Chapter 42

Introduction to
differentiation
42.1 Introduction to calculus f (3) = 4(3)2 − 3(3) + 2
= 36 − 9 + 2 = 29
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or lead-
ing to calculations dealing with continuously varying f ( − 1) = 4(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2
functions. =4+3+2=9
Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts:
f (3) − f ( − 1) = 29 − 9 = 20
(i) differential calculus (or differentiation) and
(ii) integral calculus (or integration). Problem 2. Given that f (x) = 5x 2 + x − 7
determine:
Differentiation is used in calculations involving velocity
and acceleration, rates of change and maximum and (i) f (2) ÷ f (1) (iii) f (3 + a) − f (3)
minimum values of curves. f (3 + a) − f (3)
(ii) f (3 + a) (iv)
a
42.2 Functional notation
f (x) = 5x 2 + x − 7

In an equation such as y = 3x 2 + 2x − 5, y is said to be (i) f (2) = 5(2)2 + 2 − 7 = 15

a function of x and may be written as y = f (x). f (1) = 5(1)2 + 1 − 7 = −1
An equation written in the form f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5
is termed functional notation. The value of f (x) 15
f (2) ÷ f (1) = = −15
when x = 0 is denoted by f (0), and the value of f (x) −1
when x = 2 is denoted by f (2) and so on. Thus when (ii) f (3 + a) = 5(3 + a)2 + (3 + a) − 7
f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5, then
= 5(9 + 6a + a2 ) + (3 + a) − 7
f (0) = 3(0)2 + 2(0) − 5 = −5 = 45 + 30a + 5a2 + 3 + a − 7
and f (2) = 3(2) + 2(2) − 5 = 11 and so on.
2
= 41 + 31a + 5a2
(iii) f (3) = 5(3)2 + 3 − 7 = 41
Problem 1. If f (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 2 find:
f (3 + a) − f (3) = (41 + 31a + 5a2 ) − (41)
f (0), f (3), f (−1) and f (3) − f (−1)
= 31a + 5a2
f (3 + a) − f (3) 31a + 5a2
f (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 2 (iv) = = 31 + 5a
a a
f (0) = 4(0)2 − 3(0) + 2 = 2
 384 Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise f (x)

B

Exercise 148 Further problems on

functional notation
A f(x2)
C
1. If f (x) = 6x 2 − 2x + 1 find f (0), f (1), f (2),
f (x1)
f (−1) and f (−3).
E D
[1, 5, 21, 9, 61]
0 x1 x2 x
2. If f (x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 7 find f (1), f (2), f (−1),
f (2) − f (−1). Figure 42.2
[0, 11, −10, 21] f (x)
10
3. Given f (x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 2 prove that B f (x)  x 2
f (1) = 71 f (2)
8
4. If f (x) = −x 2 + 3x + 6 find f (2), f (2 + a),
f (2 + a) − f (2) 6
f (2 + a) − f (2) and
a
[8, −a − a + 8, −a2 − a, − a − 1]
2 4 C

2 D
A
42.3 The gradient of a curve
0 1 1.5 2 3 x
(a) If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve, then
Figure 42.3
the gradient of this tangent is said to be the gra-
dient of the curve at P. In Fig. 42.1, the gradient (c) For the curve f (x) = x 2 shown in Fig. 42.3:
of the curve at P is equal to the gradient of the
tangent PQ. (i) the gradient of chord AB

f(x) f (3) − f (1) 9−1

= = =4
Q 3−1 2

(ii) the gradient of chord AC

Section 8

P f (2) − f (1) 4−1

= = =3
2−1 1
0 x
(iii) the gradient of chord AD
Figure 42.1
f (1.5) − f (1) 2.25 − 1
= = = 2.5
(b) For the curve shown in Fig. 42.2, let the points 1.5 − 1 0.5
A and B have co-ordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ),
respectively. In functional notation, y1 = f (x1 ) and (iv) if E is the point on the curve (1.1, f (1.1))
y2 = f (x2 ) as shown. then the gradient of chord AE

The gradient of the chord AB f (1.1) − f (1)

=
1.1 − 1
BC BD − CD 1.21 − 1
= = = = 2.1
AC ED 0.1
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) (v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01))
=
(x2 − x1 ) then the gradient of chord AF
 Introduction to differentiation 385

f (1.01) − f (1) δy f (x +δx) − f (x)

= Hence =
1.01 − 1 δx δx
1.0201 − 1 δy
= = 2.01 As δx approaches zero, approaches a limiting
0.01 δx
value and the gradient of the chord approaches
Thus as point B moves closer and closer to point A the the gradient of the tangent at A.
gradient of the chord approaches nearer and nearer to the (ii) When determining the gradient of a tangent to
value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient a curve there are two notations used. The gradi-
of the chord AB and when B coincides with A the chord ent of the curve at A in Fig. 42.4 can either be
becomes the tangent to the curve. written as:
 
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
limit or limit
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
Now try the following exercise

dy δy
Exercise 149 A further problem on the In Leibniz notation, = limit
dx δx→0 δx
gradient of a curve
In functional notation,
 
1. Plot the curve f (x) = 4x 2 − 1 for values of x f (x + δx)−f (x)
f  (x) = limit
from x = −1 to x = +4. Label the co-ordinates δx→0 δx
(3, f (3)) and (1, f (1)) as J and K, respec-
tively. Join points J and K to form the chord dy
JK. Determine the gradient of chord JK. By (iii) is the same as f  (x) and is called the differ-
dx
moving J nearer and nearer to K determine ential coefficient or the derivative. The process
the gradient of the tangent of the curve at K. of finding the differential coefficient is called
[16, 8] differentiation.
Summarising, the differential coefficient,
dy δy
42.4 Differentiation from first = f  (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx
principles  
f (x+δx)−f (x)
= limit
(i) In Fig. 42.4, A and B are two points very close δx→0 δx
together on a curve, δx (delta x) and δy (delta y)
representing small increments in the x and y Problem 3. Differentiate from first principles

Section 8
directions, respectively. f (x) = x 2 and determine the value of the gradient of
the curve at x = 2
y

To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find

B(x d x, y d y) f  (x)’ by using the expression
 
 f (x + δx) − f (x)
dy f (x) = limit
A(x,y)
δx→0 δx
f (xd x)
f (x) = x 2
f(x) dx
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
0 x f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 , hence
 2 
(x + 2xδx + δx 2 ) − (x 2 )
Figure 42.4 f  (x) = limit
δx→0 δx
δy  
Gradient of chord AB = 2xδx + δx 2
δx = limit = limit{2x + δx}
However, δy = f (x + δx) − f (x) δx→0 δx δx→0
 386 Engineering Mathematics

As δx → 0, [2x + δx] → [2x + 0]. Thus f  (x) = 2x, i.e. result could have been determined by inspection. ‘Find-
the differential coefficient of x 2 is 2x. At x = 2, the ing the derivative’ means ‘finding the gradient’, hence,
gradient of the curve, f  (x) = 2(2) = 4 in general, for any horizontal line if y = k (where k is a
dy
constant) then = 0.
Problem 4. Find the differential coefficient of dx
y = 5x
Problem 6. Differentiate from first principles
dy f (x) = 2x 3
By definition, = f  (x)
dx
 
f (x + δx) − f (x) Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
= limit
δx→0 δx
f (x + δx) = 2(x + δx)3
The function being differentiated is y = f (x) = 5x. Sub- = 2(x + δx)(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 )
stituting (x + δx) for x gives:
f (x + δx) = 5(x + δx) = 5x + 5δx. Hence = 2(x 3 + 3x 2 δx + 3xδx 2 + δx 3 )
  = 2x 3 + 6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3
dy (5x + 5δx) − (5x)
= f  (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx  
  dy  f (x + δx) − f (x)
5δx = f (x) = limit
= lim it = limit{5} dx δx→0 δx
δx→0 δx δx→0  3 
(2x + 6x δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3 ) − (2x 3 )
2
= limit
Since the term δx does not appear in [5] the limiting δx→0 δx
dy  2 
value as δx → 0 of [5] is 5. Thus = 5, i.e. the differen- 6x δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3
dx = limit
tial coefficient of 5x is 5. The equation y = 5x represents δx→0 δx
a straight line of gradient 5 (see Chapter 28). The ‘differ- = limit{6x 2 + 6xδx + 2δx 2 }
dy δx→0
ential coefficient’ (i.e. or f  (x)) means ‘the gradient
dx Hence f  (x) = 6x2 , i.e. the differential coefficient of 2x 3
of the curve’, and since the slope of the line y = 5x is 5
this result can be obtained by inspection. Hence, in gen- is 6x 2 .
eral, if y = kx (where k is a constant), then the gradient
dy
of the line is k and or f  (x) = k. Problem 7. Find the differential coefficient of
dx
Section 8

y = 4x 2 + 5x − 3 and determine the gradient of the

curve at x = −3
Problem 5. Find the derivative of y = 8

y = f (x) = 8. Since there are no x-values in the orig- y = f (x) = 4x 2 + 5x − 3

inal equation, substituting (x + δx) for x still gives
f (x + δx) = 8. Hence f (x + δx) = 4(x + δx)2 + 5(x + δx) − 3

  = 4(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 ) + 5x + 5δx − 3

dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= f  (x) = limit = 4x 2 + 8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5x + 5δx − 3
dx δx→0 δx
 
8−8  
= limit =0 dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
δx→0 δx = f  (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx
⎧ ⎫
dy ⎪ (4x + 8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5x + 5δx − 3) ⎪
2
Thus, when y = 8, =0 ⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
dx − (4x 2 + 5x − 3)
= limit
The equation y = 8 represents a straight horizontal line δx→0 ⎪ ⎪ δx ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
and the gradient of a horizontal line is zero, hence the
 Introduction to differentiation 387

 
8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5δx 42.5 Differentiation of y = ax n by the
= limit
δx→0 δx general rule
= limit {8x + 4δx + 5}
δx→0 From differentiation by first principles, a general rule
for differentiating ax n emerges where a and n are any
dy constants. This rule is:
i.e. = f  (x) = 8x + 5
dx dy
if y = axn then = anxn–1
At x = −3, the gradient of the curve dx
dy
= = f  (x) = 8(−3) + 5 = −19 or, if f (x) = axn then f  (x) = anxn–1
dx
(Each of the results obtained in worked problems 3 to 7
may be deduced by using this general rule).
Now try the following exercise When differentiating, results can be expressed in a
number of ways.
Exercise 150 Further problems on For example:
differentiation from first
principles dy
(i) if y = 3x 2 then = 6x,
dx
In Problems 1 to 12, differentiate from first (ii) if f (x) = 3x then f  (x) = 6x,
2
principles. (iii) the differential coefficient of 3x 2 is 6x,
(iv) the derivative of 3x 2 is 6x, and
1. y = x [1] d
(v) (3x 2 ) = 6x
dx
2. y = 7x [7]

3. y = 4x 2 [8x] Problem 8. Using the general rule, differentiate

the following with respect to x:
4. y = 5x 3 [15x 2 ] √ 4
(a) y = 5x 7 (b) y = 3 x (c) y = 2
x
5. y = −2x 2 + 3x − 12 [−4x + 3]

6. y = 23 [0]
(a) Comparing y = 5x 7 with y = ax n shows that a = 5
7. f (x) = 9x [9] and n = 7. Using the general rule,

Section 8
dy
  = anx n−1 = (5)(7)x 7−1 = 35x6
2x 2 dx
8. f (x) = √ 1 1
3 3 (b) y = 3 x = 3x 2 . Hence a = 3 and n =
2
9. f (x) = 9x 2 [18x]
dy 1 1
= anx n−1 = (3) x 2 −1
10. f (x) = −7x 3 [−21x 2 ] dx 2

11. f (x) = x 2 + 15x − 4 [2x + 15] 3 −1 3 3

= x 2 = 1
= √
2 2 x
2x 2
12. f (x) = 4 [0]
4
d (c) y = = 4x −2 . Hence a = 4 and n = −2
13. Determine (4x 3 ) from first principles x2
dx
[12x 2 ] dy
= anx n−1 = (4)( − 2)x −2−1
dx
d
14. Find (3x 2 + 5) from first principles 8
dx = −8x −3 = − 3
[6x] x
 388 Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise

Problem 9. Find the differential coefficient of
2 4 √
y = x3 − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x Exercise 151 Further problems on
differentiation of y = ax n
2 3 4  by the general rule
y= x − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x In Problems 1 to 8, determine the differential
2 coefficients with respect to the variable.
i.e. y = x 3 − 4x −3 + 4x 5/2 + 7
5
  1. y = 7x 4 [28x 3 ]
dy 2  
= (3)x 3−1 − (4)( − 3)x −3−1 √ 1
dx 5 2. y = x √
  2 x
5 (5/2)−1  
+ (4) x +0 √ 3√
2 3. y = t3 t
2
6 2  
=x + 12x −4 + 10x 3/2 1 3
5 4. y = 6 + − 4
 x3 x
i.e.
dy 6 12
= x2 + 4 + 10 x3  
1 1 1 1
dx 5 x 5. y = 3x − √ + 3+ √ − 2
x x 2 x3 x
 
5 1 10 7
1 6. y = − √ +2 − 3+ √
Problem 10. If f (t) = 5t + √ find f  (t) x2 x7 x 2 x9
t3
7. y = 3(t − 2)2 [6t − 12]
8. y = (x + 1)3 [3x 2 + 6x + 3]
1 1 3
f (t) = 5t + √ = 5t + 3 = 5t 1 + t − 2 9. Using the general rule for ax n check the
t3 t2 results of Problems 1 to 12 of Exercise 150,
 
3 − 3 −1 page 387.
Hence f  (t) = (5)(1)t 1−1 + − t 2
2 10. Differentiate f (x) = 6x 2 − 3x + 5 and find the
3 5 gradient of the curve at (a) x = −1, and
= 5t 0 − t − 2 (b) x = 2. [12x − 3 (a) −15 (b) 21]
2
3 3 11. Find the differential coefficient of
f  (t) = 5 − 5 = 5 − √
Section 8

i.e. y = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x − 1 and determine

2 t5
2t 2 the gradient of the curve at x = 2.
[6x 2 + 6x − 4, 32]
(x + 2)2 12. Determine the derivative of
Problem 11. Differentiate y = with
x y = −2x 3 + 4x + 7 and determine the gradi-
respect to x
ent of the curve at x = −1.5
[−6x 2 + 4, −9.5]
(x + 2)2 x 2 + 4x + 4
y= =
x x
x 2 4x 4
= + +
x x x
i.e. y = x + 4 + 4x –1 42.6 Differentiation of sine and
cosine functions
dy
Hence = 1 + 0 + (4)( − 1)x −1−1
dx Figure 42.5(a) shows a graph of y = sin θ. The gradient
4 is continually changing as the curve moves from O to
= 1 − 4x −2 = 1 − 2
x dy
A to B to C to D. The gradient, given by , may be
dθ
 Introduction to differentiation 389

y y

A
y  sin u
 y  cos q


B D (a)
(a) 0 π π 3π 2π q radians
0 π π 3π 2π u radians 2 2
2 2
 

C
0 D
d
(sin u)  cos u
dy du dy
 
dx dq
A C
(b) (b)
0 π π 3π 2π u radians 0 π π 3π 2π q radians
2 2  2 2

d
(cos q)  sin q
dq
B

Figure 42.6
Figure 42.5
3π
plotted in a corresponding position below y = sin θ, as + , and so on) then the graph shown in Fig. 42.6(b)
2
shown in Fig. 42.5(b). would result. This latter graph therefore represents the
curve of –sin θ.
(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest. dy
Hence 0 is the maximum positive value. Thus, if y = cos θ, = −sin θ
dθ
(ii) Between 0 and A the gradient is positive but is
decreasing in value until at A the gradient is zero, It may also be shown that:
dy
shown as A . if y = cos a θ, = −a sin aθ
(iii) Between A and B the gradient is negative but is dθ
(where a is a constant)
increasing in value until at B the gradient is at its
dy
steepest. Hence B is a maximum negative value. and if y = cos(aθ + α), = −a sin(aθ + α)
(iv) If the gradient of y = sin θ is further investigated dθ
between B and C and C and D then the resulting (where a and α are constants).
dy
graph of is seen to be a cosine wave.

Section 8
dθ Problem 12. Differentiate the following with
respect to the variable: (a) y = 2 sin 5θ
Hence the rate of change of sin θ is cos θ, i.e.
(b) f (t) = 3 cos 2t
dy
if y = sin θ then = cos θ
dθ (a) y = 2 sin 5θ
It may also be shown that:
dy
dy = (2)(5) cos 5θ = 10 cos 5θ
if y = sin a θ, = a cos aθ dθ
dθ
(where a is a constant) (b) f (t) = 3 cos 2t
f  (t) = (3)(−2) sin 2t = −6 sin 2t
dy
and if y = sin(aθ + α), = a cos(aθ + α)
dθ Problem 13. Find the differential coefficient of
(where a and α are constants). y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos 4x
If a similar exercise is followed for y = cos θ then the
dy y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos 4x
graphs of Fig. 42.6 result, showing to be a graph of
dθ dy
sin θ, but displaced by π radians. If each point on the = (7)(2) cos 2x − (3)( − 4) sin 4x
curve y = sin θ (as shown in Fig. 42.5(a)) were to be dx
π π 3π = 14 cos 2x + 12 sin 4x
made negative, (i.e. + is made − , − is made
2 2 2
 390 Engineering Mathematics

Problem 14. Differentiate the following with 2. Given f (θ) = 2 sin 3θ − 5 cos 2θ, find f  (θ)
respect to the variable: [6 cos 3θ + 10 sin 2θ]
(a) f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40) 3. An alternating current is given by i = 5 sin 100t
(b) f (t) = 2 cos(5t + 0.20) amperes, where t is the time in seconds.
Determine the rate of change of current when
t = 0.01 seconds.
(a) If f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40)
[270.2 A/s]
f  (θ) = 5[100π cos(100πθ − 0.40)]
4. v = 50 sin 40t volts represents an alternating
= 500π cos(100πθ − 0.40) voltage where t is the time in seconds. At a time
(b) If f (t) = 2 cos (5t + 0.20) of 20 × 10−3 seconds, find the rate of change
of voltage. [1393.4 V/s]
f  (t) = 2[−5 sin(5t + 0.20)]
5. If f (t) = 3 sin(4t + 0.12) − 2 cos(3t − 0.72)
= −10 sin(5t + 0.20) determine f  (t)
[12 cos(4t + 0.12) + 6 sin (3t − 0.72)]
Problem 15. An alternating voltage is given by:
v = 100 sin 200t volts, where t is the time in
seconds. Calculate the rate of change of voltage
when (a) t = 0.005 s and (b) t = 0.01 s
42.7 Differentiation of eax and ln ax
v = 100 sin 200t volts. The rate of change of v is given
dv A graph of y = ex is shown in Fig. 42.7(a). The gradient
by . dy
dt of the curve at any point is given by and is continually
dx
dv changing. By drawing tangents to the curve at many
= (100)(200) cos 200t = 20 000 cos 200t
dt points on the curve and measuring the gradient of the
dy
(a) When t = 0.005 s, tangents, values of for corresponding values of x
dx
dv may be obtained. These values are shown graphically
= 20 000 cos(200)(0.005) = 20 000 cos 1
dt
cos 1 means ‘the cosine of 1 radian’ (make sure
your calculator is on radians — not degrees). y
dv 20
Hence = 10 806 volts per second
dt
Section 8

15
(b) When t = 0.01 s, y  ex
dv 10
= 20 000 cos(200)(0.01) = 20 000 cos 2.
dt
dv 5
Hence = −8323 volts per second
dt
(a) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x

dy
Now try the following exercise dx 20

15
Exercise 152 Further problems on the dy
 ex
differentiation of sine and 10 dx
cosine functions
5
1. Differentiate with respect to x: (a) y = 4 sin 3x
(b) y = 2 cos 6x (b) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
[(a) 12 cos 3x (b) −12 sin 6x]
Figure 42.7
 Introduction to differentiation 391

dy (Note that in the latter expression ‘a’ does not appear in

in Fig. 42.7(b). The graph of against x is identical to
dx dy
the original graph of y = e . It follows that:
x the term).
dx
dy 1
dy Thus if y = ln 4x, then =
if y = ex , then = ex dx x
dx
It may also be shown that Problem 16. Differentiate the following with
4
dy respect to the variable: (a) y = 3e2x (b) f (t) =
if y = e , then
ax
= aeax 3e5t
dx
dy dy
Therefore if y = 2e6x , then = (2)(6e6x ) = 12e6x (a) If y = 3e2x then = (3)(2e2x ) = 6e2x
dx dx
A graph of y = ln x is shown in Fig. 42.8(a). The 4 4
dy (b) If f (t) = 5t = e−5t , then
gradient of the curve at any point is given by and is 3e 3
dx
continually changing. By drawing tangents to the curve 4 20 20
at many points on the curve and measuring the gradient f  (t) = (−5e−5t ) = − e−5t = − 5t
3 3 3e
dy
of the tangents, values of for corresponding values of
dx
x may be obtained. These values are shown graphically Problem 17. Differentiate y = 5 ln 3x
dy
in Fig. 42.8(b). The graph of against x is the graph  
dx dy 1 5
dy 1 If y = 5 ln 3x, then = (5) =
of = . dx x x
dx x
dy 1
It follows that: if y = ln x, then =
dx x Now try the following exercise

y
Exercise 153 Further problems on the
2
differentiation of eax and ln ax
1 y  ln x

0 1. Differentiate with respect to x:

1 2 3 4 5 6 x 2
1 (a) y = 5e3x (b) y =
 7e2x 
4
2 15e3x (b) − 2x

Section 8
(a)
(a) 7e
dy 2. Given f (θ) = 5 ln 2θ − 4 ln 3θ, determine
 f  (θ)

dx 5 4 1
2 − =
dy 1
θ θ θ
1.5 
dx x
1.0
3. If f (t) = 4 ln t + 2, evaluate f  (t) when t = 0.25
[16]
0.5
dy
4. Evaluate when x = 1, given
(b) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x dx
5
Figure 42.8 y = 3e4x − 3x + 8 ln 5x. Give the answer
2e
correct to 3 significant figures. [664]
It may also be shown that
dy 1
if y = ln ax, then =
dx x