Migration and Urbanization

According to the Syllabus of BDEVS, Pokhara University

Prepared by:

Sagar Sunuwar
Section A: Migration
I. Introduction to Migration
Migration
It is the movement of persons away from their usual place of residence, either access on
international border or within a state.
Elements of Migration According to UNO:
a. Leaving the usual place of residence.
b. Crossing the geographical/political boundary
c. Time Frame at least 6 Months
Types of Migration:
a. On the basis of Territory
I. Internal Migration
It is the movement of people within a country involving the establishment of a new
temporary or permanent residence. It is divided into following types:
● Inter-State/District: Migration of people across state or district boundary
● Intra-State/District: Migration within the state or district boundary.
ii. International Migration
It is the movement of person away from their place of usual residence and across an
international border to a country of which they are not nationals.
● Immigration: Movement to a destination country of which they are not natives or
do not possess citizenship (from the view of place of destination)
● Emigration: Movement from one’s country to the destination country (from the
view of place of origin)
b. On the basis of Continent
disinter-Continental Migration
Movement of people across continents such as from Asia to Europe
ii. Intra-Continental
Movement of the same or within the continent such as from Asia to Asia.
c. On the basis of Law
I. Regular Migration: Migration that occurs in accordance with the laws of the
country of origin, transit and destination.
biregular Migration: Movement of person that takes place outside the laws,
regulations or international agreements governing the entry into or exit from the place
of origin, transit or destination.
d. On the basis of Place of Residence
I. Rural to Rural Migration: Movement of people from rural area to another
rural area.
ii. Rural to Urban Migration: Movement of people from rural area to urban
area.
iii. Urban to Rural Migration: Movement of people from urban area to rural
area.
iv. Urban to Urban Migration: Movement of people from urban area to
another urban area.
e. On the basis of Duration:
I. Permanent Migration: Movement from one place to another place and has
no plans to return their original home.
extemporary Migration: Movement of people from one place to another and
has plans to return their original home often limited by time.
f. On the basis of Scales:
I. Mass Migration: Large movement of people over a short-period of time due
to natural disasters and social disasters which have huge social and economic
costs in both place of origin and destination.
unindividual Migration: Planned or unplanned movement of people due to
many reasons.On the basis of Time Period
I. Short Term Migration: Movement of people for a short period of time
especially at least three months less than a year due to agricultural or other
reasons.
I. Short-term Migration: Movement of people from one place to another for a
period of time at least a year so the place of destination effectively becomes
his/her new place of residence.
g. On the basis of Series/Pattern
I. Step-Migration: Migration that takes place in a person’s life which are
shorter less extreme and takes place from a person’s place of origin to his/her
place of destination.
enchain Migration: Migration that takes place within a family or defined
group of people in which usually one family member migrates to another place
and later he/she brings other family members/community members to the new
location.
h. On the basis of factors Affecting:
 I. Forced Migration/ Involuntary Migration: Movement of people from
one place to another in a large group when a government or authority of a place
force them to migrate based on their religion or ethnicity.
unimpaled Migration/Reluctant Migration: Movement of people from one
place to another in which people leave the place because of unfavorable situations
such as warfare, hunger, natural disaster.
i. On the basis of Skill
I. Skilled Migration: Movement of skilled people from one place to another.
I. Skilled-Skilled Migration: Movement of semi-skilled people from one place
to another.
Migrant
Person who moves away from his/her usual place of residence whether within a
country or across an international border temporarily or permanently due to
variety of reasons. This term includes a number of well-defined categories of
people such as migrant workers, smuggled migrants, international students.

Characteristics of Migrant:
asocial Characteristics
1. Sometimes migrants are not accepted by the society easily.
2. Migrants have high quality of cultural assimilation.
3. They bring their own culture, tradition, language and festival.
4. It is mostly sure that migrants face: Difficulty, Dirty, Danger and Discrimination.
5. Most of the migrants migrate in the hope of better education, health and better
infrastructure.
economic Characteristics
1. Most of the migrants are driven by economic reasons. (Todaro)
2. Most of the migrants are labor migrants having semi-skilled.
3. Labor migrants face unequal treatment.
4. Labor migrants have to work for long hours with low wages.
5. Most of the migrants have better living standard.
6. Most of the migrants tend to do any job at place of destination.
7. Most of the migrants are brain-drained to migrate for better job in the place of
destination.
demographic Characteristics
1. Female’s migrants are more engaged in internal migration due to marriage. (Raven
stein)
2. Male migrants are more engaged in international migration for job. (Raven stein)
3. Most of the migrants are from age group 20-35. (Lee)
4. Most of the migrants are never married and married.
5. Most of the migrants are rural born. (Raven stein)
physical Characteristics
1. Most of the migrants are from short distance. (Raven stein)
2. Most of the migrants are healthy.
3. Migrants follow step-migration.
4. Only few migrants want to return back their home.
5. Migrants are intermediate between the characteristics of the population of place of
origin and place of destination.
6. Migrants migrate due to the response of pull and push factors.
Some Important Terminologies in Migration:
Absentee: According to the census of 2011 Any member of a household who has been
abroad for six or more months prior to the time of enumeration. Migrants are counted
at the destination and, hence, are all living within the country whereas absentees,
although enumerated at the place of origin, denote only external migrants. The census
deals with immigrants as a separate category.
Asylum seeker – An individual who is seeking international protection. In countries
with individualized procedures, an asylum seeker is someone whose claim has not yet
been finally decided on by the country in which he or she has submitted it. Not every
asylum seeker will ultimately be recognized as a refugee, but every recognized refugee is
initially an asylum seeker.

Place of destination – In the migration context, a place that is the destination for a
person or a group of persons, irrespective of whether they migrate regularly or
irregularly. Place where the people live after recent migration.

Place of origin – In the migration context, a place of nationality or of former habitual

residence of a person or group of persons who have migrated abroad, irrespective of
whether they migrate regularly or irregularly. Immediate place of living. Place where
migrant was born and nurtured in his/her early existence.
Country of transit – In the migration context, the country through which a person or
a group of persons pass on any journey to the country of destination or from the country
of destination to the country of origin or of habitual residence.

Displacement – The movement of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or
to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in
order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations
of human rights or natural or human-made disasters.

Emigration – From the perspective of the country of departure, the act of moving from
one’s country of nationality or usual residence to another country, so that the country of
destination effectively becomes his or her new country of usual residence.

Emigrant: From the perspective of country of origin, a person who has migrated from
his/her country of nationality or usual residence to another country so that the country
of destination effectively becomes his/her new country of usual residence.

Expulsion – A formal act or conduct attributable to a State by which a non-national is

compelled to leave the territory of that State.
Immigrant – From the perspective of the country of arrival, a person who moves into a
country other than that of his or her nationality or usual residence, so that the country
of destination effectively becomes his or her new country of usual residence.
Immigration – From the perspective of the country of arrival, the act of moving into a
country other than one’s country of nationality or usual residence, so that the country of
destination effectively becomes his or her new country of usual residence.
Refugee (1951 Convention) – A person who, owing to a well-founded fear of
persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social
group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or,
owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who,
not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence
as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.

Remittances (migrant) – Private international monetary transfers that migrants

make, individually or collectively. Remittances are primarily sent to people in countries
of origin with whom migrants maintain close links, although, in some cases, they are
also sent to relatives in other countries   of destination. 

II. Theories of Migration

Raven stein Laws of Migration:
Introduction:
Ernst George Raven stein was a British statistician who wrote two articles and published
a paper entitled “The Laws of Migration” in 1885 which is based on the data related to
migration between England and Wales in the 1880s decade. He argued that migration
was not random but governed by general laws and this law was effected by variables
such as distance, transportation, motive, etc. In his first thesis, he put forward the
general laws of migration which concentrate to the internal migration, whereas second
is based on the international migration.
Laws of Migration:
Law 1: Most of the migrants are from short-distance.
There is inverse relationship between the distance and the number of migrants(volume
of migration). If there is short distance between the place of origin and destination, the
volume of migration will be high compare to the longer distance. So, the majority of
migrants go only short distance.
Law 2: Migration proceeds step by step.
Inhabitants of remote area tend to migrate towards the small town then after the
larger city. Most of the people are not able to migrate directly towards the big cities
from the rural areas.
Law 3: Each migration current produces a compensating counter-current.
The volume of migration stream is larger than the counter-stream. If we observe the
trend of Nepalese migration, the flow of migration from Hill and Mountain to Terai and
its counter-stream is from Terai to Hill and Mountain. Where, the volume of migration
from Hill to Terai is much larger than its counter-stream.
Law 4: Most of the migrants are rural born
Urban born people are less migratory than the people in rural areas. Most of the people
migrate for the betterment of their living and to acquire amenities. The urban natives
are already utilizing the urban facilities ,so there is not necessary to migrate. But rural
natives are deprived from facilities such as education ,health , transportation ,
communication and employment , so people migrate from remote area to urban area.
Law 5: Females are more migratory than males in short distance.
The volume of female migration is higher than the male in short distance as well as
internal migration only. This is due to the marriage causes. Whereas, male are more
common in international migration and cover long distance compared to the female.
Law 6: Migration increases with the improvement in technology.
The advancement of technology creates job opportunities as well as facilities for
better livelihood .So, the size of migration increases with the development .

Law 7: There is always a motive behind migration especially economic

motive
There is motive behind migration where as economic motive have primacy among
the various factors governing magnitude of migration. Motive refer to the
employment , education and better earning.

Zipf's Inverse Distance Law or Gravity Theory of Migration

Introduction:
G.K Zipf, a well known geographer developed the gravity hypothesis of migration
based on Raven stein laws of migration ;most of the migrants are from short
distance and igration proceeds step-by-step. It is also known as (P1 X P2)\D
hypothesis or social physics of Newton.It is used to predict the interaction between
two places.This law is based Newtons Gravitational Law which states that
gravitational force between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them.This model
can be use to explain :
1. Traffic Flow
2. Migration between two areas
3. The number of people likely to use one central place.
Statement of the Law:
There is an inverse relationship between the numbers of people moving and
the distance moved. The volume of migration between the two places,
(mainly place of origin and place of destination) is directly proportional to
the size of two places and inversely proportional to the distance between the
places.
Mathematically:
Iij=k . Pi.Pj/Dij
Where, Iij=Volume of migration from I to j
Pi and Pj=Size of place I and j in-terms of area, population,
socio-economic setting
Dij=Distance between I and J
K=a constant

Explanation of the Figure:

• The gravity is the force of attraction of earth pulls an object towards its center
or surface. In this hypothesis, the gravity is symbolized to show the forces
that pull the people towards the place of destination.In this model, according
to Zipf, people will migrate even if they are not pushed from their place of
origin, they migrate because they are pulled by better socio-economic future
at the some other place (destination). In the gravity, earth pulls any objects
towards it surface, in a similar way ; people are pulled towards the big cities
by its pull effect (same as gravity) not by push effect at the place of origin.
This attraction force is determined by the size of destination in-terms of
socio-economic facilities, size of population and distance between place of
origin and destination. In this model, the pull factors are treated as
‘attracting mass’ and while the mass pull , the distance acts as friction to
migration.

System Approach to the Theory of Migration:

Introduction:
Akin L. Mabogunje is an African Scholar who has approached rural-urban
migration from different point of view rather than prevailing approaches.It
shows the system approach to rural-urban migration is concerned not only
with why people migrate but also with the implications and consequences of
the process. This theory is designed to answer why and how a rural individual
become a permanent city dweller as well as what factors are operating on the
system. This theory is written with the particular reference to Africa.

1. Environment:
Comprises “the set of all objects a change in whose attributes affects the
system, and also those objects whose attributes are changed by the behaviour
 of the system. This is the environment which stimulates the villager to desire
change in the basic locale and rationale of his economic activities and which,
in consequence, determines the volume, characteristics, and importance of
rural-urban migration.
2. System:
A system may be defined as a complex of interacting elements, together with
their attributes and relationships . Figure indicates the basic elements in the
rural-urban migration system as well as the environment within which the
system operates. It identified first the potential migrant who is being
encouraged to migrate from the environment.
3. Sub-System:
. A control sub-system is one which oversees the operation of the general
system and determines when and how to increase or decrease the amount of
flow in the system.There are two types of sub-system:
I. Rural Sub-System: family structure,age at marriage, age at economic
independent, land tuner or holding system,agriculture activities,etc.
II. Urban Sub-System: employment opportunities, residential facilities, urban
wages,etc.
The urban control sub-system operates at the opposite end of the migrant’s
trajectory to encourage or discourage them from being absorbed into the
urban environment. Absorption at this level is of two kinds:
1. Residential
2. Occupational
4. Adjustment Mechanism:
• These are the series of factors in the environment which acts like push or
pull factors and operates both the rural and urban sub-system. It is also of
two types:
1. Rural Adjustment Mechanism : agriculture production, types of production,
income, land tenure system, land distribution and ownership
2. Urban Adjustment Mechanism: socio-economic needs of migrants, own
community, ethnic union
Urban adjustment mechanism act both positively or negatively to adjust
migrant in the urban sector.
5.Energy:
A system comprises not only matter (the migrant, the institutions,and the
various organizations mentioned) but also energy. In the physical sense,
energy is the capacity of body to do work. It can be expressed two forms of it
which are relevant here :“potential energy’’ which is the body’s power of
doing work by virtue of stresses resulting from its relation either with its
environment or with other bodies and the second form is “kinetic energy”
which is the capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its own motion or
activity. In a theory of rural-urban migration:
1. Potential energy can be likened to the stimuli acting on the rural individual
to move.
 2. Kinetic Energy is translation of potential energy when the individual has
been successfully dislodge from the rural area.
Relationship between the System and Environment:
Systems can be classified into three categories depending on the relationship
they maintain with their environment;
1. Isolated systems which exchange neither “matter” nor “energy” with their
Environment
2. Closed systems which exchange “energy” but not “matter”;
3. Open systems which exchange both “energy” and “matter”
Todaro Migration Model
Introduction:
Michael P. Todaro, an economist developed an economic model of
rural-urban migration which is known as “Todaro Model of Migration” in
1969 A.D.Todaro work is considered one of the starting points of the classic
rural-urban migration theory. He proved the Ravenstein’s one of the law
which stated that most of the migratory are rural born. In his theory, he
stated that people of rural areas migrate to urban areas. The key hypothesis
of Todaro’s model is mainly economic issues,earnings differential and the
possibilities of getting job at the destination.
Assumptions of the Model:
1. Migration is primarily an economic phenomenon.
2. Each potential migrant decides whether or not to migrate on the basis of
expected income maximization.
3. The probability of finding urban job at destination is sufficient.
4. Probability of obtaining urban job is inversely related to the urban
unemployment rate.
5. All members of labour force compare their expected income for a given
period of tume.
The individual’s decision to migrate depends upon the following principles:
1. The real income differences between the urban and rural area.
2. The probability of obtaining an urban job
Schematic Framework of Todaro Migration Model:
 Explanation of the Figure:
In this schematic framework, decision of migration depends upon the
perceived value of migration which is determined by the cost and return of
migration. The return of migration is determined by the urban income, rural
income, and psychic returns. The cost of migration is determined by the
psychic costs, transport costs, cost of migration and opportunity costs. Urban
income is determined by the urban remittances , probability of a urban job,
self-employed earnings, education and urban wage. Rural Income is
determined by the complementary factors, government policies, education,
rural remittances and social system. The information flows from
education,media, rural-urban contacts and distance helps to develop perceive
value of migration.
Problems Related to Rural-Urban Migration:
1. Urban centered development policy creates imbalances in rural-urban job
opportunities
2. The overflow of people into urban areas not only give rise to socio-economic
problems in cities but also creates problems of labour shortages.
3. Rural-Urban migration may lead not only to higher the levels of urban
unemployment but also to lower levels of agricultural production.
4. Urban job creation is not sufficient for the urban unemployment problems.
5. Rural-urban migration must be minimized through creative and
well-designed programs of integrated rural development.
6. Wage subsidies and traditional scarcity-factor pricing can be counter
productive.
Solutions:
1. Creating an appropriate rural-urban economic balance.
2. Expansion of small-scale and labor intensive industries.
3. Elimination of factor price substitution.
4. Choosing appropriate labor-intensive technologies of production.
5. Modifying the direct linkage between education and employment.
6. Reducing population growth through reduction in absolute poverty and
inequality, particularly for women along with expanded provision of family
planning and rural health services.

World System Theory and Migration

Introduction:
World System Theory was propounded by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974 AD.
According to him, world system is a social system which has boundaries,
structures, member groups, rules of legitimating and coherence. After the
publication of world system theory, various sociological theories has linked
the origin of international migration not to the wage difference but due to the
dynamics of the global economy. According to World System Theory,
migration is a natural outgrowth of disruptions and dislocations that occurs
in the process of capitalist expansion.
Explanation:
The capitalist expansion has consequences for migration issues not only due
to the capitalist mode of production but also the culture and strong
transportation, communication and military links that penetrate peripheries.
Land, raw material and labor within peripheral regions come under the
influence and control of market as a result it has created a socially uprooted
population which have less attachments to their land and are more interested
in migration.
1. Land
For the greatest profit from existing agrarian resources and to compete
within global commodity markets, capitalist farmers see to consolidate land,
introduce cash crops, mechanize agriculture as a result it destroys the
traditional system of land tenure, social and economic relations based on
subsistence crops. All these factors contribute to the creation of mobile labor
force displaced from the land with less attachment to the agrarian
communities.
2. Raw Materials
The extraction of raw materials for sale on global markets requires industrial
methods that rely on paid labor. The offer of wages to former farmers affect
traditional forms of social and economic organization based on system of
mutual exchange and fixed role relation. As a result there will be creation of
labor market based on new conceptions of individualism, private gain and
social change which promote the geographical mobility of labor in peripheral
nations.
3. Labor
Firms from core capitalist countries enter developing countries to establish
factories that take advantage of low wage rates often within special export
processing zones. The demand for factory workers creates labor market by
weakening the traditional productive relation. Much of the labor demanded
is female causing feminsation of the workforce limiting the opportunities for
men as women can be poorly paid. The introduction of foreign owned
 factories into peripheral regions affect subsistence economy by producing
goods that compete with local goods, feminizing the workforce and
socializing women for industrial work. This result in the creation of
workforce that are mobile.
4. Material Link
In order to ship goods, deliver machinery, extract and export raw materials,
coordinate and manage business operations and machinery plants, core
nations build and expand transportation and communication link to the
peripheral countries where they have invested. These links not only transport
the goods and information, they also promote the movement of people by
reducing the cost of transportation from periphery to core.
5. Ideological Link
International migration is especially likely between past colonial powers and
their former colonies because cultural, linguistic, administrative, investment,
transportation and communication linkes were established earlier.
6. Global Cities
The world economy is managed from a relatively small number of urban
centers in which banking, administration, professional and high tech
production tend to be concentrated. Within these societies a great deal of
wealth and highly educated concentrated in skillfull and luxurious jobs
creating a string demand for services from unskilled workers like gardeners,
waiters, etc.
Everett S. Lee Conceptual Framework of Migration
Introduction:
Lee restated and updated the Ravenstein's law of migration and published a
conceptual framework for migration analysis in 1960 A.D. He described the
migration process and how a potential migrate and others do not.
Explanation:
Everett Lee in his A Theory of Migration divides the factors that determine the decision
to migrate and the process of migration into four categories:
1. Factors associated with the Area of Origin:
There are many factors which motivate people to leave their place of origin to outside
area. They are push factors.

2. Factors associated with the Area of Destination:

There are very attractive forces at the area of destination to which the proportion of
“selectivity” migrants is high. According to Lee, such forces are found in metropolitan
areas of a country. Pull factors are present in such areas.

3. Intervening Obstacles:
There are intervening obstacles like distance and transportation which increase migrant
selectivity of the area of destination. These obstacles have been lessened in modern
times with technological advances. Lee also refers to cost of movements, ethnic barriers
and personal factors as intervening obstacles.
4. Personal Factors:
Lastly, it is the personal factors on which the decision to migrate from the place of origin
to the place of destination depends. In fact, it is an individual’s perception of the ‘pull
and push forces’ which influence actual migration. He categorises these forces into
“pluses” and “minuses” respectively. In other words, pluses are pull factors and minuses
are push factors. In between them are “zeros” which balance the competing forces.

These are explained in figure, where the first circle represents the area of origin and the
second circle the area of destination. The sign pluses represents the forces that attract
people to a place (pull factors) and that of minuses represents the forces that push
people from the area. Zeros represent the indifference of the people towards migration.
In between these forces are the intervening obstacles.

According to Lee, it is the personal factors such as age, sex, race and education which
alongwith the pull-push factors and intervening obstacles that determine migration.
Further, there are sequential migrants such as children and wives of migrants who have
little role in the decision to migrate.

Lee has formulated three hypotheses within the conceptual framework of the above
noted four factors.

These are:
1. Characteristics of Migrants:
(1) Migration is selective.

(2) Migrants who respond primarily to plus factors at destination tend to be positively
selective.

(3) Migrants who respond primarily to minus factors at origin tend to be negatively
selective

(4) When all migrants are considered together selection for migration tends to be
bimodel.

(5) The degree of positive selection increases with the difficulties of intervening
obstacles.

(6) The characteristics of migrants tend to be intermediate between the characteristics

of the population of the place of origin and those of place of destination.
(7) The higher propensity to migrate at certain stages of the life-cycle is important in the
selection of migrants.

2. Volume of Migration:
(1) The volume of migration increases with the diversity of areas in that particular
territory.

(2) It varies with the diversity of the people.

(3) The volume of migration decreases with the difficulty of overcoming the intervening
variables.

(4) It varies with fluctuations in the economy which means during the fluctuation of
economy there is high volume of migration and vice-versa.

(5) It varies with the state of progress in a country or area.

(6) Unless severe checks are imposed, both the volume and rate of migration tend to
increase with time.

3. Streams and Counter-streams of Migration:

The following factors determine streams and counter-streams of migration:
(1) Migration tends to take place largely within well-defined streams.

(2) For every major migration stream, a counter-stream also develops.

(3) The efficiency of the stream and the counter- stream tends to be low if the place of
origin and the place of destination are similar.

(4) The efficiency of the stream will be high if the major factors in the development of a
migration stream are minus factors at origin.

(5) The efficiency of the stream will also be high if the intervening obstacles are great.

(6) The efficiency of a migration stream changes with economic conditions of the
country, being high during prosperity and low during depression.

Lee concludes that migration is always selective and influenced by pull- push factors.
Areas having plus factors are first selected for migration. It is generally the pull factors
which lead to migration to urban areas rather than push factors, even though
intervening obstacles do influence migration.

III. Determinants of Migration and Consequences

Causes of Migration:

● People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified
as economic, social, political, or environmental:
● economic migration – moving to find work or follow a
particular career path
● social migration – moving somewhere for a better quality of
life or to be closer to family or friends
● political migration – moving to escape political persecution
or war
● environmental causes of migration include natural disasters
such as flooding
● Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another
country to enhance their career opportunities.
● Some people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to
war or famine.
● A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new
home to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them
and do not have a clear idea of where they may finally settle.
Push and pull factors
● Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They
include:
● lack of services
● lack of safety
● high crime
● crop failure
● drought
● flooding
● poverty
● war
● Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They
include:
● higher employment
● more wealth
● better services
● good climate
● safer, less crime
● political stability
● more fertile land
● lower risk from natural hazards
● Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these
push and pull factors.
Safety Factors

Safety factors can cause danger to individuals, prompting them to

migrate. Persecution and discrimination based on nationality, race, religion, political
beliefs, or membership status in a particular social group will prompt people to move
large distances in search of a safer living location where they can have freedom over
their lives. Danger can be imposed upon individuals by something formal, like war , or
informal, such as widespread gang activity. In 2016, the Northern Triangle, composed
of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador, was named one of the most violent regions in
the world. All three Northern Triangle countries record thousands of crimes by local and
international gangs and armed criminal groups, and most crimes are met with impunity.
It is estimated that 10% of the Northern Triangle’s population has already left, and it is
likely that many more will flee in part due to extreme violence.[v]

Economic Factors

Economic migration, whether permanent or seasonal, is a commonly cited reason for

migration. In general, it is believed that in economic migration people move from
poorer developing areas into richer areas where wages are higher and more jobs are
available. It is also common for people from rural areas to move to more competitive
urban areas in order to find more opportunities.

Mexican migrationinto the United States portrays the importance of both push and pull
factors in economic migration. All throughout the 20th century, seasonal Mexican
laborers have crossed the border in search of work in the American agricultural
industry, as the economic state of Mexico did not match the level of economic prosperity
found in America. In the 21st century however, Mexican migration has slowed down
significantly, and after the American recession of 2009, economic migration from
Mexico to the United States began to decline. Studies show that Mexican household
economies have improved due to factors like increases in access to education. As
Mexico’s financial state improved and the United States temporarily struggled, both
push and pull factors eroded, causing the dwindling of migration.

Environmental Factors

Migration caused by environmental factors is increasingly involuntary. Environmental

factors cause displacement, or the forced movement of people by social or
environmental factors. Crop failure for example, often results in both food scarcity
and a drop in agricultural jobs, prompting people to move to a place with better job
opportunities and climate. Pollution of water, air and soil in both urban and rural
settings can also create a serious health risk to locals, forcing them to look for a better
life for themselves and their children. 

Devastating natural disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes and earthquakes are

environmental factors that the news most often cover. In January 2010 for example,
a deadly earthquake hit Haiti[xi], claiming the lives of over 90,000 people, and
displacing over 1.5 million others. Despite humanitarian aid, many suffered from
disease and a lack of proper shelter and basic supplies. Likewise, recent studies cite
global warming as a cause for the increase in violent conflict around the world. The
recent example of the Syrian drought from 2006 to 2011 was catastrophic, causing many
families to lose their farms and move into big cities. The drought also increased food
prices, facilitating poverty. Although global warming did not create the conflict we are
witnessing today, environmental factors are important in human migration.

Social Factors

Social factors motivating migration grow from the human needs and desires to achieve a
better quality of life. Migrants often move to ensure better opportunities for
themselves or their family, like sending their child to a better, safer school or finding a
job that would have not only a sufficient salary, but also important benefits and career
growth prospects. In terms of education, the United States graduate programs have
been a particularly strong attraction for young, talented individuals around the world. 
Individuals can also migrate in search of services, such as life-saving surgery and
medical treatment that are inaccessible in their home area

Consequences or Effects of Migration:

1. Social Consequence of Migration:

Social Aspect Place of Origin Place of Destination

1. Infrastructure Less focus will be given in the There will be lack of

development of infrastructure. infrastructure.
The developed infrastructure
will be used less.

2. Security There will be mixed feeling There will be less feeling of

about security because there security because of the
are less people which existence of crime.
 ultimately leads to the less
chance of crime.
3. Education Quality education will be less
easy to achieve because no one
focuses on the development of
infrastructure for education.
Existence of large physical
distance of students to school.
Difficulty in finding teachers,
poor internet connection and
lack of study materials.
4. Health Shortage of health facilities,
no medical personnel
5. Psychology There will be brain drain
which means people will
migrate for further
generation.
6. Lifestyle There will be change in the
lifestyle of those people who
has return from the migration.
7. Culture There will be assimilation of
culture.
8. Mental health The family whose member has
migrated will miss their
member.
Quality education will be hard
to achieve due to the crowding
of the people but there is the
presence of: qualified and
experienced teachers, staff;
good internet connection; large
number of schools; sufficient
study materials.
Abundant health facilities,
qualified medical personnel but
crowding of people.
It will receive more people due
to brain drain in the place of
origin.
The migrate people will observe
a great change in the lifestyle.
There will be assimilation of
culture.
The migrated person will miss
his/her family.
9. Breaking/Unification The person who has migrated There will be family
of family will observe the breaking of reunification.
family.

2. Economic Consequences of Migration:

Economic Aspect Place of Origin Place of Destination

1. Labor There will be shortage of There will be more labor

labor and occupation like force especially
agriculture will be based semi-skilled and also
upon women, old and causes unemployment.
child.

2. Raw Material Most of the raw materials Most of the raw material
won’t be utilized due to the will be utilized due to the
lack of the labor force. presence of more labor
force.

3. Flow of Money It will gain money through The money flow will
remittances. procced towards another
place in the form of
remittances.

4. Economic Growth There will be economic There will be huge

growth due to the economic growth due to
remittances. the mass production.

5. Living Standard The living standard of the There are 2 faces:

family whose member has
a. Since,
migrated will increase. unemployment
increases living
standard decreases

6. Mode of Production The destruction of the
(World System traditional mode of
Theory) production.
3. Demographic Consequences of Migration
Aspects Place of Origin
1. Size of Population There will be huge number
of absentees in the
population.
2. Disbalance in Internal Migration: Girls
Gender will migrate to another
place because of marriage.
International Migration:
Men will go to abroad
especially for employment.
3. Age People of age group 15-29
will leave the place of
origin in both internal and
international migration.
4. Marital Status I will lose single married
and never married people
in internal and
international migration.
b. Since, growth of the
economy increases,
the tendency of
living standard also
increase.
The flourishment and
empowerment of capitalist
mode of production.
Place of Destination
There will be increase in
the population due to the
new migrant.
Internal Migration: It will
achieve women migrant
due to the marriage.
International Migrant: It
will achieve men migrant.
It will achieve people of
age group 15-29.
It will achieve single
married and never married
people in internal and
international migration.
 5. Place of Residence Place of origin is rural Place of destination is
areas as most of the people urban areas most of the
migrate from this place. people migrate to this
place.

Global Patterns and Trends of Migration

1. The number of international migrants globally in 2019: 272 million (3.5% of
the world’s population)
• 52 per cent of international migrants were male; 48 per cent were female.
• 74 per cent of all international migrants were of working age (20–64 years).
2. India continued to be the largest country of origin of international migrants
• India had the largest number of migrants living abroad (17.5 million),
followed by Mexico and China (11.8 million and 10.7 million respectively).
3. The top destination country remained the United States (50.7 million
international migrants).
4. The number of migrant workers declined slightly in high income countries
while increasing elsewhere
• Between 2013 and 2017, high-income countries experienced a slight drop in
migrant workers (from 112.3 million to 111.2 million). Upper middle-income
countries observed the biggest increase (from 17.5 million to 30.5 million).
• Globally, male migrant workers outnumbered female migrant workers by 28
million in 2017. There were 96 million male migrant workers (58%) and 68
million female migrant workers (42%).
5. International remittances increased to USD 689 billion in 2018
• The top 3 remittance recipients were India (USD 78.6 billion), China (USD
67.4 billion) and Mexico (USD 35.7 billion).
• The United States remained the top remittance-sending country (USD 68.0
billion) followed by the United Arab Emirates (USD 44.4 billion) and Saudi
Arabia (USD 36.1 billion). The global refugee population was 25.9 million in
2018
• 20.4 million refugees were under the mandate of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and 5.5 million were refugees under
the mandate of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
Refugees (UNRWA) in the Near East.
• 52 per cent of the global refugee population was under 18 years of age.
6. The number of internally displaced persons due to violence and conflict
reached 41.3 million • This was the highest number on record since the
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre began monitoring in 1998.
 • The Syrian Arab Republic had the highest number of people displaced (6.1
million) followed by Colombia (5.8 million) and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (3.1 million). The number of stateless persons globally in 2018 was
3.9 million
• Bangladesh had the largest number of stateless persons (around 906,000).
It was followed by Côte d’Ivoire (692,000) and Myanmar (620,000).
• While most international migrants born in Africa, Asia and Europe reside
within their regions of birth, the majority of migrants from Latin America and
the Caribbean and Northern America reside outside their regions of birth. In
Oceania, the number of intraregional migrants and those residing outside the
region remained about the same in 2019.
• More than half of all international migrants (141 million) lived in Europe
and Northern America. Migration has been a key determinant of population
change in several countries
• Intraregional migration has been an important contributor to population
change in some African countries such as Equatorial Guinea.
• Labor migration has contributed to significant population changes especially
in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States. With the exceptions of Oman and
Saudi Arabia, migrants made up the majority of the populations in GCC
countries.
Displacement remained a major feature in some regions
• The Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey were the origin and host of the largest
number of refugees globally, 6.7 million and 3.7 million, respectively.
Canada became the largest refugee resettlement country, resettling more
refugees than the United States in 2018.
• The Philippines had the largest number of new disaster displacements in
2018 (3.8 million).
• Around 4 million Venezuelans had left their country by mid-2019. The
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela was the largest source country of asylum
seekers in 2018 (over 340,000).
International Migrants from 1970-2019

Year Migrant as a Percentage of the World

Population

1970 2.3%

1975 2.2%
 1980 2.3%

1985 2.3%

1990 2.9%

1995 2.8%

2000 2.8%

2005 2.9%

2010 3.2%

2015 3.4%

2019 3.5%

Conclusion: The number of the international migrants are increasing.

IV. Migration Pattern in Nepal
Internal Migration in Nepal:
a. Waves of Migration in Nepal
I. First Wave: It was present during Prithvi Narayan Shah and his
successor until 18th Century. Migration was mainly due to the Jhara labor
in which youths were used for different purposes such as transport of
military and other supplies, construction of temples, palaces, bridges,
forts, etc. Jhara labor was kind of forced labor required to leave their
villages to provide services in distant culture.
ii.Second Wave: The second wave of internal migration emerged in the
mid-50s with the implementation of the state sponsored resettlement
programme of hill people to Tarai. The main objective of the resettlement
programme was land colonization of Tarai and increase agricultural
production. Launched by Rapti Valley Development Project (RVDP) and
Nepal Resettlement Company (NRC), the resettlement programme
continued until the late 80s in Chitwan and Nawalparasi. Under the
RVDP, 5,233 households were settled in Rapti Valley of Chitwan. In
addition, an estimated 7,000 families settled spontaneously each year in
the Tarai region. NRC settled 1,504 families in Nawalparasi and there were
more than 10,000 spontaneous settlements.
 iii. Third Wave: It emerged during advent of democracy in 1951 with
socio-economic transformation of the country. Nepal witnessed a rapid
increase in the volume of internal migrants because of the expansion of
employment opportunities in informal sectors.
b. Inter-District Migrants

Year Inter District migrants (as Percentage)

1961 4.7%

1971 -

1981 8.6%

1991 9.6%

2001 13.2%

2011 14.8%

c. Migration by Ecological Region

Net-Migratio Ecological Districts Number Percentage

n Status of
Region
Districts

Net-Out Hill Bhojpur, Khotang, Terhathum, 33 44

Migration Okhaldhunga, Syangja,Parbat,
Ramechhap, Panchthar, Gulmi,
Gorkha, Lamjung,Nuwakot,
Baglung, Kavrepalanchowk, Palpa,
Arghakhanchi,
Dhankuta, Achham, Dhading,
Baitadi, Doti, Myagdi,Dailekh,
Salyan, Pyuthan, Sindhuli, Rolpa,
Dadeldhura,Rukum, Jajarkot,
Tanahu, Ilam, Makwanpur
 Mountain Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, 16 21.3
Dolakha,
Solukhumbu,Sindhupalchok,
Manang, Mustang,Darchula,
Rasuwa,Bajhang, Jumla, Kalikot,
Bajura, Mugu, Humla, Dolpa

Terai Saptari, Dhanusa, Siraha, 7 9.4

Rautahat, Mahottari, Parsa,
Sarlahi

Net-in Terai Bara, Dang, Kapilbastu, Bardiya, 13 17.3

Migration Morang, Sunsari,Nawalparasi,
Jhapa, Banke, Rupandehi, Kailali,
Chitawan,Kanchanpur

Hill Surkhet, Udayapur, Kaski, 6 8

Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu

d. Migration by Place of Residence:

Place of Residence Percentage of Migrants

Rural-Urban 33.5%

Urban-Urban 4.5%

Rural-Rural 59.2%

Urban-Rural 2.9%

e. Reason of Migration in Nepal

Reasons Percentage

Agriculture 14.9%

Business 5.9%

Service 10.9%
 Study 13.4%

Marriage 23.6%

Dependent 20.4%

Conflict 0.6%

Others 4.7%

Reasons not Stated 5.8%

International Migration in Nepal

a. Absentee Population

Year Total (in percentage) Male (in Percentage) Female (in Percentage)

1981 2.6% 81.3% 18.5%

1991 3.4% 83.2% 16.8%

2001 3.2% 89.2% 10.8%

2011 7.3% 87.6% 12.4%

b.Percentage of Migrants to Destination Countries

Year To India To Other Countries

1981 93.1% 6.9%

1991 89.2% 12.8%

2001 77.3% 22.7%

2011 37.6% 61.4%

b. Emigration Rate in Nepal=10.77 per thousand people

 c. Immigration Rate in Nepal=0.46 per thousand people
d. Gross Migration Rate in Nepal= 11.23 per thousand people
e. Net Migration Rate in Nepal= -10.32 per thousand people
Some General Information about International Labor Migration before Covid-19
1. Migrant and Migrant Workers

According to ILO report 2017, there were 258 million migrants in which 164 millions
(around 65%) were migrant workers and rest of them were non-migrant workers.
2. Gender of the Migrant Workers
ILO Report 2018, has highlighted that 58% of the migrant workers were male
whereas 42% of the migrant workers are female.
3. Global Labor Force Participation of Migrant Workers

Migrant Workers contribute 70% labor force in the world whereas non-migrant
contribute 61.60% of the labor force in the world.
4. Countries with Migrant Workers

High Income Countries had 67.90% of the migrant workers. Upper Middle
Income countries has 18.6% of the migrant workers.
Age Composition of Migrant Workers:
 15-24 25-64 65+

All 8.30% 86.50% 5.20%

Male 8.30% 86.70% 5%

Female 8.30% 86.30% 5.40%

5. Labor Force Participation Rates of Migrant and Non-Migrant

MIGRANTS NON-MIGRAN
TS

NORTH AFRICA 56.70% 46.70%

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 68.60% 69.20%

LATIN AMERICA AND THE 60.30% 64.20%

CARIBBEAN

NORTHERN AMERICA 68.80% 60.70%

NORTHERN, SOUTHERN AND 72.20% 55.20%

WESTERN EUROPE

EASTERN EUROPE 68.50% 58.70%

CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA 76% 57.60%

ARAB STATES 75.40% 42.20%

EASTERN ASIA 69.90% 68%

SOUTH EASTERN ASIA AND 68.80% 68%

PACIFIC

SOUTH ASIA 60.70% 54.10%

6. Migrant workers are more engaged in labor force participation than non-migrant
workers.
7. Top Remittance Recipents Country
8. Top Countries with highest contribution of Remittances in GDP

After seeing these all data, we can conclude the following things:
a. The whole Global Economy is dependent on the International Labor
Migration as there are more migrant workers and more contribution of
their labor force in the economy.
b. Countries which send migrant workers are dependent on the remittances
and also their GDP is dependent on the Remittances
Section B: Urbanization

IV. Urbanization
Urbanization:

It is a process which involve two phases:

a. movement of people from rural to urban places where they involve in secondary
activities
b. change in lifestyle that results from leaving the countryside
Urban Settlement: It is a densely populated area comprising mostly man made
structures.
Factors or Causes of Urbanization
I. Natural Increase in Population
One important cause of rapid urbanization is the natural increase in population. The
number by which the birth rate exceeds the death rate in urban area gives natural
increase in population.  
ii. Migration from Rural Areas
In developing countries, urbanization usually occurs when people migrate from village
to settle in cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. Migration is influence by
economic growth and development an by technological change and by conflict and social
disruption.
iii. Boundary Changes
As cities expanded, the outlaying rural areas have been included in the urban areas.
They may even continue to retain the most of the characteristics of villages but they are
counted as urban population by virtue of being classified as urban areas.
iv. Industrialization
It is a trend representing the shift from old agricultural economy to novel
non-agricultural economy which creates modernized society. Through industrial
revolution, more people have been engaged in secondary activities and are attracted to
move from rural to urban areas on the account of employment opportunities.
v. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and
services and commercial transactions in the modern era has developed the modern
marketing institutions and exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the
growth of town and cities. Commercialization comes with the two perception that towns
and cities offer better commercial opportunities and returns compared to the rural
areas.
vi. Social benefit and services
There are numerous social benefit found in the life of towns and cities like education,
better living standards, health care , etc. On this account, more and more people of rural
area are prone to migrate into cities and towns for achieving those benefits.
vii. Modernization and changes in the mode of living
As urban area is becoming more technology known with highly sophisticated
communication, infrastructure and liberalization, people believe that they can lead a
happy life in cities. As a result, people migrate to other cities and the cities grow by
absorbing the growing number of people.
Role of Migration in Urbanization:
Approximately one in five international migrants are estimated to live in just 20 cities
-Beijing, Berlin, Brussels, Buenos Aires, Chicago, Hong Kong SAR, China, London, Los
Angeles, Madrid, Moscow, New York, Paris, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo,
Toronto, Vienna and Washington DC.. For 18 of these cities, international migrants
represented around 20 per cent of the total population .

The share of foreign-born persons in the total population in some cities exceeds the
global average (around 3.5%) by a large margin. Dubai has an foreign born population of
close to 83 per cent, while in Brussels it is 62 per cent, in Toronto 46 per cent, New York
37 per cent, and Melbourne 35 per cent, to name a few examples.

Different types of migration play a role in urban growth and diversity, but to different
extents. In the developed countries, one of the main sources of population diversity is
international migration, while in the developing countries it is most likely internal
migration (IOM, 2015), in addition to demographic growth through births
outnumbering deaths. 

In some countries, rural-to-urban migration and reclassification of what is considered

urban together accounted for more than half of the urban growth, such as in China and
Thailand (80%), Rwanda (79%), Indonesia (68%) and Namibia (59%) (UN, 2018).
Circular and temporary migration is found in many urban parts of fast-urbanizing Asian
and African countries, especially China and India as well as Ghana and Kenya.

Migration also helps in urbanization by the following ways:

a.      Economic Ways

Most of the migrants migrate for work and most of them are semi-skilled. In the cities,
they help to close the skill gaps and proved an alternative to cheap labor. In 2015,
migrants contributed $ 6.4 trillion to 6.9 Trillion (9.4%) of the world’s GDP. Since most
of the migrants live in cities, they also contribute in raising the revenues of the cities.
Migration can affect the overall economy of the receiving city through remittances. The
migrant labor also contributes in the healthy competition for skilled individuals.

b.     Social Ways
Most of the time, various people point out the fact that migrant can pressurize the
infrastructure of the cities. Yet one thing they forget that, most of the cities cope with the
increasing migrants by developing their infrastructure. If the traffic has increased, the
cities will surely find an alternative of traffic jam. For eg: Various cities are developing
bullet trains in order to cope with traffic jam. If the schools and university are becoming
crowded then various schools and universities are built. Therefore, increasing migrants
help to develop infrastructure and hence causing urban places to develop more.
Migrants are also a source of ideas and innovation who can contribute to businesses,
governments and other entities in the city. Their way of life, music and other creative
endeavors  all play a role in building the urban more urban to urban. 

Rural-Urban Linkage:
It can be defined as the structural, social, economic, cultural and political
relationships maintained between individuals and groups in urban environment and
rural environment. It can also refer to spatial and sectoral flows that occur between
rural to urban areas. The spatial flow means flow of people, goods, money,
technology, knowledge, information, etc. Sectoral flow refers flow of agricultural
products going to urban areas and goods from urban manufacturing areas going to
more rural areas. Rural-urban linkage are connected in nature and forms of
migration, production, consumption, financial and investment linkages that occur
between rural and urban relationships. The exchange of money, goods, visits
including social activities and communication with relatives and friends are
indicators of rural-urban linkage. The nature and form of rural-urban linkage are not
homogeneous as they are determined by the push and pull factors. The influence of
push and pull factors can differ from one place to another and for different sectors.
Patterns of Rural-Urban Linkage
The analysis of rural and urban linkage is important because rural and urban
livelihoods are interconnected. As incomes from agricultural decrease, rural
households are forced to develop new and more complex forms of livelihoods
strategies which include both agriculture and non-farm incomes as well as
remittances. New spatial and sectoral patterns have emerged along the rural- urban
continuum as a consequences of migration, road accessibility, information
technologies and production flows. Rural women tend to be particularly more active
in rural- urban trade. The relationship between rural and urban areas has been
changing all over the world due to the number of factors including new settlement
patterns which can be linked to economic and social transformations occurring
throughout the world. The rural and urban areas are seen as the two end in a spatial
continuum. In between rural and urban areas, there are peri-urban areas where
urban and rural areas are spatially intermingled and interactions are most in tense.
Peri-urban area lies in the middle of the continuum between rural and urban
characteristics. It has the mixed characteristics of rural and urban.
 Importance of Rural-Urban Linkage:
● The positive rural-urban linkage can contribute to equitable development
hence helps to acquire regional balance.
● People of urban who are tired of the urban environment can enjoy rural
environment due to the rural-urban linkage.
● Rural-urban linkage helps the transfer of knowledge and information in
the people between rural and urban.
● Rural and urban linkage fulfills the need of the both rural and urban
people.
● It helps to give a market for the agricultural and other products made in
rural area and also helps the rural people to consume healthy and locally
made agricultural and other products.
● It helps the people of rural area to migrate in urban area for job and also
helps rural women to sell their products easily.
● It helps to fulfill the information, technology and development gap
between the rural and urban area.
VI. Theories of Urban Landuse and Urbanization

Concentric zone Model

Introduction:

Ernest Burgess was developer of this model. This model helps to define how different
social groups are located in a metropolitan area. Concentric Zone model is one of the
well known and widely studied model in urban planning. This model is known as
the concentric zone model because the different locations were defined in the form
of rings around the core urban area around which city grew. Burgess Model is
another name for this model (given after the name of Ernest Burgess). Concentric
Zone Model or CCD model was developed between 1925 and 1929 based on the study of
American cities. Chicago city was studied for which Burgess provided empirical
evidence.

Different zone in the Burgess Model or Concentric Zone Model

 

Zone I (Central Business District) – This is the center (innermost zone) where the
central business district is located and has highest land value. The zone has tertiary
activities and earns maximum economic returns. Another feature is the accessibility of
the area because of the convergence and passing of transport networks through this part
from surrounding and even far places in the city. This part has tall buildings and
noticeably high density to maximize the returns from land. Commercial activity taking
place in the area results in negligible residential activity in this zone.
Zone II (Transition Zone) – The mixed residential and commercial use characterizes
this zone. This is located adjacent and around the CBD and is continuously changing, i.e.
transition takes place. Another feature is the range of activities taking place like mixed
land use, car parking, cafe, old buildings. This zone of transition is considered to “decay”
 because of a large number of old structures as the buildings in transition zone were
earlier used for factories and tenement housing blocks. This zone had a high population
density when industrial activities were at their peak. Those residing in this zone were of
the poorest segment and had the lowest housing condition.
Zone III (Inner City/ Working Class zone) – This area is occupied for residential
purpose and also known as “inner city” or “inner suburbs.” It consisted of houses built
to accommodate factory workers but had better condition than the transition zone. This
area has a mix of new and old development and generally requires orderly
redevelopment. People living in this zone are second generation immigrants as many
moves out of the transition zone to this zone whenever affordable. This zone is nearest
to the working area with modest living conditions, and this resulted in reduced
commuting cost. Another interesting feature includes the large rental housing occupied
by single workers.
Zone IV (Outer Suburbs/ White Collar Homes)  – This zone had bigger houses
and new development occupied by the middle class. Many of the homes are detached,
and unlike single occupants of inner suburbs, families resided in these homes. Better
facilities are available to the residents like parks, open spaces, shops, large gardens but
this comes at an increased commuting cost. This zone has a large area of residential
land. People living in this outer ring look for better quality of life.
Zone V (Commuter Zone)  – This is the peripheral area and farthest from the CBD,
this resulted in highest commuting cost when compared with other zones. Significant
commuting cost gave the name “commuter zone” to this part. People living in this part
were high-income groups which could afford large houses, could pay commuting
charges, had access to different transportation mode, enjoy modern facilities like
shopping malls. Low rise development, large gardens, less population density are some
of the characteristics of this zone. This zone offered the highest quality of life and
facilities but at a cost of higher commuting cost.

The rationale behind Concentric zone theory

The Burgess model takes into account the positive relation between economic status and
distance from downtown which means better the economic status more the distance
from the central area. The central area has high density, and the availability of land is
scarce. Because of this more affluent segment of the society reside away from the city
center where they can build large houses. Burgess described the changing spatial
patterns of residential areas as a process of “invasion” and “succession”. As the city grew
and developed over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the surrounding zone (the
zone of transition). Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential
neighborhoods causing them to expand outward. The process continues with each
successive neighborhood moving further from the CBD. His work included the study of
bid rent curves according to which the land with the highest rent was occupied with
economic activities of highest returns. Zone of transitions are important part of the
burgess model as they are very active and change of people & activities takes place
constantly.

Limitations and Criticisms of Concentric zone model

 ● Although widely appreciated in the United States Burgess model is not applicable
outside the US. This is so, as the pattern of growth is different because of various
circumstances.
● The relevance of this model decreased over time. With the advancement in the
mode of transportation, mass transit vehicles, motor vehicles, cars changed the
way people commute. Accordingly, their preference for living in a particular zone
changed.
● It does not take into account the effect of political forces and the restrictions
imposed by the government for the improvement of living conditions.
● In reality, no distinct zones and boundaries exist as overlapping of areas is
possible in every town. The preference of people changes over time depending on
the importance they associate for a particular benefit.
● This model is not applicable to polycentric cities as many CDB exists in such
towns. Moreover, every city is different, and the factors influencing the growth of
a city are diverse.
Adopted from:
https://planningtank.com/settlement-geography/burgess-model-or-concentric-zone-m
odel

Sector Theory
Introduction:
It is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. It is
also known as Hoyt Model. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city
development. Hoyt stated that cities develop in the form of sector rather than rings.
Hoyt suggested that few activities grow in the form of sectors which radiates out along
the main travel links. Activities in a sector are considered to be the same throughout the
sector because of the proposed function it serves. Land use within the each sector would
remain same because like attracts like. According to this model, major cities evolved
around the nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, seaports and
trolly lines that eliminated from the city's center.

Features of sector model

● Presence of low-income groups near industries supports Hoyt Model

● The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular) and access to
resources caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
● Transport linkages profoundly influence activities and their locations. Low
transportation cost and proximity to roads/railway reduce the cost of production.
● This model applies well to Chicago
● Account for major transportation routes and its effect on activities
Components of Hoyt Model

1. CBD – Central Business District is placed at the center. Sectors and the partial rings
of land use/activities take place. This area is often known as downtown and has high rise
buildings. Inner city area or downtown area is a complex and dynamic organism. It
represents many layers of historic growth of many generations impact of cultural and
traditions of men who inhabited the city as tourists. The combinations of these layers
and the way they are held together in the city gives imageability, out of its socio-cultural
heritage. As the cities expands and modern technology and scientific innovations
transformed the  style of living and also the  structure of the city, open spaces were being
eaten up by built forms resulting in congested and unhealthy environment.
2.Industry – Industries are represented in the form of a sector radiating out from the
center. These forms sector because of the presence of a transport linkage along which
the activities grew. Presence of railway line, river or road would attract similar activity,
and thus a continuous corridor or “sector” will develop.
Apart from the industries this area also serves as a residential area for lower class
workers. Living conditions are bad because of proximity to industries.

3. Low-Class Residential
Low-income groups reside in this area. Narrow roads, high population density, small
houses with poor ventilation exist in this area. Roads are narrow and often connects to
the industries where most of the people in this sector work. Closeness to industries
reduces the travel cost and thus attracts industrial workers. Environmental and living
conditions are often inadequate because of the proximity to factories.

4. Middle-Class Residential
This area has middle income groups who can afford more substantial travel cost and
want better living conditions. The activities of people residing in this area consist of
different activities and not just the industrial work. It has more linkages with CBD along
with some linkages to industries. This area has the most significant residential area.

5. High Class residential

This is the outermost and farthest area from the downtown. Wealthy and affluent people
live in this area. This area is clean, has less traffic, quiet and has large houses. Corridor
or spine extending from CBD to the edge has the best housing.

The significance of Hoyt Model 

● Ecological factors + economic rent concept to explain the land use pattern
 ● Stress on the role of transport routes in affecting the spatial arrangement of the
city
● Both the distance and direction of growth from the city center are considered
● Brings location of industrial and environmental amenity values as determinants
in a residential place
● Example: Sectors of high-class residential areas tend to grow towards higher
grounds, sites with a better view, more open space, the homes of influential
leaders within the community and existing outlying, smaller settlements.

Limitations of Sector Model 

● Only Railway lines are considered for the growth of sectors and do not make
allowances for private cars.
● It is a monocentric representation of cities; multiple business centers are not
accounted for in this model.
● Physical features – physical features may restrict or direct growth along specific
wedges
● No reference to out of town development

Adopted from:
https://planningtank.com/settlement-geography/hoyt-model-sector-model-l
and-use-1939-homer-hoyt

Multiple Nuclei Model

Introduction
It is an economic model created by CD Harris and E.L Ulman in the 1945 article "
The Nature of the Cities. This model was based on Concentric Zone Model and
Sector Theory. It describes urban land use in which a city grows rom several
independent points (nuclei) rather than from one Central Business District. Each
point (nuclei) acts as a growth center for particular kind of land use such as
industry, retail, port, university, etc. As this expand, they merge to form a single
urban area.
Assumptions:
1. Land is not flat in all areas.
2. Even distribution of resources.
3. Even distribution of people in residential areas.
4. Even transportation costs.
5. Profit maximization.
Zones:
a. Central Business District (CBD)
It exists as a primary nucleus but multiple small business districts developed and
distributed around the metropolitan area.
b. Wholesale Light Manufacturing
Business are more consumer oriented and near residential areas. Manufacturing
goods that need small amounts of raw materials and space develop in this area.
c. Low Class Residential
People who live here tend to be factory workers and live in low income housing.
d. Medium Class Residential
It is a bit more desirable because it is located further from industry and pollution.
People who work in the CBD have access to good transportation lines making their
commute easier.
e. High-Class Residential
It tend to be quite clean and have less traffic than the other ones.
f. Heavy Manufacturing
It is occupied by the factories that produce material that is heavy like chemicals,
steel, etc
g. Outlying Business
It competes with the CBD for residents who live in nearby middle and high-class
neighborhoods offering similar services and products as the CBD.
h. Outlying Residential Area
It is usually single family homes on a small plot of land on the outskirts of the city.
I. Industrial Area
It is community created an zoned for industrial sources on outskirts of the city.
Criticism:
● Negligence of the height of buildings.
● Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones.
● Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not
homogeneity.
● Unawareness of inertia forces.
● No consideration of the influence of physical relief and government policy.
● The concepts may not apply to Asian cities with different cultural, economic and
political backgrounds.

Inverse Concentric Zone Model:

Introduction: It was first conceptualized by Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century.
Engels observed that the population of Manchester, England in 884 was residentially
segregated on the basis of class. The preceding three theories of urban spatial
structure apply only primarily to the cities of the MDCs .Many cities in the LDC
follow different patterns rather than the preceding theories. Inverse Concentric Zone
pattern is the reversal of the concentric zone model and one of the frequent pattern
applicable in the cities of the LDCs. In cities of LDC, the central area is the place of
residence of the elite class. The poor live on the periphery. Unlike most cities in the
MDCs, social class in these places is inversely related to distance from the center of
the city.
Explanation
It is the reversal of the concentric zone model which means instead of the rich moving
away from central city, poor are moving away from central city. Social status is
related to distance from center of the city and declines with increasing distance from
the center.
Reason for this pattern:
a. Lack of an adequate and dependable transportation system has restricted the
elites to the center of the city so they have to close to their places of work.
b. Functions of the city primarily administrative and religious/ cultural are
controlled by the elite and are concentrated in the center of the city.
As many of the LDCs have begun to industrialize especially in the past 30 years,
industrial growth have been primarily oriented in the cities center just as they were
in the MDCs many decades ago. But, the newer and larger industrial establishments
tend to locate not in the city centers but on the periphery often in industrial peaks or
enterprises zones established by the government for the purpose of attracting both
domestic and foreign investors because:
a. City centers tend to be crowded for industrial plants.
b. Elites in the city centers often do not wan large industrial plants near their place
of work and residence.

VII. The Scale and Pace of Urbanization

Population Changes from 1950s onwards
Population is not constant rather it is dynamic. It changes over time to time.
Population changes time to time due to it’s driver- birth, death and migration.
Birth and Death are the natural factors after 1950-s humans have controlled birth
through the use of contraceptive devices and death through the advancement in
the modern health system and technology. Advancement in technology has
helped the human to control the natural increase of population but this
advancement has caused to increase the migration (Raven stein) which is the
third driver of migration. This migration has helped to change the population in
the various countries of the world.
 Year Population (in Billion) Population Growth Rate

1950 2.55 -

1960 3 1.86%

1974 4 1.94%

1980 4.5 1.77%

1987 5 1.85%

1999 6 1.33%

2011 7 1.2%

2020 7.8 1.05%

2023 8 -

2030 8.5 -

In 1950 AD, the population of the world was only 2.55 billion. In 1960 AD, the
population became 3 billion. The main reason in the increase in the population
can be credited to the “baby boom.” The population growth rate in 1960 AD was
1.86% and after 1980 AD, the growth rate of the population began to decrease. In
1999 AD, the population of the world became 6 billion with 1.33% of the growth
rate. In 2011, the population of the world became 7 billion with 1.2% of the
growth rate. It is estimated that in 2023 AD, the population will attain 8 billion.
Although, the population is increasing, the growth rate of the population is
decreasing slowly. The reason for this process is due to the increase in use of
contraceptive device, increase in celibacy.
Urbanization in the Developed and Developing Region:
 Percentage of Urban World Developed Countries Developing Region

1950 29.6% 54.8% 17.7%

1970 36.6% 66.8% 25.3%

1990 43% 72.4% 34.9%

2018 55.3% 78.7% 50.6%

2030 60.4% 81.4% 56.7%

2050 68.4% 86.6% 65.6%

Percentage of Urbanization World Developed Countries Developing Countries

1950-1970 1.06% 0.99% 1.78%

1970-1990 0.80% 0.40% 1.61%

1990-2018 0.90% 0.30% 1.33%

2018-2030 0.74% 0.28% 0.94%

2030-2050 0.62% 0.31% 0.73%

Section C: Migration & Urbanization in Nepal

VIII. Issues of Urbanization and Migration in Nepal
Trend of Urbanization in Nepal:
Nepal’s urban growth is primarily characterised by
● an increase in the number of municipalities,
● an expansion in the urban area,
● a relatively steady increase in the urban population in the
designated urban areas in the initial years,
● a rapid increase of population in recent years,
● consistent increases in the percentage share of urban population
to the total population and rural population.
 According to the Population Monograph of Nepal, reclassification
contributed 38.8% of the urban growth, internal migration contributed
19.9% of the urban growth and annexation contributed 1.5% of the
urban growth.
MoUD (2015: p.3) states that urban growth and urbanisation in Nepal are
consequences of three mutually reinforcing transitions:
§ A demographic transition that means more people are entering the labour force
than leaving it.
§ A spatial transition due to increased rural-urban migration.
§ An economic transition due to the demise of the traditional subsistence
economy, the declining contribution of agriculture to the GDP, and the search for
new livelihood options.

Places where Urban is growing:

A. The Kathmandu Valley is the most populated urban region and one of the
fastest-growing urban agglomerations in South Asia (Muzzini & Apericio, 2013;
MoUD, 2015).

B. Pokhara in the central hills is the largest and most rapidly growing
medium-sized city (Muzzini & Apericio, 2013).

C. Medium-sized cities (with a population between 100 and 300,000) in

market and border towns located on highway junctures between the east-west
highway and five main north-south corridors are experiencing high growth
(Muzzini & Apericio, 2013).

D. Several small cities (with populations below 100,000) along the main
highways and close to the border with India are also experiencing high growth
(ibid).

Urban Places, Population Sizes and % Share of Urban Population form 1952/54 to
2014

Census Total Growth rate of population

year Number of Urban Urban (%)
urban population
places population (%) Urban National
1952/54 10 2,38,275 2.9 - -

1961 16 3,36,222 3.6 3.4 1.65

1971 16 4,61,938 4.0 3.1 2.07
1981 23 9,56,721 6.4 7.3 2.66
1991 33 16,95,719 9.2 5.7 2.08
200
1 58 32,27,879 13.9 6.4 2.25
2011 58 45,23,820 17.1 3.8 1.35
2014 May 8 130 71,01677 27.6 8.0 1.35
2014 Dec 191 9403977 35.5
2015 293 11041504 41.7 - -

There has been a drastically increase in urban area and population from 1952/54 to
2001. In 1952/54, there were only 10 urban places and the share of the urban
population to the total population was only 2.9%. But in 2001, the number of urban
places was 58 and the share of the urban population to the total population was
17.9%. The increase in the urban places was about 48 and the increase in population
was about more than a million. However, the period between 2001 and 2011 for
urbanization was slow and steady, there was no significant change in the urban. In
2014, the urbanization took a different level of pace, 2014 saw the increase of urban
places from 58 in 2011 to 130 , thanks to the reclassification, internal migration and
annexation. The share of the population has also increased from 17.1% to 27.2%.
Urban Population Growth Rates:
A general characteristics of the population growth rate in urban area of less
developed countries is that the population growth rate of urban area is higher than
the total population growth rate of country. Since, Nepal is also less developed
countries, it also follows the same pattern.
Growth Rate of Urban and National total Population from 1961-2011

Year Nepal’s Growth Rate (%) Urban Growth Rate (%)

1961 1.65 3.44

1971 2.07 3.18

1981 2.66 7.28

 1991 2.08 5.72

2001 2.25 6.44

2011 1.35 3.38

2014 1.35 8.08

From the above mentioned data, it is clear that the growth rate of Nepal is higher
than the growth rate of urban. In 1961 AD, the urban growth rate of Nepal was 3
times greater than Nepal’ growth rate. This same pattern is followed in the
succeeding years. In 2014 AD, the urban growth rate is about 8 time higher than the
Nepal’ growth rate.

Suppose you are working as an Urban Planner in Ministry of Urban Development of

Nepal. Suggest some policy level strategies to manage urban problems in Nepal.

Ans: If I became the Urban Planner, then I will try to solve some urban problems by
introducing policies. Urban area faces problems like unemployment, slums, urban
poverty, pollution, garbage disposal, traffic jam, lack of physical infrastructure. In order
to solve the problems, I will bring forth the following policies:

a. Controlling Rural-Urban Migration

Urban has more rural migrants. Rural migrants migrate to urban for better job
and facilities. So in order to solve the urban problem, I have to solve the basic
root problem which has caused the urban problem and this problem is
rural-urban migration. I will try to urge the concerned authorities to make better
job and other facilities in their own rural area. If it is not possible then I will try to
develop rural-urban linkage by establishing transportation facilities through
which one can work for whole day in urban and also can go back home easily in
that day.
b. Developing Facilities
Urban area faces the problem of crowding of people due to which infrastructure
like education, health, drinking water, etc. have been lacking. I will try to make
schools in the peri-urban areas far from the main city. I will also try to develop
mini hospitals in which minor treatment is done.
c. Developing alternative road
One of the main problems of urban is traffic. Many people are facing traffic jams
as a result there has been increasing road accidents, people are being late for job,
 etc. In order to solve this problem, I will propose the plan of alternative road in
which 4 wheelers will go by another road and 2 wheelers by another.
d. Managing Urban Slums
Urban area has always been characterized by urban slums. Kathmandu has seen
the great increasement in urban slums and Pokhara is also seeing great
increasement of slums. I will not destroy slums but I will manage it. Slums have
always been seen as the unhygienic place. Being a urban planner, I will manage
the urban slums by providing appropriate roads, health facilities, waste disposal.
e. Establishing a clean and working waste disposal system

Places like Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Pokhara, Birgunj and other urban areas are facing
the problem of waste disposal. Population in these places are increasing and as a result
the existing waste disposal mechanism is not working effectively. Being a urban planner,
my main focus will be to clean the city. For this, I will arrange many waste disposal
places according to the ward. I will make a group of wards and the waste from that
group of wards will be disposed in the waste disposal system made for this group. In this
way, I believe that waste disposal will be successful.

f. Making park and recreational places

People of urban areas are suffering from diseases like diabetes, sugar. These all
diseases are caused by the lack of exercise. In order to solve this problem, I will try to
make park and recreational places where people can do exercise, jogging and yoga.
Children can play in the evening. Youths can come to refresh their mind.
Challenges of Urbanization in Nepal:
a. Urban area is increasing: Number of urban areas has increased from 10 in 1952 to 58
in 2001 and 99 in 2011. So far looking at the trend of the urban growth of the country it is
observed that the urban areas have been declared as per the political interest rather than
fulfilment of criteria as declared in LSGA (1999).
Some areas have been classified declassified and reclassified as municipality over the past 50
years and the territorial boundaries of many settlements have been redrawn to include
surrounding rural areas to meet the population size criteria. This might have been motivated
by the political interest. (ADB, 2006)
This increment of urban area is not within the acceptable limit of urban environment.
b. Slums are increasing
A study by Lumanti shows that slums in Kathmandu has increased from 13 to 62 in 20 years
and population has risen from merely 2000 to more than 13000. Slums are usually located
near the river and are deprived of basic physical facilities. They are considered to be the illegal
settlements by the government hence they cannot exercise facilities being provided to the city
dweller despite being resident of an urban area. Therefore facilities of water and sanitation and
solid waste management are very poor. Sewages are directly passed to the rivers and same
rivers are the dumping sites for slum dwellers. This is not only degrading the quality of
environment but since they are also not socially accepted, inter class tension is likely to rise.
(Bhatta, 2012)
c. Environmental degradation is rapid
The rapid and haphazard urbanization is exerting immense pressure on urban environment
and municipal managers often do not have sufficient expertise and resources to deal with rapid
growth (WB and Environment and Public Health Organization [ENPHO], 2007). LSGA 1999
has given rights and responsibilities to manage the urban environment and provide other
services, due to weak institutional capability and inadequate resources those services has not
been made. As a result many cities in Nepal are facing environmental problems such as
drainage, solid waste management and waste water management. The capital of the country
and the most urbanised part of the country –Kathmandu valley is extremely suffering from
environmental degradation. None of the rivers in the valley carry clean water, moreover they
look like open sewers in the dry season, however most of the waste is washed away in the rainy
season. Besides, another major problem of the valley is solid waste management, which itself is
not a great problem as still almost 64% of the waste is organic and inert or hazardous waste is
very minimal (Dongol, 2012). Hence management of waste really must have been easy for the
municipalities, however due to lack of people?s participation and weakness in the system it is a
headache to all. With increasing urbanization smaller municipalities will also soon face major
problems of environmental management as they have even less resources to deal with these
challenges.

d. Initiatives from government sector is inadequate

So far many acts, rules and regulations have been prepared for urban development however
observing the conditions of urban areas in Nepal, it is clear that many of them have not been
adequately implemented. Policies related to urban management has been initiated from
1967(Shelter Policy), however the policy guiding urban development that is NUP came into
existence only in 2007. Though the policies are developed besides some major initiatives like
land pooling, urban environment improvement programs and implementation of building bye
laws, most of the policies have not been adequately implemented in the field. An example of it
is the urban congestion and urban sprawl in the Kathmandu valley. According to Sharma
(2012) municipalities lack 41000 million rupees for the infrastructural development of 58
municipalities. Though Decentralization Act was gazetted in 1982 the process of
decentralization has not been observed as yet. Urban primacy of Kathmandu valley still
prevails with rapid urban population growth. Municipalities are said to be being declared to
decentralise, but most of them seem to be outcome of political interest more than the
fulfilment of criteria given by LSGA 1999. This implies infrastructure is not adequate in these
areas which will directly cause unplanned exploitation of natural resources, degrading living
environment in urban.
Provisioning of Municipal Services
Another challenge to urban development in Nepal concerns with delivering of critical urban
services, either by the central government, municipal government or through the private
sector. In the post-1990 period, the government adopted a public-private partnership (PPP)
model, which has made nominal progress in the management of some monuments and other
public spaces. However, there remains an acute lack of understanding about the provision of
services as entitlement of the city dwellers as a matter of social contract. Most of revenue
generated by both the central and municipal government are indirect taxes, which is largely
supported with remittance earnings from Nepal’s overseas workers. This provides a weak
basis for citizens to demand the accountability of the government in the delivery of critical
municipal services. In this backdrop, however, the government has introduced an urban
policy with good-sounding objectives. The National Urban Policy of 2007 seeks to promote a
balanced national urban structure, a clean, safe, and well developed urban environment,
poverty reduction; and effective urban management by capable local institutions. The policy
has also prioritized ensuring access by the urban poor to low-cost housing, housing finance,
and income-generating activities and development in excluded regions. But the protracted
political transition in the country through the post-2006 period has pre-emptied any
opportunity of locally-owned envisioning of a sound urban management. There is further
confusion about how these objectives will be funded and executed. Accordingly most of
municipal services—including drinking water, sanitation, school and health facilities—are
either privately provided at exorbitant prices or are poorly delivered through publiclyfunded
institutions. About 35% of urban households, mostly in newly inducted small municipalities,
have no access to tap water; 23% are without toilets; and 35% still use solid fuels (wood, agro
by-products, and cow dung) for cooking and heating (Choe and Pradhan, 2010). In the
absence of a coherent and coordinated approach to service provision, urban areas experience
deficiencies in basic urban services, environmental degradation, encroachment on public
lands, forests, and river banks. Most of the urban municipalities lack properly engineered and
operated sanitary landfills and they have limited and intermittent water supply services,
poorly maintained road infrastructure, and inadequate drainage systems that cause recurrent
water logging problems, mainly in the Kathmandu and Tarai. This is so, even while the
government has in recent decades focused on physical development. These problems will add
on with ongoing high rural urban migration trend, real state growth in new emerging cities,
increasing slums, indecisive political structure, unstable municipal governments. Given this,
meeting the needs for services especially for the urban poor would become increasingly
problematic in the coming years.
Disaster Risks and Environmental Vulnerabilities
Nepal is one of the 20 most disaster-prone countries in the world (UNDP, 2011) and ranks
11th globally most vulnerable countries to earthquake (NSDRM, 2009; Paudel and Panthi,
2010). Ever since the first recorded earthquake of 1255 AD that killed one-third of the
population in Kathmandu valley and its King Abhaya Malla, Nepal has experienced a major
earthquake every few generations (NPC, 2015). Based on the data available from the
Department of Mines and Geology, (CBS, 1998) concludes that earthquakes of more than or
equal to 5.0 on the Richter scale have occurred at least once every year in Nepal since 1987,
with the exception of 1989 and 1992 when no such events were recorded (NSET, 2012). Large
earthquakes seriously affected the country on April 25th 2015 (7.8 on Richter scale) and May
12 2015 (7.3 on Richter scale). Over 500,000 homes were destroyed, 250,000 damaged,
nearly 9000 people killed, 21000 injured, and 3 million affected. A database maintained by
the Ministry of Home Affairs, covering a period of 45 years (1971 to 2015) revealed that a total
of 22,372 disaster events have been recorded during this period. Hence, annually, Nepal is
exposed on average to about 500 disaster events. The dataset shows that fire is one of the
most recurrent hazards in Nepal. Number of fire incidences were recorded 7,187 times,
followed by flood (3,720), epidemic (3,448) and landslide (3,012). Epidemics - caused by
diseases including cholera, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, encephalitis, meningitis, typhoid,
jaundice, and malaria – are critically important in the sense that they represent one of the
most lethal hazards claiming the lives of more than 16,500 people (41.1% of the total
disaster-induced deaths) during the period. This is followed by earthquake, landslide and
flood (MoHA, 2017). Hence, the critical challenge for urban development in Nepal concerns
with how to handle disaster risks and stresses induced by environmental change. Haphazard
and uncontrolled growth of built-up areas in urban centers particularly in Kathmandu and
other larger cities has thus become a critical challenge. Enforcement of building codes,
especially in the newly built apartment buildings, remains elusive primarily because the role is
spread into many hands, including the private builders, consulting engineers, as well as
municipal officials who often overlook standards given the widespread culture of bureaucratic
corruption. Another associated challenge remains with environmental resources—within
which water emerges as a critical limiting factor. An urban water crisis is looming globally due
to climate change and rapid population growth (McDonald et al. 2011). It is particularly severe
in South Asia due to the melting of Himalayan glaciers (Shrestha et al. 2012) and changes in
rainfall patterns (Xu et al. 2009, Shrestha and Aryal, 2011, Guhathakurta et al. 2011). The
impacts are distributed unevenly among the urban population—women and poor bear
disproportionately higher costs (Kher et al. 2015). Rapid urbanization has led to water
crisis—including conflicts between urban and rural demands (Celio et al. 2010), ensuring
equity while financing the mega water infrastructure (Asthana, 2012), and maintaining the
water ecosystem health (Upadhyay et al. 2011). Cities, however, are often too slow to respond
to the water crisis (Shrestha et al. 2014). There is already a severe limitation in piped drinking
water in Kathmandu, which has been now supplemented with ‘private water’—supplied in
tankers or in bottles by the private actors, rather than supplied by the government as a basic
entitlement. The urbanization has not only increased the water demand but it has also
disrupted hydrological regimes resulting into reduced groundwater discharge and increasing
risk of disasters in urban and peri-urban zones. (Poudel, 2008). The uncertainties of
precipitation and ground water recharge within the ongoing climate change would create
further shortage in water supply in Kathmandu (Jha and Shrestha, 2013). Another related
problem is with maintaining a clean environment. Kathmandu’s air is amongst the most
polluted in the South Asia region, which is caused not only by the rise in automobiles,
continuation of wood-fired brick factories, and the dust particles from bad road and
automobile exhaustion, but also maintained by the topography of the valley itself that
prevents polluted air sweep out of the valley. Many squatters living along the river banks in
Kathmandu and other cities also face risks of flooding and water pollution, causing health and
social stress on the children, elderly and sick. These pose important questions on the basic
securities of urban inhabitants in a least developed country, whose government is yet to
command legitimacy in the eyes of its own citizens. In this context, the National Adaptation
Programme of Action (NAPA, 2010) has identified Urban Settlements and Infrastructure as
one of the six key themes and included Promoting Climate Smart Urban Settlements and
Infrastructure as one of nine priority projects. Provisions for making buildings
earthquake-resistant are difficult to implement especially in the political transition, and also
because buildings in rural, semi-urban and urban areas are mostly constructed without the
input from qualified engineers. It is becoming increasingly important to incorporate disaster
risk assessments into the urban planning and management of disaster-prone human
settlements and particularly by addressing the problems of informal settlements in high-risk
areas (ISDR,,2005).
Informal Economy in Urban Areas
Despite the important contribution of urban areas to GDP and poverty alleviation, rapid
urbanization has been accompanied by lower economic growth in Nepal than in other South
Asian countries. The lack of economic stimuli combined with the insecure political situation
has resulted in a massive exodus of the Nepalese productive workforce from the country, and
Nepal’s growth is becoming increasingly reliant on highly volatile external remittance flows,
rather than internal competitiveness (World Bank, 2013). Nepal’s informal part of the
economy is very large and is growing rapidly due to changing economy. As per the record by
ILO more than 70 per cent of the economically active population is involved in the informal
economy. It is—largely operating informally, that is, outside the purview of formal statutory
oversight and support structure. This sector represents an important part of the economy and
the labor market by employment creation, production, and income generation. It is estimated
that around 2142 thousand people aged 15 and over to be currently employed in the
non-agricultural informal sector (70 percent of total non-agricultural employment) as
compared to 1657 thousand in 1998/99 (73 percent of total non-agricultural employment). In
total 77.5 percent of females and 66.0 percent of males have main jobs in the non-agricultural
informal sector (Adhikari, 2012). In the urban areas, it is mainly the women, so called lower
caste and indigenous groups and economically poor groups that engage themselves in
informal economy and self-employment. They are especially vulnerable and face insecure
living and working conditions including security risks at the workplaces. The combination of
low pay, high vulnerability, and little or no scope for upward mobility, coupled with
disproportionate burden of local urban government make lives of people in the informal
economy a daily struggle (Bajracharya, 2013). Hence, another challenge for urban
development in Nepal that this chapter highlights concerns with supporting the
transformation of informal economy in urban areas. In urban areas -- specifically in the cities
like Kathmandu, street vending has become an important source of earning for the livelihood
for poor. It has also become an opportunity of marketing space to most of the urban poor in
such cities. However, issues relating to urban management and controlling over the
deteriorating city environment due to increase vending activities are, of course, challenging
for urban governance. Therefore, there are confrontations between authorities and vendors
over licensing, taxation, encroachment of public places and pavements and on increasing
social problems (Timalsina, 2011). It has been difficult for controlling and managing the city
environment, including managing footpath, controlling of increasing vending activities and
providing easy movement to the pedestrians. Hawkers and street vendors spread their wares
on the pavement and sometimes on the street, causing great inconvenience to the pedestrians
and vehicles. One confronts frequent scenes of the municipal police chasing away vegetable
vendors or other city vendors who risk their valuable items apprehended by the police and
risk their livelihood. This overly legalistic approach to handling the informal economy is both
inhuman and counterproductive. These people also provide goods and services at economical
rates to the lower income groups in the city, and at the same time maintain themselves in the
absence of a caring, socially-committed government. The challenge lies in incentivitizing and
supporting those in the informal economy to come under the purview of formal law and
formal support apparatuses such as insurance, job security and so on.

Migration Policies in Nepal

One or combinations of four major policy approaches are adopted by the governments in order
to influence the migratory flow population (or the population redistribution) in general. These
include
a) stop the flow of migrants at the source,
b) redirects the flows to the frontiers or to the growth poles and new cities,
c) return migrants to their place of origin, and
d) accommodate the migrants by providing services and programs that improve the lot of
migrants.
Furthermore, effective border administration, specific regulations on issuing of entry and exit
permit for international migrants are some of the approaches adopt to encourage or discourage
international migration in the country. Nepal lacks explicit population of redistribution policy,
despite the history of population policies dating back to more than four decades. The
population policies in the past focus on fertility reduction primarily through family planning.
The concern for the redistribution of Population was first started in the First Plan (1956 - 1961)
in the form of planned resettlement plan in Rapti Valley (Chitawan) in the inner tarai. The
Third Plan (1965 - 70) for the first time reflected the need for population control i.e.
recognition of population growth as a concern.
The Constitution of Nepal is the fundamental law of Nepal and entered into force on 20
September 2015. It recognizes the multi-ethnic, multilingual and multicultural characteristics
of Nepal and includes several provisions relevant to migration. These include provisions on
citizenship, the right of citizens to freely move and reside in any part of Nepal, the right not to
be trafficked or held in slavery or forced labour, the rights to language and culture, the right to
employment and fair conditions of work, prohibition of discrimination against women and
minorities, prohibition of illegal transport of a child, priority services for displaced and conflict
victims. The Constitution also outlines key policy areas including the goal of utilizing the skill
of Nepali diaspora in national development, to enhance productivity of agricultural land, to
prepare for natural disasters and to address food insecurity. It has a focus on labour and seeks
to enhance employment within Nepal, make foreign employment free from exploitation and to
guarantee the rights of migrant workers, as well as to seek to mobilize the capital and skills of
returning migrant workers.
The National Planning Commission’s Fifteenth Development Plan Approach
Paper seeks to accelerate economic growth and emphasizes the importance of migration
management. It seeks to ensure that Nepalis have the opportunity to benefit from economic
opportunities without needing to migrate, as well as to ensure that immigration is well
regulated. It proposes a strategy to ensure that demographic and migration information is
properly collected and maintained and made available and accessible through the use of
technology, to inform research and policymaking.
The Local Government Operation Act 2017 has provisions on collecting and managing
data, statistics and records which are available locally. It includes provisions on recording vital
statistics such as births, deaths, marriages, divorces and migration as well as on issues related
to the domestic and foreign labour force. Local governments are responsible for the
management and operation of employment information centres which can provide financial
literacy and skill training for the labour force going abroad. They are also involved in social
reunification for returnee migrant workers and the Act includes provisions on the use of
knowledge, skills and entrepreneurship gained during foreign employment.
The National Population Policy 2014 considers the drivers of population change. It
recognizes that the migration of productive human resources abroad has negatively affected
agricultural productivity and other sectors and has changed the demography of rural areas by
leaving only women, children and senior citizens behind. This policy also highlights that
voluntary as well as forced migration have affected the management of urban areas. One of the
key objectives of this policy is to manage internal and external migration and it considers the
following strategies to achieve this objective:
• Maximizing engagement of human resources in the productive sector inside the country, and
establishing least one industrial area in every constituency, municipality or district
headquarters;
• Safeguarding Nepalese migrant workers through diplomacy with major countries of
destination; Developing sets of information on destination countries’ context, language, culture
and law;
• Providing feedback to relevant institutions on developing MOUs with destination countries;
• Managing internal migration and keeping native communities’ economic, social, cultural
aspects intact;
• Developing of compact settlements with adequate facilities;
• Documenting of internal and external migration; and
• Utilization of returnees’ skills and capital in the country’s development.
Immigration Policies in Nepal:
The main regulating framework for managing immigration is the Immigration Act 1992 and
the Immigration Rules 1994. The Act provides the basic provisions on entry, stay and exit
and provides the authority of the Government to regulate these matters.
Policies for Foreign Employment in Nepal:
Although labour migration has been a significant trend in Nepal for generations, it was in 1985
that the first Foreign Employment Act was passed and the Foreign Employment Rules
were only enacted nearly 15 years later in 1999. At the time, the Act was mainly focused on
regulating foreign employment with the Preamble stating that it was aimed “to control and
manage foreign employment”. The Act was amended in 1992 and 1998, then was replaced in
2007 with a more comprehensive framework which considers the welfare of migrants,
facilitates the labour process and seeks to make the migration experience safer.
The Foreign Employment Act 2007 seeks to regulate the process of foreign employment
and protect the rights of migrant workers. It enables the Government to enter into agreements
with other countries. It provides authority to regulate minimum wages, costs of recruitment
and includes requirements for training, insurance, the establishment of the foreign
employment board and other provisions to ensure maximum protection for the individual. It
regulates the behaviour of recruitment agencies, prescribing penalties for fraud and
misrepresentation. The Act does not cover undocumented migrants.
The most recent amendment to the Act were passed in March 2019 in an effort to further
regulate the conduct of recruitment agencies by increasing amounts required by agencies as a
security deposit, lodged with the Government, and by eliminating the use of unlicensed agents
of recruitment agencies. The amendments also provide that the licenses of recruitment agency
can be cancelled where the agency has used fraudulent documents. The impact of these
amendments is yet to be determined. The Foreign Employment Rules 2008 provide more
detail for the implementation of the Act. They cover licensing and requirements of recruitment
agencies, the process of recruitment, the establishment of the FEPB, the Foreign Employment
Welfare Fund and the Foreign Employment Tribunal. The Rules were amended in 2011.
The Foreign Employment Policy of 2012 was the first policy of the Government to
address the socioeconomic dimensions of foreign employment. Its overarching goal is to
“ensure safe, organized, respectable and reliable foreign employment to contribute to poverty
reduction along with sustainable economic benefits of foreign employment” and incorporates
seven major policy pillars as follows:
• To identify and promote employment opportunities in the international market;
• To develop skilled human resources to ensure competitiveness, thereby maximizing benefits
from foreign employment;
• To ensures that each step of the foreign employment process is simple, transparent, reliable,
organized and safe; • To address issues faced by women migrant and ensure their rights;
• To ensure good governance of foreign employment management;
• To mobilize local, national and international resources for foreign employment management
particularly through promote intersectoral partnerships;
• To ensure the most effective use of remittances in relation to human development and the
productive sector. Under the policy, provision has been made for a high-level foreign
employment coordination committee, with the Minster of Labor as the coordinator, with
representatives from various Ministries, the National Planning Commission, Nepal Rastra
Bank, foreign employment entrepreneurial associations and migration experts. A National
Employment Policy 2016 has been formulated with the following objectives:
• To provide productive and result-oriented employment opportunities to all citizens through
coordinating other sectoral policies in line with this policy;
• To increase the quality of employment by transforming informal employment to formal
employment system;
• To create appropriate opportunities for developing the knowledge and skill of the labour
force to match the needs of the labour market;
• To manage foreign and domestic workers appropriately;
• To give priorities to create youth-oriented employment opportunities;
• To strengthen the labour market by developing a research-based information system; To
promote employment-friendly investment by developing mutual industrial labour relations.
A National Strategic Action Plan 2015–2020 seeks to translate the seven policy pillars of
the Foreign Employment Policy into action. It looks at ensuring the socioeconomic
reintegration of returned workers, formulating remittance policy and continuing efforts to
reduce the social costs of foreign employment. The Action Plan proposes the establishment of a
Labor Bank which would provide loans to prospective migrants, facilitate access to capital for
returnees, establish channels for remittances and investment and extend loans to returnees
starting their own businesses. The creation of this Bank is underway and there is a target to
have it operational within the Action Plan timeframe, that is, by 2020.
A National Youth Policy 2015 is aimed at addressing issues of youth between 16 to 40
years of age. As per the policy, youth who are currently working abroad as foreign labour
migrants in unsafe conditions are considered to be vulnerable. The policy mentions that the
lack of adequate employment and educational opportunities have been the main factor of
permanent youth migration abroad. It also highlights that the skills and resources of youth
who have gained skills, expertise, and resources abroad should be better utilised and could
have a significant effect on the economy. This policy further recognizes foreign employment as
an area of huge potential for the youth of Nepal. One core policy agenda highlighted by the
policy is to stop “brain drain” through the creation of in-country career development
opportunities. The policy envisions providing various educational programmes to develop the
human resource needed in the national labour market. In relation to employment of youth, the
policy contains a provision which emphasizes the creation of in-country employment
opportunities through developing infrastructure in agriculture, agro-industries, tourism and
energy. It also encourages youth to set up cooperatives in rural areas to create employment
opportunities. The policy also has a number of provisions related to foreign labour migration
including the following:
• Self-employment and entrepreneurship programmes will be introduced for youth returning
from foreign employment;
• Dignified employment and safety will be ensured for women seeking foreign employment;
The Youth Vision 2025 outlines a vision for Nepali youth to be strong, competent,
competitive and self-reliant, and seeks to to build a modern, just and affluent Nepal through
their meaningful participation and promotion of their leadership capacity. The long term goal
of the Vision is to prepare competent human resources for turning the nation from a least
developed one into a fast developing one by achieving national affluence, equality and social
justice within the next 10 years through participation, collaboration and leadership
development and by making an investment in the youth development sector including
life-friendly education, employment, health and social security. The vision focuses on the
creation of internal employment opportunities by utilizing the skills, experience and capital
received from the youths involved in foreign employment and the non-resident Nepali youths.
The Educational Consultancy Service and Language Education Guidelines 2011 are
specifically related to the facilitation of student migration and targets students who aspire to go
abroad through the support of educational consultancies as well as language institutions. In
other words, this policy aims to regulate institutions involved in the preparatory phase of
potential educational migration.
The Directive on Grant Schemes for Encouraging Foreign Educated and Trained
Youth in Agriculture, 2015 is a directive that aims at encouraging youth to enter the
agricultural sector and especially targets those who are trained and educated in agriculture
education outside of Nepal. It specifically targets youth who have returned from foreign
employment (agricultural sector) and encourages them to apply their capital, knowledge and
skills to the development of the domestic agricultural sector. The scheme is designed as a
competitive grant system. The scheme has a specific target audience and 85 per cent of
proposed capital or maximum of NPR 100,000 will be provided as a grant. Youth between 18
to 50 years of age are eligible for the scheme.
It is argued that internal migration in Nepal is mainly due to regional imbalances in the
distribution of resources, opportunities, services and poverty, unemployment, difficult
livelihoods and food scarcity of households (KC, 2014). The 2011 census data as well as past
census data indicate that in Nepal most internal migration occurs from hills to Tarai and rural
to urban areas. Accordingly, efforts are being made to minimise hill to Tarai and rural to urban
migration flows through a number of policy interventions, such as regionally balanced
distribution of physical infrastructure, socio-economic services, and the development of small
towns and satellite cities in rural and backward regions. Despite this, the migration process has
not been properly managed and is still high (NPC, 2007). Migration is a process of population
and labour force transition from one area to another. The adverse effect of uncontrolled
migration is it can create labour shortages in the place of origin and a surplus of labour in the
place of destination. With the increasing number of in and out of country migrants, Nepal may
face these problems as many agricultural households in the hills are facing shortages of
agricultural labour. Furthermore, an increasing inflow of migration generally leads to a
shortage of basic services in the place of destination.
In this context, following recommendations are made for policy interventions:
• As migration flow from mountain and hills to Tarai continues to be the largest migration
stream, it should still be the focus in migration management policies. The data indicates that
the propensity to migrate varies widely according to region, district and rural/urban residence.
In this context, a strategy to rank areas by propensity to migrate, underlying causes of
migration and its impact on the local economy should be undertaken before launching any
intervention programmes. In this context, a policy adopted by The Thirteenth Plan
(2013/14-2015/16) to conduct a study on reasons for internal and international migration in
Nepal in highly relevant (NPC, 2010).
• The lifetime, as well as current migration data from the various censuses, indicates that the
highest number of out-migration occurs from the eastern and western hill regions. Districts
from these regions show a very high loss of population through the migration process (up to
54% in terms of lifetime migration and 21 persons per year per 1,000 population). Any
migration management programme of the country should prioritise districts with high
out-migration rates with the aim of minimising outmigration from these districts.
• The current migration data indicates that migration flow in recent times is more diverted to
urban areas. If the same trend continues in the future, urban-ward migration will increase
more rapidly. Therefore, minimising urban-ward migration should still be the highest concern
in migration management policies. In this regard, special attention should be given to
minimising migration flow to the urban areas of Kathmandu Valley.
• Although migration flow in recent times is more diverted to urban areas, Tarai still continues
to be the largest destination of migrants. However, out-migration from Tarai is still much
smaller than that of mountain and hills, but it is increasing much more rapidly. A high
proportion of migrants from Tarai prefer to go to another district of the Tarai region (around
40%). The data indicates that Tarai is a common destination of migrants from all the regions.
In this context, the high in-flow of migration to Tarai should still get priority in migration
management policy. Appropriate programmes to divert mountain and hill migration to other
areas should be adopted so that migration flow to Tarai is minimised. There is a strong
indication that Tarai migration will increase very rapidly in the future. In this context, a policy
to manage the flow of Tarai migration is required.
• Based on the current migration data, clusters of districts in Tarai regions can be identified
where the majority of migration flow from the contiguous mountain and hill region is directed.
Morang and Sunsari in eastern region, Chitwan in central region, Nawalparasi, Rupendehi in
western region, Dang, Banke and Bardiya in mid-western region and Kailali and Kanchanpur
in far-western region form such clusters of districts. Only two such areas have been identified
in the hills (three districts of Kathmandu and Kaski) with no such areas in mountain. This
indicates that there are very few attractive places for migrants in mountain and hills. In this
context, any migration management policies to develop satellite and small town promotion
programmes should concentrate more on mountain and hills.
Urbanization and Development:
Urbanization and Development Urbanization and development have been synonymous
concepts to the extent that higher levels of urbanization lend to higher levels of development.
The structural changes in the economy that accompany the process of urbanization, and the
demand of higher levels of services and facilities and is possible with higher levels of income
contribute to make urban areas locations with better levels of living. All human development
and economic development indicators tend to be higher in urban than in rural areas. Some of
the indicators for urbanization and development as given below:
a) Higher level of literacy and educational attainment
b) Higher level of health services
c) More productive economic activities
d) Transportation and other facilities
e) Higher level of standards of living
Past decades have witnessed an increasing rural to urban migration. This will continue to be
the case as the transport infrastructure continues to expand, as the pressure on limited land
resources in the rural sector increases, as literacy rates rise in the rural areas and the search for
gainful employment opportunities in the non-farm sector gathers increased momentum. Urban
areas provide employment, marketing opportunities, and inputs and services to the rural
hinter-land and provide basis for diversifying agricultural production and increasing
agricultural productivity
Throughout the history, cities have been the main centers of learning, culture and innovation.
It is not surprising that the world’s most urban countries tend to be the richest and have the
highest human development. Ongoing rapid urbanization has the potential to improve the well
being of the societies. Although only aroung half of the world’s people live in cities and they
generate more than 80% of the GDP.
HDI values by urban-rural areas:
Indicators Urban Rural Nepal

Life Expectancy 68.93 68.81 68.80

Adult Literacy 79.27 54.98 59.57

Mean Years of Schooling 4.94 3.69 3.90

Per Capita Income 2248 936 1160

Human Development Index (HDI) 0.579 0.464 0.490

Urbanization has other advantages/ benefits:
1. Trade and commerce: Urbanization advances the country’s business sectors by
providing more jobs and a more diverse economy. A vast network of goods and services
has helped develop modern commercial institutions and exchanges that have
empowered the growth of urban areas. Commercialization and trade offers town and
cities better business opportunities and returns compared to rural areas. Rural citizens
come to urban places with their goods and needs for products and services only
available in urban areas.
2. Tourism industries: More people in cities means the need for better transportation
systems. Foreigners are attracted to cities with great transportation for easy mobility as
well as unique attractions partially supported by infrastructure. It provides great foreign
currency inflows for the cities’ economies.
3. Culture and Sciences: Improvements in culture and sciences are projected to increase
through increased urbanization. As diverse cultures interact, work, and communicate
with one another in close proximity, cultures are integrated more smoothly. In addition,
access to better educational facilities and living standards (like better sanitation,
healthcare, and housing) can create better recreational lifestyles and better social life.
These reasons encourage more people to migrate into cities and town to obtain a variety
of social services and benefits which are widespread and limited in rural areas.
4. The convenience of goods and services is one of the benefits of urbanisation. In urban
areas there is better access to public health and general health care which is lacking in
many urban areas .
5. The process of urbanization contributes to an increase in labor productivity, allows
solving many social problems of society.
6. People who live in urban area tend to earn due to the availability of more jobs.
7. Better possibilities to boost the economy: being closer to businesses and industries,
people who come from the countryside can explore more possibilities to increase their
 current income, either by being in contact with closest customers, or by obtaining jobs
in new Business.

8. Better sanitary services : potable water, sanitation, transport of waste , recycling of

garbage, etc.
9. As the economy increases, the whole society benefits from internal improvements,
either through a richer tax base or through competition between private organizations.
10. Urbanization offers real economic opportunities to people who would otherwise be
destined to subsist without hope of economic improvement.
11. Another advantage of urbanisation is that it improve technology at a faster rate . The
reason being because of the increase of the population , investment by international
companies there is a need to speed up communication , marketing and dissemination of
goods and services.
12. Reduction of the cost of transporting goods for companies, lowering the transportation
of their products is a key factor, something that was already one of the main reasons for
the spatial concentration of companies during industrialization and that is accompanied
by urbanization. Companies also would have a shorter distance to transport their
products since everyone is in the urban area .Most urban area have good infrastructure
unlike rural area which is another factor that reduces transportation cost.
13. Lower cost of losing a job the concentration of workers is another pro, because if a
person loses the job, it will be easier to find another if there is a greater number of
companies in the city.
Urbanization Policies in Nepal:
Urbanization process has been neglected from being integral to the population and/or
migration policies and thus there is a neglect of spatial aspect in the existing policies and
programs of population. Urban areas have increased in number and population size but their
economic structures have not changed much as expected. Rural economic character is evident
in most of the urban areas. As a result, there is a tendency to incorporate wider area so that the
minimum population size qualification is met. Hill (including Mountain) urban areas
demonstrate more of rural character and nearly 50% of hill urban residents depend on primary
occupation (Agriculture). It is primarily the Kathmandu Valley towns and Terai towns that
have Sizeable proportion of residents who depend on trade and services. This recapitulation of
economic activities of urban centres suggests that redefinition of urban areas based on
proportion on non-agricultural activities and density of built-up areas is necessary. Policies
and programs of the government with regards to urbanization are reflected in the various
periodic plans. In addition, from time to time government issues policy guidelines regarding
urbanization and declaration of municipalities i.e., urban centres. In general, the policies and
programs regarding urbanization have remained largely out of the domain of sectoral policies
on population. The Ministry of Physical Planning and Works through its Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction addresses this issue. As such the focus appears to be
more on infrastructure development and building construction. The main issues of
urbanization of Nepal include: imbalanced urbanization, poor rural-urban linkage,
environmental degradation and lack national vision. Population and migration policies issues
need close collaboration with policies of urbanization that is pursued by the Ministry of
Physical Planning and works. The main policy goal regarding urbanization will be to encourage
the process of urbanization and create a system of functional (economic) linkage between
several levels of municipalities.
• Articulation of functional linkage in terms of population size and range of activities that
establishes a rank order for urban areas will be attempted.
• Develop programs in collaboration with Ministry of Local Development and Ministry of
Planning and Building Construction to make urban areas as liveable space. Activities related to
this will be the ongoing activities supporting the relevant agencies of the Ministry of Local
Development and Ministry of Planning and Building Construction.
• Enhance the national urban policy vision and facilitate periodic review and appropriate
changes.
• Provide strategic directions for the Ministry of Urban Development.
• Define the scope of urbanization and urban development and to that extent indicate the areas
that logically come under the ambit of Ministry.
• Inform and facilitate sectoral activities of other agencies of the government that bear on
urban development including internal transport, agriculture, industry, trade, education and
health, environment, water and sanitation services, culture, tourism and local development.
Since 1956, Nepal has been implementing periodic plans (five year national plan). While all the
earlier five year plans followed controlled economic policies, the Fifth Five Year Plan
(1975-1980) came up with regional planning objectives. The objectives of the plan were to
increase productivity, make maximum use of labour power and ensure regional balance and
integration. To achieve regional balance, the nation was divided into five development regions
along with the introduction of the concept of growth axis: a series of north south development
corridors linking diverse regions (Tarai, Hills and Mountains). The idea behind this was to
permit economic viability and to generate complementary interregional exchange of goods and
services.
The Eighth Plan (1992-1997) made the departure from the past controlled economic policies of
Nepal by adopting the liberal and market oriented policy. The assigned government’s role was
of a facilitator of economic activities and promoter of private sector for development of
physical infrastructure and social sector. Lot of private universities, colleges, industries, real
estates and apartment developers emerged as a result of various economic reforms in the
eighth plan period and, accelerated the pace of urbanization through out the nation. In the
absence of land use strategy and policy, haphazard proliferation of education institutions,
nursing homes, industries and real estates in incompatible locations have invited serious
environmental problems in Kathmandu Valley and other rapidly urbanizing towns. However,
the mechanism to address the urban implication of all these activities has not been fully
developed.
Around 1970s, land use plan for all the five regional centres were prepared and a detailed
physical development plan of government’s institutional area were made and implemented.
Similarly few towns were established in Tarai by clearing some forest lands. Attempts were also
made to implement a physical development plan in Kathmandu Valley but it could not
materialize due to lack of political commitment. In 1970s two sites and services projects were
implemented in the valley. Besides these events, land use regulation is no more practiced in the
urban areas of Nepal; land is mostly developed by individual’s decisions and the development
pattern is mixed: residential cum commercial. The existing building bye laws is only the basis
of development control in Kathmandu Valley and, some form of such bye laws are also
implemented by rest of the municipalities. Besides the bye laws enforcement, two local area
planning measures: land pooling (readjustment) and guided land development programmes
have been widely implemented in the valley.
The Town Development Act 1988 provides the legal basis for implementing town development
plans. The Act has empowered both the central and local government agencies to carryout the
land pooling projects (His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, 1988). The Local Self Governance
Act 1999 also provides the municipalities and the Village Development Committees to carryout
town development plans but it is not comprehensive enough to carry out town planning as
compared to the Town Development Act 1988.
For the first time a more specific rural urban linkage related programmes were embedded in
the urban development chapter of the Seventh Plan (1985-1990). It had presented the concept
of service centre with an objective to establish the focal points (nine service centres in each
district) for rural development. It envisaged developing three tier of urban hierarchy: regional
level (development region), sub regional level (Tarai, Hill and mountain areas of each
development region) and service centres (district level). The idea was to provide a base for
absorbing surplus rural populations and promotion of off farm employment and economic
development (PADCO, 1990:105). However, the democratic movement in 1990 completely
wiped out these concepts of urban based rural development policies strategies and programs.
The Eighth Plan (1992-1997) had three main planning objectives, extremely important for
small town planning and regional development. They were to achieve sustainable development,
poverty alleviation and the rural development and regional balance. The regional balance is
elaborated as to promote self reliant social, economic and market services in backward areas
and to uplift the level of economy. It further emphasizes on the road access to the market
towns for various agricultural services. It also highlights the need to increase rural employment
activities. Sectoral investments in rural areas, establishment of a national hierarchy of urban
system and market oriented urban subsystem were the principles spelt to facilitate rural urban
linkages.
Urbanization and urban development is influenced and oriented by key policies of the state in
sectors such as transport, agriculture, tourism, industry etc in addition to the policy pursued in
the urban sector. A brief review of the extant policies provides the context for the national
urban development strategy.
National Transport Policy 2001 aims for development of sustainable urban transport system to
improve social and economic development of the country. At the broad national level, the
Policy emphasizes on North-South connectivity linking China and India—that may also serve
as an important trade and transit corridor between China and India in the future. Apart from
the present East-West Highway, the Policy proposes Mid-Hill Highway in the Hills and Hulaki
Marg in the Southern Plains of Tarai connecting east and west of the country. The Policy
prioritizes connectivity to all 75 districts of the country, and stresses on social and
administrative parameters despite low density and lagging economic justification of
connectivity investment in many hinterland districts. The Policy conceives central and local
road system. The central road system includes national highways and strategic roads consisting
primarily of feeder roads—linking district headquarters, towns, and cities including its
hinterland with the national highways.
National Land Use Policy 2012 seeks optimum utilization of land while preserving natural
resources and cultural heritages, through classification of land and enforcement of land use
control accordingly. The Policy encourages land consolidation as opposed to land
fragmentation and it also emphasizes on the legislative basis for incentives and dis-incentive to
preserve agricultural land. Settlements are encouraged in the safer locations—which are hazard
free and where infrastructure provisions become viable and compact settlements are
prioritized as opposed to scattered development
Decentralization of Urban Governance:
Before Constitution of 2015:
Decentralization in Urban Areas was mainly through:
A. The Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA): created in 2012, has
responsibility for planning, development, enforcement of regulations and coordination
of over five urban local bodies and 99 VDCs in Kathmandu Valley (WB, 2013b).
B.District development committees are involved in the physical development of municipalities,
small towns and market centers that lie within the district (Choe and Pradhan, 2010: p.38).
C. Town development committees formulate and implement town development plans,
and have the authority to engage in land development activities and to enforce town
plans, construction rules and planning codes (UN-Habitat, 2010: p. 25).
 After Promulgation of Constitution, 2015
• There will be a Municipal Executive in each municipality headed by a democratically
elected Mayor and Deputy Mayor (International IDEA, 2015).
• In terms of local legislature, the constitution stipulates one Municipal Assembly in each
municipality, comprised of the Mayor and Deputy Mayor, along with ward chairpersons,
four members elected from each ward of the Municipality, and a member elected from
the Dalit community (ibid).

Institutions for Urban Governance:

• Main Institutional is Ministry of Urban Development
• The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) is responsible for: urban and
regional planning; developing and managing basic urban infrastructure services such as
water supply, sanitation, solid waste management; and housing.
• It has two implementing agencies :
A. Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS),
B. Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC),
It has also other organisational entities such as the Town Development Fund.
• It also supervises over regional planning authorities such as the KVDA and other Town
Development Committees (MoUD, 2015: pp. 47-48).
• The MoUD shares responsibility for the urban sector with other central government
agencies such as the National Planning Commission (NPC) and the Ministry of Federal
Affairs and Local Development

Finance and Investment for Urban Areas:

Public capital expenditure for municipal infrastructure is inadequate to meet the
growing needs of urban areas, and is biased against Kathmandu and the largest cities,
where infrastructure needs are the greatest (Muzzini & Apericio, 2013).
The NUDS investment strategy includes:
1. 2%of GDP will be allocated for urban infrastructure investment between 2015 and
2030.
2. Coordinated investment in urban areas involving all sectoral agencies and the private
sector.
 3. Increasement of investment in the mid and far west development regions, in
underdeveloped regions of inner Tarai and southern Tarai, as well as in strategic small
towns and new towns (MoUD, 2015).
4. Creation of self-reliant and financially solvent urban areas.
5. Development of an inter-governmental fiscal transfer system and enhancing the
mobilisation of municipalities’ own revenue (ibid).

Disparity in 'Urban' Concept and Definition

The term 'urban' is a region with large built -up area. The definitions of urban vary by every
country. For example in Philippines, national center having 500 persons per square meter, six
commercial, manufacturing, at least three town halls, park, administrative building etc. are
considered as urban place. In Nepal, definition of urban area has been continuously changing
over the time. There is no uniformity in defining urban area which has brought the difficulties
in reviewing the state of urbanization in Nepal. Fifth population census, was the first scientific
census conducted in 2052/54 BS recognized ten settlement named 'prominent settlement' with
the basic of criteria of population size to 5000only.The 1961 census was internationally
accepted scientific census which for the first time defined an urban as " an area with the
population of 5000" and above and having other facilities like , high school, college, judicial
and administrative units , market ,communication facilities, mills, factories . In such a way, the
definition of urban has changed in 1996 census. Chapagain (2008) pointed out the changing
definition of urban that shown below table 1.like , high school, college, judicial and
administrative units , market ,communication facilities, mills, factories . In such a way, the
definition of urban has changed in 1996 census. Chapagain (2008) pointed out the changing
definition of urban that shown below table.

Years Criteria Remarks

Un cleared criteria 'Prominent'
1952/54  population over 5000 settlement '
1961: Census  Population over 500 'Sahar'
 urban environment

1962: Nagar  Population at least 10,000 'Nagarpalika'

Panchayat  Local urban administrative unit
Act  Local government unit

1976  Population size at least 9000 'Nagar panchayat'

1992: Population size at least 9000 'Nagarpalika'
Municipal act

1992  Population size 20000 'Nagarpalika'

Municipality  Basic urban infrastructures
Minimum one million annual
act  revenue
 semi- urban environment

1999: Redefined the Urban Area 'Mahanagarpalika'

Local Self  Population size 300000 ( Metropolitan City)
Governance  400 million annual revenue
Act  Urban environment
 High education facilities

 Population Size 100000 'Upa-Mahanagarpalika'

 100 million annual revenue (Sub- Metropolitan City)
 Urban environment
 Already received 'Municipality
status'
 Population with 20000 inTarai
and 10000 in
mountain and hill area. Nagarpalika ( Municipality)
5 million annual revenue in
 Tarai and
500000 in hilland mountain.

 Minimum urban facilities.

Municipal (Local administrative
After re- unit).
 Minimum requirement hasn't
structuring  Minimum urban facilities. mentioned.
Existing Municipal unit are based
the nation ) on
political decision.
Source: Chapagain, 2008
The above table mentions the changing criteria of defining concept and definition of urban
center. The criteria in defining urban area has been changed in every census. However, after
1961, population size, annual income and minimum facilities has considered as fundamental
basis to declare locations as urban area or municipality. In different times, municipality's
boundary has extended by merging adjoining area or it has merged two or more than two
rural areas having small market centers and thereby declared a new municipality.

Local self-government act, 1999 categorized the existing urban location into municipality
(sup-metropolitan and metropolitan city but the criteria of classification were general. At
present, there are two types of local administrative unit - Municipality (Nagarpalika) and
Rural Municipality (Gaupalika). According to the new administrative structure, district is
further divided to Gaupalika and Nagarpalika. Both are to some extent similar character as
there are large rural areas and agricultural based population in Nagarpalika as well.
However, Nagarpalika still consists of market centers, and is little advanced area (Jnawali,
2004).