Bechtel et al 2015

Applications:
WUDAPT
Google Earth
GIS
System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses (SAG-GIS)

=> hierarchy: 3 levels:

 Level 2: detailed description
 Level 1: precise parameter, focus on size and uses
 Level 0: most overarching
Consider:
 Sky view factor
 Building aspect ratio
 Building surface fraction
 Impervious surface fraction
 Natural surface fraction
 Mean build height (Average) + Terrain roughness class
 Anthropogenic heat flux
 Temperature range in a day

LCT Sky Building Building Impervious Natural Mean build Anthropogenic Temperature
view aspect surface surface surface height heat flux range in a day
factor ratio fraction fraction fraction (Average) +
(H/W) Terrain
roughness
class

Extensiv 0.9 – 0.1-03 30-50% 40-50% <20% 3-10m <50 Wm^2

e low- 1 5
rise
Compac 0.2 – >2 40-60% 40-60% <10% >35m small
t High- 0.4 8
rise
Open- 0.6 – 0.3 – 20-40% 20-30% 30-60% 3-8 <25 Wm^2
set low- 0.9 0.75 5-6
rise
Low- >0.95 <5% <5% >90% <0.5m <5 Wm^2
plant 3-4
cover

Method:
 manual sampling of grid cells using Geo-Wiki (Mills 2013)
 digitisation of homogenous LCZs
 GIS-based approach using building data (Lelovics et al. 2014)
 object based image analysis (Lelovics et al. 2014)
 supervised pixel-based classification (Bechtel 2011; Bechtel and Daneke 2012) => 97%
accuracy
Method to sort the LCZ schemes:
 Classify by structure/height and cover/permeability => combine, set as 2 representing
axes

Universal LCZ Mapping Scheme
 LCZs were recently introduced by Stewart and Oke to standardize the classification of
urban and rural field sites for observational UHI studies
 air temperature difference at screen height
 LCZs is classified following various factors (add for the previous consider-part):
o building and street dimensions, surface cover, degree of permeability, materials
and the human activity or metabolism.
o Tree spacing, tree/plant heights
o Geometric average of building heights
o Ability to accept or release heat (J*m^–2*s^–1/2*K^–1)
 Appropriateness, requirements and limitations
o Appropriation:
 possible to have outliers
 questions: Can an LCZ be assigned to
any urban structure? Additionally, can only one LCZ be assigned to a
given structure?
 Is believed to cover the most majority of existing urban forms.
 Well balanced between accuracy and universality
 Using subclasses when the climatic effect is not negligible and the
subclass is applicable to larger areas
 the misclassification of single pixels should be acceptable.
 different spectral properties in different parts of the world
o Requirements:
 local training data
  knowledge of the local urban structures
 the procedure should be universal and have a low level of data
requirements
 the procedure should be objective as much as possible => comparable for
different cities and operators (aim: comparable between cities and
provinces in Vietnam)
 computationally and fiscally inexpensive => can be done by using free
data and software, and the taken time of process is fast
 determine which observable spectral characteristics
can be used
 very high resolution data => aim for research: to test how accurate the
current resolution can analyze about the urban structure
 consider potential use cases
 universal, simple and objective
o Limitations:
 The scale is too large => result depends on the chosen scale
 The results depend a lot on the optimal scale (chosen resolution) since it
affects to the pattern recognition restrictions => and there no best pixel
size in general (should be in range 10m – 1000m => good results for range
100-150m)
Types of city:
1) Compact high-rise:
 Dense mix of tall buildings to tens of stores (floors)
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly paved
 Concrete, steel, stone, and glass construction materials
2) Compact mid-rise
 Dense mix of midrise buildings to tens of stories
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly paved
 Stone, brick, tile, and concrete construction materials
3) Compact low-rise
 Dense mix of low-rise buildings
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly paved
 Stone, brick, tile, and concrete construction materials
4) Open high-rise
 Open arrangement of tall buildings to ten of stories
 Abundance of pervious land cover (low plants, scattered trees)
 Concrete, steel, stone, and glass construction materials
5) Open mid-rise
  Open arrangement of midrise buildings to ten of stories
 Abundance of pervious land cover (low plants, scattered trees)
 Concrete, steel, stone, and glass construction materials
6) Open low-rise
 Open arrangement of low-rise buildings to ten of stories
 Abundance of pervious land cover (low plants, scattered trees)
 Concrete, steel, stone, and glass construction materials
7) Light-weight low rise
 Dense mix of single-story buildings
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly half-paved
 Lightweight construction materials
8) Large low-rise
 Open arrangement of large low-rise buildings
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly paved
 Steel, concrete, metal, and stone construction materials
9) Sparsely built
 Sparsely arrangement of small or medium-sized buildings in a natural setting
 Abundance of pervious land cover (low plants, scattered trees)
10) Heavy industry
 Low-rise and mid-rise industrial structures
 Few or no trees
 Land cover mostly paved or hard-packed
 Metal, steel, and concrete construction materials
Figure 1 Height of objects - D.Stewart
 Figure 2 Sample of LCZ classification
Note:
Give a range of values for each property => reduce number of standard classes + eases the
classification process
 Choose the range (note for my study)
Requirements for LCZ mapping:
 Simple workflow in the form of a protocol
 Enabling local operators with different backgrounds to derive a LCZ map
 Universal
 As objective as possible
 Computationally efficient
 enabling local operators with
different backgrounds to derive
a LCZ map
Bechtel et al 2016
LULC: land use, land cover
UHI: urban heat island => the temperature is often higher in urban areas than in its surrounding
rural areas
Spectral variation in tropical and monsoon climates => limited cloud-free optical images =>
using multispectral
Georeferenced photos => estimate building height (Georeferenced photo can be created using
QGIS)
SAGA: contains image-classification algorithms which use semiautomatic classification & its
framework is based on object-based approach
Random forest (RF): algorithm that is an ensemble learning method for classification, regression
and other tasks that operates by constructing a multitude of decision trees at training time
Input data: 2 different scenes from different seasons in 2013 downloaded from NASA’s Earth
Explorer.
C-band: a mid-band spectrum ranging from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz, a range that offers both quality of
performance and wide coverage. “Goldilocks” of frequency
GLCM: Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix - is defined over an image to be the distribution of co-
occurring pixel values (grayscale values, or colors) at a given offset. Used in texture analysis.
Consider: mean amplitude + range + texture
Used classifiers: naïve bayes, RF, support vector machines (create optimal hyperplane in
feature space), support vector machines(higher performance)
Chosen scale: 120m
=> model used in this paper is appropriate with tropical and mid-latitude climates but the climate
of sample in research is quite different from Vietnam

Bernard et al 2018 => compare ways to calculate SVF

solution for UHI: roof, facade and ground greening, roof and wall painting, water based solution:
pavement watering (Kikegawa et al), cooling induced by park (should be used within streets
having a large H/W ratio) => was tested to alter the radiation absorption in both short and long-
wave spectrum.
Trees are hard to be represented in geographical databases
Both Bernard (2018) and Bechtel(2015) used the same model of LCZ
=> equation to calculate SVF
(Hi: the height of the building
Li: horizontal distance from center of the sphere to the building
ND: number of sky hemisphere sectors or number of ray directions
d: a given azimuthal ray direction)

Figure 3 Illustration for calculating

Source code for calculating:

https://github.com/orbisgis/h2gis/blob/master/h2gis-
functions/src/main/java/org/h2gis/functions/spatial/earth/ST_Svf.java
For more information or details:
http://www.h2gis.org/docs/dev/ST_SVF/
for each intersection, the angle is calculated by means of Equation
the highest angle (theta-m) value encountered along the ray is conserved and used to calculate
the corresponding sky hemisphere hidden in this direction
 OrbisGIS algorithm has better performance than SAGA-GIS but takes more time in
calculating SVF. (Highly recommend using SAGA since it showed not much difference
at high resolution)
 SAGA is affected by grid resolution and ray length

SAGA-GIS algorithm (C1 and C2) is sensitive to the LCZ built type: the compact built types
(LCZ1, 2 and 3) while OrbisGIS algorithm combinations (C3 and C4) is not be impacted by
the LCZ built type

Chini et al 2018 – technique for automatically mapping built-up areas => focus on machine
learning
SAR coherence => used as the correlation between the complex images of an interferometric
image pair => delineate building footprints
double-bounce effect => combine images from ascending and descending satellite => detect
double-bounce effect => determine types, orientation, … of the buildings and the urban
fabric, etc
Vegetation affect to both cross-polarization (HV/VH) and co-polarization (HH/VV) => false
alarms => using SAR coherence to distinguish building and vegetation
=> Spatial baseline can attenuate the exact of coherence due to the geometrical complexity of
structures
Buildings: brighter + high values of SAR coherence
Foreshortening effect: optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than
it actually is due to the distortion of radar images => solve: use local incidence angle (LIA)
of DEM as the standard
Ways to reduce effect of speckle noise:
 Using textural approaches (based on spatial arrangement of pixel)
 Creating a multi-look image
=> but both of them can reduce the resolution of the produced maps
  Using temporal averaging
Concern 3 canonical scattering => needed for machine learning:
 Surface => water surface
 Volume => produced from several elements
 Hard-target => produces high response => buildings
PU-classifiers: require more unlabeled samples as input but produce more accurate results than
P-classifiers
Algorithm for mapping water bodies

Qiu et al 2018
Using LCZ framework for monitoring sustainable urbanization and to assess the availability of
adequate and safe housing: Danylo, O.; See, L.; Gomez, A.; Schnabel, G.; Fritz, S. Using the LCZ
framework for change detection and urban growth monitoring. In Proceedings of the 19th EGU General
Assembly, EGU2017, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 April 2017; Volume 19, p. 18043.

Challenge of global LCZ mapping: limited number of high quality ground truths, variations
between regions caused by vegetation, artificial materials, culture and physical environmental
factors.
NDVI is the most important feature of Landsat-8 for LCZ mapping
Experimental setup of feature importance analysis for LCZ classification:
 using LCZ42 dataset (Zhu, X.X. So2Sat LCZ42: A Benchmark Dataset for Local Climate Zones
Classification. 2018)
 used classifier: ResNet => can explicitly reformulate the layers as learning residual
functions with reference to the layer inputs
 used framework: TensorFlow framework – framework for machine learning
 used algorithm: Nesterov Adam => faster convergence (β1 = 0.9, β 2 = 0.999, ɛ = 1e-8,
schedule decay = 0.004, learning rate = 0.0002)
 Input datasets & features:
o 10 bands of Sentinel-2: B5, B6, B7, B8a, b11, b12 (20-m GSD)
 B1, B9, B10 relates much to atmosphere
o 5 visible and Near-infrared (VNIR) bands + 2 short-wave infrared (SWIR) + 2
thermal infrared (TIR) bands
o => Both sets are up-sampled to 10-m GSD
 o

o Consider Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Enhanced

Vegetation Index (EVI), Modified Normalized Difference Water Index
(MNDWI), Normalized Difference Built Index (NDBI), Normalized Built-up
Area Index (NBAI), Band Ratio for Built-up Area (BRBA) and Bare-Soil Index
(BSI) => important
o DLR’s Global Urban Footprint (GUF)
o binary layer derived from TanDEM-X data
o Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)-based Nighttime Light (NTL)
data are downloaded from GEE
o OpenStreetMap layers buildings and land use from OpenStreetMap (OSM) Data
Extracts
 Testing:
o Overall Accuracy (OA), Averaged Accuracy(AA), the kappa coefficient,
Weighted Accuracy (WA)
 Results:
o Most – least affect to ResNet: OSM > NTL > GUF > indices
o the combination spectral reflectance-OSM is the one configuration that provides
the best accuracy for Landsat-8 imagery and almost the best accuracy for
Sentinel-2 imagery => but it is no needed when there is enough samples
o GUF, NTL are not necessary
o For Sentinel-2:
 OSM mainly contributes to the accuracy of large low-rise, heavy industry,
dense trees, scattered trees and bush
 GUF mainly contributes to the accuracy of compact high-rise and open
high-rise
  NTL mainly contributes to the accuracy of compact low-rise, open high-
rise, dense trees, scattered trees and bare rock or paved
o For Landsat-8:
 OSM mainly contributes to compact high-rise, compact mid-rise, compact
low-rise, heavy industry and bare soil or sand
 GUF mainly contributes to open high-rise, sparsely-built, bush (scrub),
bare rock or paved and bare soil or sand
 NTL mainly contributes to the accuracy of open high-rise, bush (scrub)
and bare soil or sand
o the contribution of the external auxiliary datasets mainly comes from the LCZs
with fewer samples: compact high-rise, compact low-rise, open high-rise,
sparsely built, heavy industry, bush, scrub, bare rock or paved and bare soil or
sand => chose one: more samples or using auxiliary datasets
o spectral reflectance (the blue bars) already provides a competitive accuracy for
big LCZs: compact middle-rise, open middle-rise, open low-rise, large low-rise,
dense trees, scattered trees, low plants and water
 Conclusions:
o Should use combination of images (Landsat and Sentinel)
o OSM should be used but no compulsory (depends on its availability)
o Should balance the training samples
o Misclassification:
 Class 1 (compact high-rise) and Class 3 (compact low-rise) are both
falsely classified into Class 2 (compact mid-rise)
 Class 4 (open high-rise) is falsely classified into Class 5 (open mid-rise)
 => resulted from the challenge of distinguishing height difference
using optical satellite images
 Class 9 (sparsely built) is falsely classified into Class 6 (open low-rise)
 Class 10 (heavy industry) is falsely classified into Class 8 (large low-rise)
 Class E (bare rock or paved) is falsely classified into Class 8 (large low-
rise)
 Class C (bush, scrub) is falsely classified into Classes A (dense trees) and
D (low plants)
 => resulted from inter-class similarity
 => Solution:
 adding datasets such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images
 adapt the LCZ scheme considering the feasibility of optical
images, or a multi-level classification
 using multi-temporal information contained in the multi-spectral
satellite images (using the state-of-the-art recurrent convolutional
neural network: Mou, L.; Bruzzone, L.; Zhu, X.X. Learning spectral-
spatial-temporal features via a recurrent convolutional neural network
for change detection in multispectral imagery & Wang, Q.; Liu, S.;
Chanussot, J.; Li, X. Scene Classification with Recurrent Attention of
 VHR Remote Sensing Images. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 2018,
99, 1–13)
 weakening or neglecting the negative human influence on the
ground truth
 accepting some kinds of misclassification that show similar
outcomes, such as LCZs 2 (compact mid-rise) and 5 (open mid-
rise)

Verdonck et al, 2017

Most of the mentioned classifications do not use a set of surface climate properties (physical
properties of surface structure, cover, fabric and metabolism) to define their classes
Using digital elevation models based on LiDAR data to assess vertical heterogeneity
=> (I have checked and we can use Open Topography to get Lidar data)
The mixture of different local climate zones on small surface areas can pose problems in the
current workflow
Traditional workflow: input manually delineated training areas using random forest classifier =>
mapping => validating by visual examination (thực địa?)
 Modified:
o adding neighborhood information
o adding more quantitative assessment stage
o the image classification is performed on the original 30 m Landsat
pixel scale (instead of 100m) to reduce spectral variability lost
o Validating via error matrix using independent validation polygons instead of
randomly selected pixels from training areas and via the mean overall accuracy
(OA) and the mean F1-score averaged over the 10 runs
o For each RF classification, 10 runs are performed

UA - weighted harmonic mean of the user’s

PA - producer’s accuracy
For Antwerp, there is no more confusion between the compact built zones and the large low-rise
zone when using modified workflow
For Brussels the results drastically improved, misclassification rate reduced to 3% of the
validation pixels for large low-rise.
Some confusion remains concerning LCZ 9 and LCZ B
Best result for 13 x 13 kernel size
Remember to report (if possible in paper): displays 11 out of 17 LCZs. LCZ 1 is not present and
the city centre is dominated by LCZ 2 and LCZ 3. The only open zone is LCZ 6; LCZs 4 and 5
are represented by areas which are too small to establish a local climate. LCZs 7, C, and F are
not found in Antwerp or, similar to LCZs 4 and 5, their surface area is insufficiently large to
constitute a distinctive zone. Outside of the perimeter (main highway around the city), LCZ 3
and LCZ 6 dominate the map.
Used features: mean, minimum, maximum, median and 25th and 75th quantile values
Areas below 1 km^2 are not sufficiently large to establish a local climate

Overall accuracies increase with 7.9, 13.0 and 5.4% for Antwerp, Brussels and Ghent,
respectively. The standard deviations on the OA’s remain below 1%.

Verdonck et al, 2018 - thermal behavior of mapped LCZs using simulated temperature data from
the UrbClim model
There are three primary ways to counteract the unwanted effects of urban heat (Rizwan, Dennis,
& Liu, 2008): (1) reducing anthropogenic heat release; (2) climate sensitive roof design; (3)
other design factors (more vegetation and water, urban ventilation, the use of high reflective
building materials).
Adjusting urban morphology can have a major effect on the thermal behavior of a city =>
influence of studying about LCZs
Can analyze the intra-urban temperature differences by combining LCZ-maps with stationary
and mobile measurements (Alexander & Mills, 2014; Fenner, Meier, Bechtel, Otto, & Scherer,
2017; Holmer, Thorsson, & Lindén, 2013; Kotharkar & Bagade, 2018; Ndetto & Matzarakis,
2015; Skarbit, Stewart, Unger, & Gál, 2017; Thomas, Sherin, Ansar, & Zachariah, 2014;
Villadiego & Velay-Dabat, 2014)
 But none of the studies report about the accuracy of using LCZ maps for thermal
evaluation
 Main objective of the study:
o evaluate the performance of the UrbClim model in relation to the observed
thermal differentiation between the LCZs
o verify the robustness of the thermal behavior of LCZs using LCZ maps for the
three biggest urban areas
o assess the use of LCZs as an objective indicator for heat stress on hot days

“To assess thermal characteristics between simulated and measured ambient air temperature, we
selected the city of Augsburg in Bavaria, Southern Germany. Augsburg is a small city (SA =
146.84 km2, pop = 290,000), characterized by a humid continental climate and situated at the
convergence of the Alpine rivers Lech, Wertach and Singold.”
The UrbClim model is based on a soil-vegetation atmosphere transfer scheme, named the Land
Surface Interaction Calculation (LAIca)
The urban surface is assumed to be a rough impermeable area

Values for albedo, emissivity, thermal conductivity, volumetric heat capacity, aerodynamic and
thermal roughness length are assigned to every grid cell based on the land cover data: for each
LCZ class, determine a fixed value for each of the parameters
 Figure 4 Example for assigning value

The author used ONSET HOBO Pro v2 loggers U23-001 to measure air temperature and
humidity (least price: around 5.3 mil => cannot afford => another way?)
Retain days that are characterized by a steep increase in temperature difference at nightfall
Determine the period, maximum temperatures and their lasting time of the heatwave
High nocturnal temperatures that have negative health consequences are also important for the
development of heat stress situations
“A heatwave is defined as any consecutive 3-day period where the mean maximum and mean
minimum temperatures are higher than 29.6 °C and 18.2 °C, respectively, over a period of at
least three consecutive days”

 calculate the sum of exceedance of minimum and maximum thresholds during a

heatwave day (hk = 1)
The hottest zones are the compact built zones (LCZ 2 & LCZ 3), lower are all zones linked to
industrial functions (LCZ 8, LCZ 10, and LCZ E), respectively => validate?
A significant drop in temperature is observed between compact low-rise (LCZ 3) and open low-
rise (LCZ 6), and between open low-rise (LCZ 6) due to the increase in vegetation cover and the
higher sky view factors and sparsely built (LCZ 9)
The high heat capacity of water (LCZ G) results in a reduced night-time cooling effect => creates
natural hot-spots during the night
UrbClim represents the overall observed temperature in the modelling domain
UrbClim is confirmed to be trusted to be used for simulation
Should consider Heatwave degree days (HDD)
In the compact zones, heat stress during heatwaves was much higher compared to the other zones
The simulation can predict the temperature raise in the future
LCZ maps can be used as heat stress indicators => apply?

Ren et al, 2019 – Assess the WUDAPT method and relationship between socio-economic and
LCZ products
UCPs (urban canopy parameters): considers the buildings' drag effects, transformation of mean-
motion kinetic energy into TKE (turbulent kinetic energy), and the modification of surface
energy flux due to radiative shadowing and trapping effects
 the existing land use and land cover (LULC) data is required
Original LCZ map showed low accuracies for China, especially for the class of LCZ 9 (sparsely
built)
Use confusion matrix to determine the accuracy discrepancy
Thresholds of 10 m and 30 m to distinguish low-rise, midrise and high-rise classes
Combining LCZ 1 and LCZ 4 as the high-rise class, LCZ 2 and LCZ 5 as the midrise, and others
as the low-rise

Figure 5 correlation coefficient of the proportion of LCZ urban classes among the selected cities

(n: number of class

xj and yj: class accuracies or distribution in two cities)
Each urban canopy parameters should be determined for each city when applying numerical
models to simulate the weather, climate and air quality
Cities located in the same economic region tend to have similar proportions of urban LCZ
classes
The more sample density, the more accurate of the result
Should consider seasonal differences (but a seasonal mismatch could exist between the training
samples and the Landsat and might cause misclassification)
Optical images are insufficient to identify building heights, likely leading to the incorrect
selection of training samples and thereby incorrect classifications => need to add in the
information about the locations and heights
DEM is recommended to be used since it provides more reasonable height-related classifications
the height information retrieved from satellite SAR images has the potential for distinguishing
and detecting the building heights of LCZ classes
when studying the meteorological effects of urbanization, the LCZ maps can be reduced to 3
classes as one of the inputs of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to enhance
the simulation

OA: overall
OAu: overall accuracy for built-up LCZ classes
OAn: overall accuracy for natural LCZ classes
Nc, Ncb, Ncn: the correctly classified areas of all classes, built-up classes and natural classes
N, Nbuilt, Nnatural: corresponding total ground truths
TCPInSAR method, a multitemporal InSAR technique developed by Hong Kong Polytechnic
University's InSAR Group, was used to process the data.

Qiu et al, 2019 – Combine ResNet and RNN, 2 types of artificial neural network used to predict
the behavior of object => hard-pack machine learning
2 ways to achieve a LCZ map – classifier (random forest, canonical, …) (previous papers) or
machine learning (Xu et al, 2017) => the 2nd method can be used for further application object
detection, image recognition, and semantic segmentation
RNNs was recently used to reduce the temporal dependency of LCZ mapping=> RNNs which
were used: crop identification (Rußwurm and Körner, 2017), speech recognition (Greff et al.,
2017), multi-label aerial image classification (Hua et al., 2019), time series classification
(Interdonato et al., 2019), and change detection (Lyu et al., 2016; Mou et al., 2019)
Figure 6 New LCZ schemes

Long short-term memory (LSTM), a kind of higher upgrade of RNN with cell states and hidden
states, was also used in this research

ResNet is strong at image recognition

The ResNet has a total of four residual blocks, each comprising three convolutional layers and
one shortcut for bypassing two successive convolutional layers
RNNs are good at dealing with dependent and sequential input data with recurrent hidden states,
the activation of which at each time step is dependent on the results of previous time steps
There are three primary types of RNNs: fully connected RNNs, LSTM networks, and gated
recurrent units (GRUs)

And the sigmoid nonlinear function:

TensorFlow framework and Nesterove Adam optimization algorithm was once again used
The Nesterov Adam parameters are fixed as recommended to β1 = 0.9, β2 = 0.999, learning rate
= 0. 0002
One city was used for accuracy assessment while the other six were used for training networks,
and then swap role consequently.
Google Earth Engine (GEE) was used to create four mostly cloud-free Sentinel-2 images
covering each of the four seasons
10 of the 13 Sentinel-2 imagery bands were used: B2 (Blue), B3 (Green), B4 (Red), and B8
(Near-infrared) with a 10-m ground sampling distance (GSD); and B5 (Red Edge 1), B6 (Red
Edge 2), B7 (Red Edge 3), B8a (Red Edge 4), B11 (Short-wavelength infrared 1), and B12
(Short-wavelength infrared 2) with a 20-m GSD
Reason for not using band 1 and band 10 is the same as previous research (Qiu et al 2018)
performing horizontal and vertical flip and rotation => increase the samples => augment data
oversample to balance the land cover for class 3
The training samples were balanced for the six land cover classes, while the test samples were
left unbalanced
For each experiment, 20 accuracy assessments, in which the same number of class samples were
randomly chosen and assessed, were carried out. The number of chosen samples was bound
by the minimum number of samples contained within each class. The averaged results of the 20
repetitions were then used for the final comparison and analysis
Re-ResNet: very highly accurate results for two classes (Vegetation and Water), highly accurate
results for three classes (Compact built-up area, Open built-up area, and Large low-rise and
heavy industry)
 relatively low accuracy for the Sparsely built class
Re-ResNet is the most accurate > st-ResNet > not considered
the resulting classification maps of this study are not ready to be directly used for detailed
climate-related studies while the original 17 LCZ classes were designed bearing climate-relevant
surface properties
 If consider about climate: use result of this method as basis, a complete LCZ
classification can be achieved by adding multi-sensor and multi-temporal information,
such as that provided by LiDAR and satellite images acquired by other sensors
limited improvement is achieved by st-ResNet (stacked images as input)
The characteristics about climate, culture, and urban land cover structure should be considered to
avoid the false results. (The samples and the test should be similar)
Re-ResNet requires a high amount of training data
Class 3 (Sparse built) can be easily and understandably misclassified as Open built-up area and
Vegetation

Bechtel et al, 2019 => summary of many methods and applications applying for LCZ => really
important => reading required
Confirm that OA is just fine, around 50–60%
Performance improves by replacing the default surface descriptions with the WUDAPT level 0
data
LCZ is a bottom-up method of mapping
There are 2 approaches:
 One approach is to sample the urban landscape using fieldwork (Houet and Pigeon
(2011) and Leconte et al. (2015))
 Another approach is raster-based using GIS software
3 steps of processing:
 Preprocessing: crop the data to the region-of-interest (ROI) boundaries and the
resampling of the image data to a common-sized grid. The ground sampling distance of
the VNIR and SWIR bands is 30 m and 100 m for the TIR
 Digitization and preprocessing of appropriate TA (training areas): define the polygons of
TA (for example: draw the polygon surrounding a sparsely built area) (ideally about 1
km2) They correspond to polygons representing continuous and homogenous LCZs over
large enough patches (ideally about 1 km2) and are directly drawn in the form of
vectorised KMZ files. The TAs used should be city-specific and the users should take
particular care in their selection
 Applying the LCZ classification algorithm
Problems can occur:
 confusion of similar classes
 interpretation scales that do not match the 100 m resolution of the classifier
 TA which are too small or too close to other LCZ types
 the use of non-persistent land covers as TA
 some land cover types (e.g. green-houses) are currently not covered by the LCZ scheme
or must be added to the class (e.g. snow)
assigns one of the 3 labels to the TAs and the LCZ map: major, minor, or accept
Major: substantial disagreements were found in the interpretation of the landscape and the
assignment of LCZ classes.
Minor: good map but need some refinement
Project LCZ on GHSL (Global Human Settlement Layer)
Derive UCP from LCZ map: the average of the standard value range for the pervious fraction
(PF) provided by Stewart and Oke (2012) was taken for the urban classes, while for the natural
classes, PF was set to 0% for rock and to 100% for all others; soil sealing was derived as 1 – PF
=> resample both map (LCZ after deriving to UCPs and EEA soil sealing data set) to a common
1 km grid => compare
(Prediction) topography or surface characteristics affect to the results of LCZ map (overestimate
or underestimate)
Geo-Wiki can be used to classify land cover types (LCZ)
Middel et al. (2018) and Lukasczyk et al. (n.d.) developed a methodology to derive Sky View
Factor (SVF), and other UCP for cities worldwide from Google Street View (GSV) imagery:
using deep learning framework to segment 90-degree fields of view GSV image cubes into six
surface type classes: buildings, trees, pervious surfaces, impervious surfaces, moving objects,
and sky => good way to measure SVF
Zheng et al, 2017: input data from Google Street Map => generate 3D urban morphological data
by using an innovative remote sensing technology and method (Xu et al., 2017a) => calculate the
UCP ranges by LCZ for Hong Kong => assign information about building height => LCZ
mapping (Ren et al, 2019 – paper mentioned above, did similarly)
=> LCZ 1 and LCZ 4 have the highest building height, and then LCZ 2 and LCZ 5, and LCZ 3
and LCZ 6 (both standard of Bechtel and modified of Zheng defined this)
(section 4.6 is funded project => skip :>)
Lelovics et al (2014): all parameters that define the LCZ classes (Stewart and Oke, 2012) were
collected on a spatial unit called lot area polygons (Gál and Unger, 2009) => LCZ mapping =>
aggregate the polygons
(the inputs include: 3D building database, Corine Land Cover, RapidEye satellite imagery,
topographic maps, road database, …)
Beck et al., (2018): the variations in temperature between night and day appear in decreasing
order: mid-rise > open mid-rise > large low-rise >open low-rise
For calm (windspeed 0 - 2 m/s) and clear (cloud cover 0–2 octas) conditions and over all seasons
and times of the day the medians of the temperature differences between LCZs and rural
reference station were 3.4 K (LCZ 2), 1.8 K (LCZ 5), 1.4 K (LCZ 6), 2.0 K (LCZ 8), 0.7 K (LCZ
A), −0.1 K (LCZ B) and 1.0 K (LCZ D)
HUMan Influence EXperiment (HUMINEX):
  investigate the quality of LCZ maps produced by different
individuals using the WUDAPT methodology
 investigate how the mapping accuracy can be improved, e.g., by
revision of the initial training data or by combining crowdsourced
data from several operators to create a single LCZ map
it would be useful to determine whether TAs from one city can be used to create LCZ maps in
another city where no training data exists
co-training based approach was proposed to generate high-quality LCZ maps
=> included 4 stages: generate spectral-spatial features using novel feature extraction approach
=> combine spectral-spatial features derived from both satellite and land cover data & create
independent classifiers based on different combinations of features
=> two original classifiers were iteratively modified by adding new valid samples from target
cities
=> a combination of the co-training approach with other classifiers
=> OA for this approach: about 70%
Data from OSM have also been found to be helpful for the LCZ classification, especially for the
natural land cover classes (A to F)
level 0 data can be used to satisfactorily run urban-scale models (Alexander et al., 2015) without
compromising significantly on the model's ability to simulate the urban energy budget, nor the
ability of these models to differentiate between various urban densities, i.e. highly urban,
suburban, and non-urban
level 0 can provide surface parameters in a consistent manner across domains, which enables
inter-city comparisons to be undertaken in a consistent manner (Alexander et al., 2016)
Brousse et al. (2016) demonstrated that the BEP-BEM model (Salamanca et al., 2011) within the
WRF model (Chen et al., 2011) can reduce the effect of the heterogeneity of the landscape
Li et al, 2020a – method to estimate building height
an indicator of VVH (dual-polarization) from the Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar data was
proposed
Idea: use the reference building height from LiDAR image cost some fees => find alternative
way => find appropriate model
the third dimension such as building height is helpful to more accurately estimate the distribution
of population (Gong et al., 2011; Li and Zhou, 2017), building energy use (Güneralp et al., 2017;
Li et al., 2017a), and emissions in urban areas (Gurney et al., 2009)
buildings with different heights and distributions alter the pathway of wind, which further affects
the transmission of pollutions and heat fluxes caused by the UHI (Cárdenas Rodríguez et al.,
2016; Clinton and Gong, 2013; Sobstyl et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018)
Use the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) onboard NASA Ice, Cloud, and land
Elevation Satellite (ICESat) to estimate height
The Sentinel-1 GRD is the major data source in estimating building height
created a homogeneous GRD subset by selecting GRD scenes with a dual polarization (i.e., VV
and VH) from the instrument mode of interferometric wide swath
mitigate the impact of trees in calculating the building height => masked non-urban areas => AI
won’t learn from these areas

Steps: retrieved mean backscatter coefficients at VV and VH polarizations

=> calculated the mean of high resolution backscatter coefficients (10 m) at a coarse resolution
(e.g., 500 m) for the indicator of VVH
=> derived the mean height of the 500 m pixel with the consideration of high-resolution building
height data from LiDAR
In general, the building height is positively correlated with backscatter coefficients from
Sentinel-1 data as reported in Koppel et al. (2017)
VH were widely used for estimating forest biomass and vegetation height (Liao et al., 2018;
Mermoz et al., 2015; Minh et al., 2016)

building height in this study specifically refers to the mean height within the 500 m grid,
including buildings and non-buildings like streets and parking lots
the mean height of each city should be taken by the researchers considering urban form, building
structure, and population density
The vertical information of building heights can reflect the intensity of human activities and
further help the identification of urban function types (e.g., residential and commercial areas)
(Hu et al., 2016)
assessed result using the ICESat data in all major cities in the US => multiplying all ICESat data
with this factor of 0.29
ICESat derived heights are likely to be underestimated in US, because their heights could be
calculated based on waveforms of high and low buildings (not the ground) in the footprint
=> MAPE (mean absolute percentage error) in estimated height from Sentinel-1 is 44% =>
acceptable

Li et al, 2020 – Continental-scale => map urban 3D building structure

Urban land use: focus on presence of built-up land instead of land use intensity
Built-up density is the most important variable for estimating building footprint
backscatter intensity of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is the most important variable for
estimating building height (mentioned in previous papers)
Footprint x height => volume
compact urban structure contributes to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on the one
hand (e.g. Glaeser (2011)) but worsen the urban environment through UHI
Building footprint denotes the share of each 1 km2 pixel that is occupied by buildings
Building density denotes the building floor space per unit area => take account of height
random forest models => estimate building footprint, height, and volume using reference data
Stages:
=> Collecting and preprocessing the spatial data from GGE (Google Earth Engine) to use as
explanatory variables
=> Collecting and preprocessing reference data, including both readily available 3D
building data and manual interpretation of 3D building structure based on Very High Resolution
(VHR) satellite/aerial imagery and street view imagery
=> training, optimizing, and validating random forest models
=> spatial analysis of building properties in the three study regions and the differences between
these regions
4 requirements for explanatory variables: informative (about height); up-to-date; available; based
on direct measurements rather than being downscaled, to ensure independence
Optical RS (all bands from 1 to 11) was used to refer urban environment (Lee and Kim, 2013;
Yuan and Bauer, 2007)

Avoid the images/times consist of trees

average all backscatter coefficients (xbc) for VV and VH => average all backscatter coefficients
(xbc) for each image is aggregated to a 1 × 1 km resolution using the mean of only the values
within the built environment mapped by GUF
indices (VIIRS, LST, and UI) provide information about building structure (Ma et al., 2014;
Wellmann et al., 2018; Zhang and Huang, 2015)
LST data are provided by the MOD11A2 V6 product => average data for daytime and nighttime
Explanatory variables: indices (VIIRS, LST, and UI), LST data, Normalized Difference Built-up
Index (NDBI), Normalized Difference Bare Land index (NBLI), Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Urban Index (UI) which are all derived from Landsat images
Mushore et al. (2017), footprint, accessibility, roads, and topography, nighttime light intensity
data are derived from stray-light corrected VIIRS nighttime light (Butler et al., 2013)
maximum function is used to remove cloud shadow effects in night light images
GUF was used to neglect the effect of vegetation, or unnecessary light sources such as wildfire
and water bodies reflecting moonlight or anthropogenic light by excluding their areas
Images of TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X was used to calculate built-up density using GUF
Reference data: building footprint layers from OpenStreetMap, Google Maps Static API to
randomly download VHR satellite images outsidelarge urban regions, Google Street View for
the estimation of building height

error in the horizontal planimetric accuracy (the correct longitudinal and latitudinal placement of
a feature on the Earth's surface) is expected to be less than 1.6 m (Mohammed et al., 2013;
Pulighe et al., 2015)
RF combines several decision trees, built on different combinations of explanatory variables, and
produces the mean prediction of the individual trees
develop the RF models using scikit-learn
maximize the number of trees to 150, whereas the minimum number of samples required at a leaf
node is fixed to 5
10% of data used for testing (compare) and 90% for training => repeat 100 times and for each
run, calculate the Pearson's correlation coefficients (R2) to express the agreement between
predicted and observed values
RMSE: Root Mean Square Error
MAE: Mean Absolute Error
SE: Systematic Error
combining reference data for all case regions into one model yields a decrease in uncertainty
the separate models generally overestimate building height for Paris, Los Angeles, and Shanghai
Some studies have found that urban land per capita is driven by biophysical and socioeconomic
conditions such as terrain characteristics, wealth, price of gasoline, and planning strictness
(Angel et al., 2011; Taubenböck et al., 2018)
Increasingly, there are some urban thematic benchmark databases such as DeepGlobe (Demir et
al., 2018), BigEarthNet (Sumbul et al., 2019), and SEN12MS (Schmitt et al., 2019)
Population maps are mostly produced by using a downscaling approach, based on a combination
of census data and spatial data, such as nighttime light and built-up area (Florczyk et al., 2019;
Wang et al., 2018) => population data is typically rather accurate at the census level, but more
uncertain at the local/pixel level. And population density reflects residential activities only
=> Inadequate
=> but population data was used in this study as a measure for urban land-use intensity on a
continuous scale, and covers all types of human settlements regardless of their size.
the analysis of 2D urban density as a proxy for urban intensity hides a significant part of the
variation in actual building structure
Xue et al, 2020 – LCZ and improve Urban sustainability
Bibliometric analysis - statistical methods to analyze books, articles and other publications
17 LCZ schemes were proposed by Stewart and Oke (2012)
CiteSpace provides a visual gateway to the literature of scholarly publications => shows on the
collective behavior of peer scholars and experts in terms of which articles they cite, how often
they cited, and contexts in which they cite.
Steps:
Analyze data about temporal distribution, contributing countries, institutions, journals, and
authors
=> generate and cluster the co-citation network
=> selected publications were further reviewed
=> reveal the network of different disciplines that adopted the LCZ scheme using CiteSpace
LCZs are not well-suited for the microclimatic analysis of green infrastructure (GI), since the
LCZ scheme provides limited information on the dynamic interactions between vegetated and
built environments

Figure 7 example for statistics of the LCZ-related publications (2013-2020 July)

 Figure 8 Trending topics for project

Other topics:
 urban ventilation: Zhao et al, 2020, Local Climate Zone Classification Scheme Can Also
Indicate Local-Scale Urban Ventilation Performance; Yang et al, 2019, Local climate
zone ventilation and urban land surface temperatures ; Zhou et al, 2020, Evaluation of
urban heat islands using local climate zones and the influence of sea-land breeze
 urban plant and urban air pollution studies: Meng et al, 2020, Urban warming advances
spring phenology but reduces the response of phenology, Bartesaghi-Koc et al, 2016 &
2019, Spatio-temporal patterns in green infrastructure as driver of land surface
temperature variability & A Green Infrastructure Typology Matrix to Support Urban
Microclimate Studies
 Quotation:
o “SAGA provides more than 700 methods including file operations, referencing
and projection, basic spatial raster and vector operations, and filters” - Bechtel et
al 2015, Mapping local
o “WUDAPT characterizes settlements using the local climate zone (LCZ) scheme”
- Bechtel et al 2016
o “the variation in applied typologies limits comparability across cities” - Bechtel et
al 2016
o “its focus on the internal makeup of cities in terms of form and function” -
Bechtel et al 2016
o “the higher the SVF, the lower the long-wave radiation flux emitted by built
surfaces to the sky during night-time” – Bernard et al 2018
o “built-up areas exhibit very high backscattering values that are coherent in time” –
Chini et al 2018
o “SAR data are more often used merely as a complementary or alternative data
source in case of unfavorable atmospheric conditions or to identify classes that
have a highly distinctive scattering behavior” – Chini et al 2018 -
o Sustainable Cities and Communities, “Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.”, SDG 11 (Sustainable Development
Goals)
o “Local climate zone (LCZ) mapping is an emerging field in urban climate
research” – Verdonck et al 2017
o “regions of uniform surface cover, structure, material, and human activity that
span hundreds of meters to several kilometres in horizontal scale” (Stewart and
Oke, 2012) => definition of LCZ
o “The increasing urban population and quickly rising global temperatures will put
additional pressure on cities, resulting in unhealthy living conditions” - Verdonck
et al, 2018
o “A 3 °C increase in internal temperatures within the human body can be lethal” –
Simon, Niiro, & Gwinn, 1993
o “The LCZ maps can be used as an indication for hotter and cooler zones in urban
areas independent of the city.” - Verdonck et al, 2018
o “the philosophy of WUDAPT, that is, using freely available imagery”, Ren et al,
2019
o “multi-source satellite data are well integrated into a multi-view model to achieve
improved LCZ classification results” – Bechtel et al, 2019
o “Incorporating more data sources in online processing platforms can also help to
address the issue of transferability” – Bechtel et al, 2019
o “the LCZ maps are generally of moderate quality, i.e. 50–60% OA” – Bechtel et
al, 2019
o “additional information about embodied carbon in commodities such as steel,
cement, and wood that are embedded in buildings (Hutyra et al., 2014; Xi et al.,
2016) is crucial for global carbon budget studies” – Li et al, 2020a
 o “buildings with different heights and distributions alter the pathway of wind,
which further affects the transmission of pollutions and heat fluxes caused by the
UHI (Cárdenas Rodríguez et al., 2016; Clinton and Gong, 2013; Sobstyl et al.,
2018; Wang et al., 2018)” – Li et al, 2020a
o “The Sentinel-1 GRD is the major data source in estimating building height” – Li
et al, 2020a
o “A total of 56% of the world population lives in cities in 2020”, Xue et al, 2020
 Intention of project:
o Classify LCZ for a specific map
 Choose optimized value of Ray length (100-200-300), and Grid resolution
(1-2-5-10) => proposed by Bernard et al 2018
 Chose appropriate size and classification for LCZ
 Make statistical on the number of LCZ types and their proportions
 Propose solution for UHI for research location
 Use appropriate number of labeled samples for each big class
 Adopt contextual classifier
 Try to define class by surface climate properties combining with land
cover properties
 Find the largest scale for the unit polygon (minimum = 1km^2) (unit
polygon ≠ unit pixel)
 The hottest zones are the compact built zones (LCZ 2 & LCZ 3), lower are
all zones linked to industrial functions (LCZ 8, LCZ 10, and LCZ E),
respectively => validate?
 Add results of LCZ thermal characteristics to other researches (Alexander
& Mills, 2014; Fenner et al., 2017; Holmer et al., 2013; Kotharkar &
Bagade, 2018; Leconte et al., 2017; Lehnert et al., 2014; Ndetto &
Matzarakis, 2015; Puliafito et al., 2013; Skarbit et al., 2017; Thomas et al.,
2014; Villadiego & Velay-Dabat, 2014)
o Compare between different classifiers
o Test with another location in Vietnam?
o Propose idea for making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient,
and sustainable (concern: infrastructure planning, ability to cope with disaster,
population assessment)
o Find good way/compare ways to calculate SVF that can be applied in Vietnam
o Test to see which dataset is better suited for LCZ classification (In Qui et al 2018,
they compared Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8)
o To see what are the main challenges for LCZ classification, and what are the
possible solutions
o Validate quantitatively the mapping protocol of WUDAPT
o Use LCZ maps to indicate heat stress
o Cooling rate in night-time temperature (densely built zones are thus more likely to
be affected by heat stress)
 o Compare the accuracy between LCZ maps of Hanoi and Quang Ninh
o Compare results between fieldwork approach and pixel-based approach to come
out to final result
o Compare LCZ and EEA soil sealing data set
o Each member of team creates a LCZ map => compare => combine 3 maps &
compare with the individual ones
o Use TA from another research to validate its accuracy when applied for Quang
Ninh (Or create TA for Quang Ninh and apply it for Hanoi)
o LCZ and improve Urban sustainability
 Study about urban expansion and population density
o Conduct bibliometric analysis on articles of LCZ, including meteorology,
atmospheric science, environmental science, remote sensing, building technology,
civil engineering, ecology, urban studies, urban thermal comfort, human health,
building energy consumption, and carbon emission
 List of things can use:
o Software: Weka, SAGA, QGIS, WUDAPT, VIGRA, DEM, OSM, Geo-Wiki,
Google Street View (GSV), GLA14 (product of ICEsat)
o Combine with machine learning: TensorFlow framework, Nesterove Adam
optimization algorithm, Re-ResNet, Random Forest algorithm
 Main interest:
o Multi-temporal information
o Geographically variations
o Impact to environment
 Data availability
The Landsat data are publicly available here: http://glovis.usgs.gov.The Sentinel-1 data are
also publicly available from https://scihub.copernicus.eu/dhus/#/home. For the WUDAPT
product, only those after the quality checking are publicly available from:
http://www.wudapt.org/
o Data source: OSM, ASTER, Sentinel 2, SAR data, GSV images, Earth Explorer,
Landsat 8, Sentinel-1 Ground Range Detected (GRD), the reference building
height, the ICESat, the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), Advanced
Land Observing Satellite (ALOS)
 Methodology:
o For estimate height: use the reference building height from LiDAR image
 Abstract: Similar LCZs, or the areas were classified in the same group, have dissimilar
spectral properties due to differences in many factors like vegetation, building materials and
other variations in cultural and physical environmental factors, which makes mapping of
LCZs used to be a complicated task. But, with the development of remote sensing, the
resolution of the images is increasing drastically, it helps mapping of LCZs become easier
because we can spot out more general properties of the areas in the same group. Anyway,
progress in urban climate science in Vietnam is still severely restricted due to the limited of
useful information about the form and function of cities at a detailed spatial resolution since
there has just been a few of researches for this in Vietnam. We will initially work with the
data from the World Urban Database and Access Portal Tools (WUDAPT), contributed by
Bechtel et al (2015) [1], to gather and disseminate this information in a consistent manner for
urban areas in Quang Ninh province as a case study. The first step on our progress is to
describe the areas in Quang Ninh based on the Local Climate Zone (LCZ) schemes, so that we
can classify the natural and urban landscapes into categories and uses based on their surface
properties. Using this methodology, we can know whether the areas were built correctly or
need to done some changes. Moreover, out study will compare to see how the remote sensing
data did develop reached from the accuracy increase.
We will follow the study of Ren et al due to the similarities of two countries, Vietnam and
China, to avoid notable fall results since the original LCZ map was reported to have quite
low accuracy with built-up areas like China (60% - 89%) (Ren et al, 2019)
 Keyword: land cover, supervised classification; pixel-based classification, local climate
zones, multi-temporal remote sensing; urban climate science, satellite applications
 Dataset and Methodology:
o Cities:
o Data:
o WUDAPT processing workflow: There are 3 steps involved in the standard
WUDAPT processing workflow for the generation of LCZ maps13–15: (1)
acquisition and pre-processing of freely available satellite images; (2) selection of
training samples by experienced operators for each city; (3) conduction of
supervised classification embedded as an ‘LCZ classification tool’ in SAGA GIS.
 Introduction:
We will follow the 17-LCZ-classes mentioned in the research of Bernard et al (2015)
because it is applicable in cities all over the world, hence, it provides the possibility to
compare with other results of other researches.
By 2050, the global urban population will accommodate 66% of the world’s population.
[2] Additionally, according to NhanDan online newspaper [3], Vietnam’s urbanization in
2017 rate was estimated at 36.6%, one of the fastest urbanization rates in the region and over
the world, with more than 813 towns and cities throughout the country contributing more
than 70% of economic output.
Both on a global scale and local scale, rapid urbanization (that is, the movement of people
into cities and the transformation of land cover into urban forms) proceeding highly affects
not only the environment but also the economy, energy uses and material fluxes in urban
areas. Urbanization typically recover old landscapes with impermeable materials, buildings,
concentrates activities, so that damages severely to the environment. On the other hand,
urbanization is so necessary for the development of a country that we cannot neglect it.
Moreover, each type of urban areas or LCZs leads to different feedbacks and responses of the
citizens. Some can cause discomfort of noise, heart stress, and some can cause annoyance
due to the various in changes of the diurnal temperature but some kinds of LCZs can help the
citizens enjoy and be fulfilling. Nevertheless, in overall, cities are always warmer due to the
urban heat island (UHI) effect [3]. Hence, the importance of managing urban land resources
 effectively during the urbanization, or to balance between the economic development and
environment preserving, is unignorable.
To study and compare the side effects and benefits of the urban areas, we need the specific
LCZs maps for the areas. While the number of useful models were provided, there was
almost no study applied those models for a specific region in Vietnam so that we cannot say
whether those models is appropriate with developing countries like Vietnam or not.
In recent years, there has been several studies about LCZs to…
If we can successfully apply the LCZ models into our research on Quang Ninh, it will help
in finding the most appropriate model to apply for other areas in Vietnam.
[1]: Benjamin Bechtel, Mapping Local Climate Zones for a Worldwide Database of the Form
and Function of Cities. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2015, 4, 199-219
[2]: Benjamin Bechtel, Classification of Local Climate Zones Using SAR and Multispectral Data
in an Arid Environment. IEEE JOURNAL OF SELECTED TOPICS IN APPLIED EARTH
OBSERVATIONS AND REMOTE SENSING, VOL. 9, NO. 7, JULY 2016
[3] “Vietnam needs more effective urban land use” article on NhanDan online, 2018, 06. Link:
https://en.nhandan.vn/society/item/6241402-vietnam-needs-more-effective-urban-land-use.html
[4]: Mills, G. Cities as agents of global change. Int. J. Climatol. 2007, 27, 1849–1857.
[5]: Xiaoping Liu, High-resolution multi-temporal mapping of global urban land using Landsat
images based on the Google Earth Engine Platform. ScienceDirect, Remote Sensing of
Environment, Volume 209, May 2018.