approaches as x tends to +∞ or -∞. Horizontal asymptotes are parallel
to the x-axis.

*Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without
bound. They are parallel to the y-axis. To find the vertical asymptote of a
rational function, equate the denominator to zero and solve for x.

*An asymptote that is neither horizontal nor vertical is an oblique(slant)

asymptote. These are diagonal lines so the difference between the curve and
the line approaches 0 as x tends to +∞ or -∞.

*If the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is less than that of the
denominator, then the horizontal asymptote is the x-axis or y = 0. The function
𝑎 1
f(x) = 𝑥 , 𝑎 ≠ 0 has the same domain, range and asymptotes as f(x) = 𝑥.
𝑎
Now, the graph of the function f(x) = + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0 is a hyperbola, symmetric
𝑥−𝑏
about the point(b, c). The vertical asymptote of the function is x = b and the
horizontal asymptote is y = c.
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
Considering a more general form, the function f(x) = 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 has the vertical
𝑑 𝑎
asymptote at x = − 𝑐 and the horizontal asymptote at y= 𝑐 . More generally, if
both the numerator and the denominator have the same degree, then
horizontal asymptote would be y = k where k is the ratio of the leading
coefficient of the numerator to that of the denominator.
If the degree of the denominator is one less than that of the numerator, then
the function has a slanting asymptote.

Each type of asymptote is shown in the graph below.

Graph with asymptotes: The graph of a function with horizontal (y = 0), vertical (x = 0),
and oblique asymptote (blue line).

58
 1
Example 1. Consider the graph of the f(x) = 𝑥, shown below. The
1
coordinates of the points on the curve are of the form(x, 𝑥) where x is a
number other than 0.

Graph of f(x) = 1⁄𝑥 : Bothe the x-axis and y-axis are asymptotes.

Notice that as the positive values of x become larger and larger, the
corresponding values of y become infinitesimally small. However, no matter
1
how large x becomes, 𝑥 is never 0, so the curve never actually touches the x-
axis. The x- axis is a horizontal asymptote of the curve.
Similarly, as the positive values of x become smaller and smaller, the
corresponding values of y become larger and larger. So the curve extends
farther and farther upward as it comes closer and closer to the y-axis. The y-
axis is a vertical asymptote of the curve.

Asymptotes of Rational Functions

A rational function has at most one horizontal or oblique asymptote, and
possibly many vertical asymptotes.
Vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero. In other
words, vertical asymptotes accur at singularities, or points at which the rational
function is not defined. Vertical asymptotes only occur at singularities when the
associated linear factor in the denominator remains after cancellation.

(𝑥 −1)(𝑥 + 2)
For example, consider the function: 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
We can identify from th linear factors in the denominator that two singularities
exist, at x = 1 and x = - 1. However, the linear factor (x – 1) cancels with a
factor in the numerator. Thus, the only vertical asymptote for this function is at
x = -1.
The degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine
whether or not there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes.

59
Existence of horizontal asymptote depends on the degree of polynomial in the
numerator(n) and degree of polynomial in the denominator(m). there are
three possible cases:
1. If n > m, then there is no horizontal asymptote(however, if n = m + 1, then
there exists a slant asymptote).
2. If n < m, then the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
3. If n = m, then a horizontal asymptote exists, and the equation is:
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
y = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one

greater than the denominator, the function has an oblique(slant)
asymptote. The asymptote is the polynomial term after dividing the
numerator and denominator, and is a linear expression.

5
Example 2: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function f(x) =𝑥−1
To find the vertical asymptote, equate the denominator to zero and solve for
x.

x -1 = 0→ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 1. Since the degree of the

polynomial in the numerator is less than that of the denominator, the
horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
Example 3. Find any vertical Asymptotes of f(x) =
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)
Notice that, based on the linear factors in the denominator, singularities
exists at x = 1 and x = -1. Also notice that one linear factor (x – 1) cancels with
the numerator. However, one linear factor (x – 1) remains in the denominator
because it is squared. Therefor a vertical asymptote exists at

60
x = 1. The linear factor( x + 1) also does not cancel out; a vertical asymptote
also exists at x = -1.

2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
Example 3. Find any horizontal or oblique asymptote of f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 16
Because the polynomials in the numerator have the same degree(2), we
can identify that there is one horizontal asymptote and no oblique asymptote.
The coefficient of the highest power term is 2 in the numerator and 1 in the
2
denominator. Hence, horizontal asymptote is given by: y = 1 = 2

C. Solving problems with Rational Functions

The x-intercepts of rational functions are found by setting the
polynomial in the numerator equal to 0 and solving for x.

*Finding the x -intercepts of Rational Functions

Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two real
polynomials with the condition that the polynomial in the denominator is not a
𝑃(𝑥)
zero polynomial: f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥) , where Q(x) ≠ 0
𝑥+1
An example of rational function is: f(x) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1
Rational function can be graphed on the coordinate plane. We can use
algebraic methods to calculate their x-intercepts(also known as zeros or roots),
which are points where the graph intersects the x-axis. Rational functions can
have zero, one, or multiple x-intercepts.

For any function, the x-intercepts are x-values for which the function has
a value of zero: f(x) = 0.

In the case of rational functions, the x-intercepts exists when the

𝑃(𝑥)
numerator is equal to 0. For f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥), if P(x) = 0, then f(x) = 0.

In order to solve rational functions for their x-intercepts, set the

polynomial in the numerator equal to zero, and solve for x by factoring where
applicable.

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
Example 1: Find the x-intercepts of this function: f(x) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
Set the numerator of this rational function equal to zero and solve for x

0 = x2 – 3x + 2
0 = (x – 1)(x – 2), Solution for this polynomial are x = 1 and x = 2. This means that
this function has x-intercepts at 1 and 2.

1
Example 2: Find the x-intercepts of the function: f(x) = 𝑥
Here, the numerator is a constant, therefore, cannot be set equal to 0.
Thus, this function does not have any x-intercepts.

61
 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
Example 3: Find the roots of: g(x) = 2𝑥 2 − 10
Factoring the numerator, we have :

0 = x3 – 2x
0 = x(x2 – 2), Given the factor x, the polynomial equals 0 when x = 0. Let
the second factor equal to zero, and solve for x:
x2 – 2 = 0
x2 = 2
x = ±√2. Thus, there are three roots, or x-intercepts: 0, -√2 and √2. These
can be observed in the graph of the function below.

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
Graph of g(x) = 2𝑥 2 − 10: x-intercepts exist at x = -√2, 0, √2.

II. What I have Learned

Evaluation/Post Test
Find the domain, the range, asymptotes, and x- & y-intercepts of the
following rational functions.
2𝑥 2 −15 3 2 x 2 − 3x + 1
1. 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−15 2. 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥+4 + 2 3. f ( x) =
x−2

62
 REFERENCES:

ALBAY, EDUARD M., RONALDO S. BATISAN and ALELI M. CARAAN. General

Mathematics. Makati City: Diwa Learning Systems Inc, 2016.

DILAO, SOLEDAD JOSE, FERNANDO B. ORINES and JULIETA G. BERNABE. Advanced

Algebra, Trigonometry and Statistics. Quezon City : Vibal Publishing House,
Inc, 2013.

ORINES, FERNANDO B, MIRLA S. ESPARRAGO and NESTOR Jr. V. REYES. Advanced

Algebra, Trigonometry, and Statistics. Quezon City: PHOENIX PUBLISHING
HOUSE, INC, 2004.

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About the Author

RAUL COLOT TUBIL is presently stationed at Dauin Science High School

teaching Physics, Advance Chemistry, Basic Calculus, General
Mathematics and Pre-Calculus. He is a graduate of Silliman
University with the Degree of Bachelor of Science in
Mathematics, earned 29 units in Secondary Education at
Foundation University, 18 units in Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
at San Carlos University, Cebu City and Completed the
Academic requirements in Master of Arts in Educational
Management at University in Southern Philippines Foundation,
Cebu City.

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DISCLAIMER

The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible
learning modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are
carefully researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator
were clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content
is subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.

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