87 Broiler

OFFICEOFTHEEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR
To Our Valued Reader:
This fourth edition, The Philippines Recommends for Broiler

Production, provides farmers, extension workers, instructors,
researchers, and students the latest information on the various aspects
of broiler production. It also tackles the problems and constraints as well
as the prospects and opportunities of the broiler industry.
We hope you will find this volume a useful reference material.
Very truly yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
The Philippines
Recommends for
Broiler Production
PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 10-C

Revised
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
Department of Science and Technology
BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Department of Agriculture
Los Baños, Laguna

2006
First Edition 1976, reprinted 1982
Second Edition 1988, reprinted 1991
Third Edition 1997
Fourth Edition 2006
This publication may not be reprinted or

reproduced in part or whole without written
permission from the publisher.
Published with funding support from the

Department of Agriculture – Bureau of Agricultural Research
ISSN 0115-7833
ISBN 971-20-0531-3
Bibliographic Citation:
The Broiler Production Committee 2004. The Philippines

Recommends for broiler production. Los Baños, Laguna:
DOST-PCARRD and DA-BAR, 2006. 74p. – (Philippines
Recommends Series No. 10-C).
Foreword
Poultry is one of the world’s major and fastest growing sources of

meat. It contributed about 38% of the country’s total meat supply.
The Philippine livestock and poultry industries contributed about
one-third of the gross value added (GVA) in agriculture. From 2002
to 2004, the local poultry industry posted an average annual growth rate
of 14.27%. The GVA of the poultry sector has increased from
P89 billion (B) in 2002 to P116 B in 2004.
The Philippine poultry industry continues to have problems that have
kept it from fully developing. The year 2003 was a roller coaster ride
for the poultry industry when it started off with a shortage of supply and
high prices. However, by end of the first quarter, inventory had built up
due to avian flu hitting most of Asian countries.
In spite of the avian flu scare in early 2004, which decreased the
consumption and production, the broiler industry has still created an
export opportunity in Japan. The broiler industry was able to export
some 1.5 million kg of chicken meat.
This volume is the third revision of the Philippines Recommends for
Broiler Production that was first printed in 1976 and last revised in 1997.
It is hoped that broiler growers, extension workers, instructors,
researchers, and students would find this volume a useful reference
material.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
iii
Acknowledgment
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) acknowledges the
cooperation and assistance extended by the following persons, institutions,
and agencies for the fourth edition of the Philippines Recommends for
Broiler Production:
The technical committee members for drafting this revised edition;

The committee members of the Philippines Recommends for
Broiler Production, 1976 (first edition), 1988 (second edition), and
1997 (third edition);
The Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Agricultural Research
(DA-BAR), through the leadership of Mr. Nicomedes Eleazar, for
supporting the printing of this edition;
Mrs. Belen Chavez of Sustamina Feeds for allowing the use of the
photos taken from their contract farms for this publication;
Drs. Arnold Anorico and Donnan Canoy of Sustamina Feeds for the
assistance provided during the taking of pictures at the farms of
some of their contract growers;
Marciana Farms of Victoria, Tarlac for allowing us to take pictures
of their broiler farm for use in this publication;
The staff of the Livestock Research Division (LRD), particularly
Mr. Eric E. Perez and Mr. Ricardo A. Mulimbayan, for their
assistance in taking some photographs and for typing and preparing
the layout of this publication;
The Publication Program staff of the Applied Communication
Division (ACD) under the leadership of Mr. Cesar Frias;
To all those who in one way or another helped in the preparation of
this volume. Without them, the publication of this fourth edition
would not have been possible.
iv
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgment iv
The Broiler Production Committee 2004 ix
Glossary of Terms x
The Broiler Industry 1

The Broiler Breeding Operation 5
The Supply Chain Structure 5
Starting a Broiler Project 8
Selection of Stocks 10
Housing and Facilities 12
Basic Design 12
Materials and Structure 12
Brooding 15
Elements of Succesful Brooding 15
Good Quality Chicks 15
Proper Temperature 16
Adequate Space Allowances 17
Proper Ventilation 17
Adequate Lighting Facilities 18
Proper Sanitation 18
Protection from Predators 19
Sources of Heat for Brooding 19
Electricity 19
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) 19
Brooding Management 19
Preparation of the Brooder House 19
Handling of Broiler Chicks 20
Other Management Practices 22
Prevention and Control of Cannibalism 22
Prevention of Cannibalism 22
Control of Cannibalism 22
Proper Catching and Hauling of Broilers 23
Management during Stress 23
Housing 23
v
Water 23
Feed Management and Nutrition during Warm Weather 23
Other Causes of Stress 24
Feeding Broilers 25
Feed Types and Forms 25
Advantages of Pelleting 32
Disadvantages of Pelleting 32
Nutritional Deficiency 33
Feeding Systems 33
Management Practices to Avoid Feed Losses in Feeders 36
Feed Additives 37
Disease Prevention and Control 38
Vaccination 38
Vaccination Failure 40
Vaccination Tips 40
Medication 41
Sanitation 42
Cleaning and Disinfection 42
Disinfectants for Poultry Farms 43
Health Management Tips 44
Common Diseases of Broiler Chickens 45
NCD (Avian Pest) 45
IBD (Gumboro Disease) 47
Fowl Fox 48
Infectious Bronchitis 48
Infectious Coryza (IC) or Roup/Cold 49
Colibacillosis (E. coli) 50
Mycoplasma Gallisepticum (MG) Infection or
Chronic Respiratory Disease 51
Mycotoxicosis 52
Coccidiosis 54
Exudative Diathesis/Encephalomalacia (Crazy Chick
Disease)/Muscular Dystrophy 55
Malabsorption Syndrome 56
SDS (Sudden Death Syndrome) or Flip-Over Disease 58
Farm Records 59
Importance 59
Broiler Record 59
vi
Measuring Income from Broiler Enterprise 60
Efficiency Indicators 60
Feed Conversion 60
Feed Cost/Kilogram of Broiler Produced 61
Production Efficiency Factor (PEF) 61
Broiler Marketing 62
Quality 62
Timing 62
Market Outlets 62
Price Fluctuations 63
Broiler Inventory Holding 63
Cost-and-Return Analysis 64
Costs 64
Investment Costs 64
Operating and Maintenance Costs 64
The 10,000-Chicken Module 65
Returns 65
References 68
Appendix
1 Other diseases of broiler 69
2 Broiler Record 73
3 Sample form for computing income 74
List ofFigures
1 Per capita consumption of broiler dressed meat, 1999-2003 2
2 Yearly broiler production from 2002 to 2004 2
3 Broiler supply chain structure 6
4 Locally dressed chickens sold in wet markets 7
5 Good quality day-old broiler chicks produced by a reliable
supplier 11
6 A slatted-floor monitor type of housing for better ventilation and
waste handling 14
7 An example of good quality chicks 15
8 Evenly distributed chicks inside the brooder 16
9 Burlap curtain used on the walls of brooder house to keep the chicks
from draft 18
10 Brooder house with burlap curtain used as "false ceiling" to control
temperature 20
vii
11 Pelleting machine 28
12 Two-week old broiler chicks raised in slatted-floor housing with
tube feeders placed alternately with automatic waterers 36
13 Proventiculus of broiler chicken with hemorrhagic lesions 46
14 Broiler's abdomen with cloudy airsacs 49
15 Watery feces stained with blood 54
16 The duodenum part of the broiler's intestines that is infected
with Eimeria acervulina 55
17 Softening of the brain due to degenerative changes in nervous
tissue 56
18 Breast muscle with whitish-gray area 57
List of Tables
1 Chicken inventory by type, 1995-2005 4
2 Nutrient recommendations for broiler-type chicken 26
3 Recommended vitamin and mineral supplementation
for broilers 27
4 The estimated feed consumption and average daily weight
gain of broilers from day-old up to market age 28
5 Sample formulation of chick booster mash 29
6 Sample formulation of broiler starter diets 30
7 Sample formulation of broiler finisher mash 31
8 Nutritional deficiency for broilers 34
9 Vaccination schedule for broiler chicks 39
10 Cost and return for 10,000-chicken capacity broiler farm 66
viii
The Broiler Production Committee 2004
Chairman
Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda

Professor Emeritus
Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster
UPLB, College, Laguna
Members
Dr. Javier P. Mateo Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Technical Director Director
Agri-Specialist, Inc. Livestock Research Division
MMLDC Bldg., Celery Rd., PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
FTI Complex, Taguig, Metro Manila
Mr. Gregorio A. San Diego, Jr. Dr. Synan S. Baguio

President Senior Science Research Specialist
United Broiler Raisers Association Livestock Research Division
(UBRA) and Philippine Egg Board PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
101 Col. S. Cruz St., San Rafael,
Montalban, Rizal
Dr. Edwin S. Luis Ms. Marites M. Ramil

Professor Science Research Specialist
Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster Livestock Research Division
UPLB, College, Laguna PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
Dr. Francis Andrew Eugene M. Bernardo

Assistant Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine
UPLB, College, Laguna
Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan

Science Research Specialist
Applied Communication Division
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
ix
Glossary of Terms
Antibiotic - a dilute substance produced by microorganisms that have

the power to kill other organisms.
Antibody - a substance formed in the body as a result of infection or
administration of suitable antigens.
Attenuated - a disease organism that has been weakened to reduce
its virulence.
Bacteria - microscopic organisms that are composed of a single cell.
Broiler - a type of chicken raised for meat.
Brooding - the process of providing supplemental heat to broiler chicks
from hatching up to the time they have grown sufficient feathers to
control their own body temperature.
Cannibalism - a nasty behavior manifested by pecking on others' toes,
tails, and feathers.
Carrier - a chicken that shows no evidence of a disease, yet harbors
the organism, and is capable of transmitting the disease to others.
Contract growing - a scheme whereby a grower enters into a contract
with an integrator to grow broilers up to a marketable age of about
36–42 days.
Disease - an impairment of the normal function of any body organ or
part of the bird.
Disinfectant - a substance that kills pathogenic organisms but not
necessarily spores and is usually applied to inanimate objects.
Immune - when a bird has some degree of resistance to a particular
disease.
Infection - the invasion of a pathogen into susceptible tissue resulting
in disease.
Infectious disease - a disease produced by the invasion of living
microscopic organisms.
Isolation - keeping poultry in areas separate from other poultry.
Metabolizable energy - the energy of the food eaten less the energy
of the excrement derived from it, both fecal and urinary.
Morbidity - a sickness in a bird or flock caused by the disease.
Mortality - death of birds in the flock.
x
Parasite - an organism that lives in or on another organism, from which
it derives its nourishment.
Pathogen - an organism capable of causing disease.
Serotype - a particular strain of a microorganism.
Stress - anything which affects the bird’s well-being and lowers its
resistance to disease.
Titer - a value placed on the potency of a biological agent, when applied
to the agglutination test, it is the weakest dilution at which clumping
of the antigen occurs.
Vaccine - a preparation of microorganism (killed, living attenuated, or
living totally virulent) which when placed in the body of the bird
produces or increases immunity to a certain disease.
Vector - an animal which carries and transmits parasites to poultry,
such as earthworm, which carries the chicken tapeworm eggs.
Virus - an organism, ultramicroscopic in size that multiplies only in
living cells. Some viruses are capable of causing disease.
xi
The Broiler Industry
Characterized by widely diverse production and marketing systems,

the Philippine broiler industry consists of a few but very large integrated
livestock enterprises on one end, and a very large number of smallhold
farmers keeping few head of poultry on the other end. In the middle are
the medium-scale producers who depend largely on the integrated
livestock enterprises for supply of breeding stocks and feedstuffs
(NAST, 2005).
Both the large commercial and small- and medium-scale operators
depend largely on imported stocks, feedstuffs, and other inputs. Recently,
however, a significant volume of the feed ingredients (particularly corn)
used by the industry is being sourced locally.
The implementation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT-WTO) in 1994 opened the country for the entry of cheaper
imported chicken products (i.e., leg quarters). Since then, the volume
of chicken meat importation has increased consistently. Although the
cost of freight, insurance, and tariffs imposed on the imports are high, the
landed costs of the imports are still considerably lower than the farmgate
price of local produce. This current trade scenario prompted many
independent commercial broiler farmers to stop operations. The entry
of cheaper chicken meat into the country also obliged large integrated
commercial broiler producers to scale down their volume of production.
Some commercial broiler integrators have engaged in the importation of
frozen broiler meat for distribution in local markets, in addition to their
locally produced chicken meat.
Despite the level of sophistication it has achieved, the local broiler
industry is still faced with problems that deter its further development.
Among the more recent problems encountered by the broiler industry
are unstable supply of broiler meat that leads to unpredictable prices of
the commodity, and the apparent reduction in chicken meat consumption
that is brought about by avian flu virus infection of chickens in some
Asian countries. These events caused the exceedingly high prices of
broiler meat and a build up in inventory starting the end of the first quarter
of 2004 (LDC, 2004).
PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 1

Despite the avian flu scare in early 2004 that brought down chicken
consumption (Fig. 1) and accordingly reduced production and prices, the
local broiler industry has successfully exported 1.5 million (M) kg of
broiler meat to Japan. Towards the end of 2004, the local broiler industry
has recovered sufficiently to post a positive growth in output of about 4%
more than 2003 production. Local broiler production increased from
452, 000.84 t in 2002 to 493, 000.72 t in 2004 (Fig. 2) with an annual
growth rate of 4.42%.
Fig. 1. Per capita consumption of broiler meat, 1999–

2003.
Fig. 2. Yearly broiler production from 2002 to 2004.
2 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

Although some broiler integrators are exporting increasing volumes
of broiler meat, a significant quantity of cut-up broiler meat is also being
imported into the country. The continuing importation of leg quarters at
dumped prices poses a major problem to local broiler production. The
unreasonably low-priced imported leg quarters are causing significant
price distortion of broiler meat in the country that is seriously hurting
local producers. In addition, the wide disparity between farmgate and
retail prices of broiler also causes problems, particularly to local
individual broiler producers.
In general, the poultry population of the Philippines consists primarily
of chickens and a significantly smaller population of other poultry
species. The chicken inventory, which is presented by type (Table 1),
shows that broiler population increased from about 28 M in 1995 to about
40 M in 2005 at an average annual growth rate of 3.63%. The broiler
population is distributed throughout the country; however, highest
concentration (31%) is observed in the Central Luzon region where
most commercial broiler farms are also located. High broiler concentration
is also found in Southern Tagalog, and in the Southern and Northern
Mindanao regions.
The country’s broiler population is kept in farms that are classified
either by size or by type of operation. Broiler farm classification
according to size, is as follows:
Large commercial farms - farms that produce 100,000 or more

broilers per harvest.
Medium commercial farms - farms that produce 21,000–99,000
Small commercial farms - farms that produce 1,000–20,000
Smallhold/backyard farms - farms that produce not more than
1,000 broilers per harvest.
In terms of type of operation, broiler farms are classified as follows:
Integrated grower farms - farms that breed, hatch, grow, and

market their own products at their own expense.
Contract grower farms - farms that grow chickens for the

integrator. Contract growing is a scheme whereby a grower enters into
a contract with an integrator to grow broilers up to a marketable age of

Table 1. Chicken inventory by type, 1995-2005 (‘000).
Native/
Year Broiler Layer Improved Total
1995 27,885 9,364 58,966 96,215
1996 39,312 10,796 65,675 115,783
1997 46,558 11,466 76,939 134,963
1998 46,365 13,170 78,965 138,500
1999 32,720 13,366 67,703 113,789
2000 29,024 14,913 71,250 115,187
2001 28,959 14,866 71,782 115,607
2002 33,150 16,775 75,805 125,730
2003 38,148 17,706 72,340 128,194
2004 38,373 19,551 72,688 130,612
2005* 40,380 21,677 73,943 136,000
* Preliminary estimates
Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2005.
about 36–42 days. The grower is assured of at least 5 batches (crops)

a year. In this case, the integrator provides the grower a minimum of
10,000 meat-type chicks, about 35,000 kg feeds, vaccines, diagnostic
laboratory services, and farm planning, particularly to a new applicant
at no cost. The grower in turn, provides housing, labor, land, feeding and
watering equipment, brooders, water, fuel, lighting, and litter materials
for the chickens up to harvestable age under the supervision of the
integrator’s extension service personnel. However, terms and conditions
stipulated in the contract may vary among broiler companies or integrators.
Contract-to-buy grower farms - farms that have tie-ups with

integrators or cooperatives, whereby the latter sell to growers a
minimum of 10,000 broiler-type chicks and/or feeds at an agreed price.
At harvest, the farm sells the broilers produced to integrators and/or
cooperative at a previously agreed price.
Independent commercial grower farms - farms that buy broiler

chicks at current market prices and mix their own feeds. They raise and
market their own birds by themselves.
Contract breeding farms - farms that produce hatching eggs for

companies that supply the Parent Stocks (PS) and feed and buy back the
hatching eggs at pre-arranged price.

Independent or Commercial breeder farms - farms that buy PS
and sell hatching eggs and/or day-old chicks to commercial growers.
The Broiler Breeding Operation
A breeder farm operation is a vital component of the local broiler

industry. The success of a broiler breeding operation is dependent on
the quality of genetic materials used and the flock’s production
performance. One important objective that a broiler breeder farm must
achieve and maintain is uniformity of the birds it produces in terms of
physical characteristics (e.g., plumage color, body conformation, and
relative proportions of body parts) and production performance (body
weights, growth rates, and feed conversion efficiency).
Flock uniformity may be achieved by grading the sizes of birds that
will be entered into the breeding flock. Size of females is best graded
at ages 23–28 days old, while sizes of males are best graded after 35
days of age.
The Supply Chain Structure
The supply chain of the Philippine broiler industry (Fig. 3) is largely

characterized by an integrated operation of companies that dominate the
output and has significant control of the local industry. These companies,
which are members of the Philippine Association of Broiler Integrators
(PABI), are composed of San Miguel Foods, Inc., Swift Foods, Inc.,
Universal Robina Corp., Vitarich Corporation, and Tyson Agro-Ventures,
Corp. These integrators grow day-old chicks (DOCs) in contract
grower farms to avoid labor and capital issues. They provide production
inputs such as feeds, vaccines, laboratory services, farm planning, and
technical services, in addition to DOCs.
Smaller and non-integrated companies focus on providing contract
services for breeding, hatchery, growing, and dressing. On the other
hand, some firms grow chickens independently by securing critical
inputs like DOCs and feeds from big corporations.
The viajeros, who are the traders in the supply chain, buy live broiler
chickens from integrators and independent commercial growers. The
viajeros then sell the live birds to dressing plant operators or have the
birds dressed in toll dressing plants before these are sold to wet markets.
Dressed chickens are sold primarily in wet markets (Fig. 4). Roughly
65–70% of locally produced dressed chickens are sold in wet markets.

The rest of the supply is sold to institutional buyers (e.g., restaurants and
fast food chain outlets, supermarkets, and other retail outlets).
IMPORT
Feedwheat
Soya/Soya
Meal
Fish Meal Corn
Others Rice bran
(bone meal, Coco oil
vitamin Copra meal
FEEDMILL
GP
Doc INDEPENDENT
Logistics BREEDER PURCHASED
COMMERCIAL
CONTRACT INTEGRATOR Logistics
Logistics CONTRACT VIAJERO
CONTRACT Logistics Logistics
MARKET LIVE
DOC Logistics
CONTRACT Logistics VIAJERO
Logistics Logistics
CONTRACT LIVE
Logistics
MARKET
Fig. 3. Broiler supply chain structure.

Fig. 4. Locally dressed chickens sold in wet
markets.

Starting a Broiler Project
Before engaging in a broiler production enterprise, it is worthwhile

to consider the following issues:
1. Personal qualifications and capabilities - A prospective grower

should have keen interest and sufficient technical know-how on
broiler production. As broiler farming is a highly competitive
business, a prospective grower should establish the farm in a
zoning–approved area. He should also have the financial support
to start an economic-sized operation. It is suggested that a beginner
start with a few thousand broiler chicks to get the feel of the
operation and gradually expand the volume until an economic-sized
operation is achieved. However, entrepreneurs with sufficient
capital may directly engage into large-scale broiler production with
the help of qualified poultry consultants.
2. A regular supply of quality broiler chicks from reliable DOC

suppliers - This is necessary to plan the schedules of loading,
rearing, and marketing of broilers.
3. Sustained supply of feeds and other farm inputs - The availability

of quality feeds, feed supplements, medicaments, vaccines, water,
electricity, and other farm inputs is an important factor to consider
before putting up a broiler project. The prospective grower should
be prepared to invest on improved facilities and equipment to ensure
high production efficiency.
4. Market assurance - Broilers should be marketed as soon as they

reach the marketable age (36–42 days old) and weight (1.6–2.0 kg
liveweight). Delayed marketing will reduce the profit or even result
to losses. As broilers become older, they consume more feed per
unit weight gain and have a lower market value than those marketed
on time. Furthermore, delay in marketing will disrupt the farm
production schedule.

5. Proximity to market and source of raw materials - Broiler
farms should be accessible for easy delivery of raw materials to the
farm and broilers for slaughter to the market.
6. Community environmental policies and regulations - The

farm should be located in a designated livestock production zone
and/or at a reasonable distance from other farms and from human
settlement area.

Selection of Stocks
Different broiler genetic stocks respond according to different

environments. Therefore, selection of stock needs careful consideration.
Currently, numerous commercial broiler strains are available in the
local market. In general, however, not one of these strains can be best
under Philippine conditions because performance record varies under
different sets of conditions. Some farmers frequently change the strains
of broiler they raise, in an attempt to find the particular strain that will
perform better in their particular condition.
The following are some parameters used in selecting a strain of
broiler to be raised:
1. Performance - The performance of broilers is determined by their

genetic make-up as well as the environmental conditions provided
to them. The primary consideration in the broiler business is the
consistent production of more meat at the least cost possible given
the available inputs.
2. Adaptability and availability of stocks – A broiler strain that is

adapted to local conditions performs efficiently. For beginners,
choose the strain that is popularly raised in the community as it more
or less indicates that the strain is satisfactorily performing under
existing farm conditions. The choice for better strains can be fine-
tuned as one gains experience.
3. Reliability of suppliers - Purchase day-old broiler chicks from a

reputable and dependable supplier or chick dealer. An example of
good quality day-old broiler chicks from a reliable supplier is
presented in Fig. 5.
The delivery of quality chicks during the cooler part of the day (e.g.,
early morning or evening) is crucial to achieving success in broiler
production.

Fig. 5. Good quality day-old broiler chicks produced by a reliable
supplier.
The following is a list of major sources of commercial broiler

day-old-chicks as of August 2005:
Strain Suppliers
1. Ross San Miguel Foods, Inc.

Tyson Agro-Ventures Inc.
2. Cobb Cobb Vantress Phils.
Phil-Malay
San Miguel Foods, Inc.
3. Hybro Swift Foods, Inc.
Tyson Agro-Ventures Corp.
4. Avian Swift Foods, Inc.
5. Hubbard Universal Robina Corp.
Mat Agro
6. Starbro Universal Robina Corp.

Housing and Facilities
Basic Design
There is no single best design that can be prescribed for broiler

housing because of the innumerable variations in local climatic conditions,
topography, costs, and availability of building materials and other factors
that are likely to influence the microclimatic conditions inside a poultry
house. However, the following basic requirements could serve as guide
in building a broiler house:
1. Provide the essential requirements for comfort, biosecurity, and

protection of the chickens against the elements of nature.
2. Provide convenience and ease of work for the caretakers.
3. Provide strength and durability to allow maximization of investments.
4. Use locally available and cheap construction materials without
sacrificing durability and comfort.
Materials and Structure
Local broiler raisers still use the conventional type of housing, which
is made of durable but relatively cheap materials. Coconut lumber is the
most commonly used material for the main frame, but good lumber,
when available and affordable, is ideal. Galvanized iron (GI) sheets,
asbestos, and aluminum are used as roofing materials. Among the
roofing materials mentioned, GI sheets are the most popular. This is
especially true in Luzon where the need for a heavy-duty material is vital
due to the possibility of the area being hit by a few strong typhoons within
a year. In the Visayas and Mindanao areas, where occurrences of
typhoons is less frequent, lighter roofing materials (e.g., nipa and cogon)
are commonly used because these materials are relatively cheaper and
provide cooler in-house environment for the birds.
Generally, housing for broiler chickens are classified into two types.
These are the slatted-floor type and the litter-floor type of housing.
Local broiler raisers commonly use slatted floor-type of housing because
of the better ventilation and the more convenient waste handling it offers

(Fig. 6). Bamboo, wood, or rattan slats are the most common flooring
materials used in local broiler houses. The space in between slats should
be 2.5–3.8 cm (1–1.5 in). It is important to have slats with at least 2.5
cm width. Previously, welded wire was commonly laid on top of the
bamboo or wood slats, however, because of its downgrading effect on
the carcass of broilers, its use has been reduced considerably. Today,
most broiler raisers use plastic nets or fishnets with 2.5 cm holes as over-
lays to slatted floors. The use of nets has reduced the incidence of
lameness and breast blisters on broilers. In slatted houses, the floor is
elevated to provide ample ventilation that reduces incidence of coccidiosis
and ammonia-induced respiratory diseases. The posts should be made
of concrete with at least 20.3 cm (8 in) diameter. For walls and dividers,
plastic net, fishnet, or bamboo is recommended.
In litter-floor type of housing, locally available litter materials such
as rice hull and rice straw are commonly used. This type of housing is
a good option if provided with tunnel ventilation, which is thought to
minimize the risk of coccidiosis. Tunnel ventilation allows a certain
degree of control of the in-house environment, thus, limiting stress
factors that would predispose the birds to disease.
Houses for broiler chickens are generally long but narrow in width
and constructed in east-west orientation to minimize exposure to direct
sunlight. Under Philippine conditions, the recommended width of broiler
chicken houses is between 7.3–9.0 m (24–30 ft). The space in between
houses should be at least 13.7 m (45 ft). Floor height in slatted-floor type
of housing should be at least 1.8 m (5.9 ft) to minimize ammonia build up.
Height from the floor to ceiling should be at least 2.4 m (8 ft) to allow
optimum ventilation. Concrete posts with a diameter of not less than
20.3 cm is commonly used in local slatted-floor type broiler houses.
The primary concern for broiler housing design in the Philippines is
to provide optimum ventilation and the lowest in-house temperature
possible. In addition to elevated flooring, cooling devices such as
sprinklers, foggers, and ventilating fans are commonly installed in
strategic areas inside broiler houses. Moreover, reflector paints are also
used to deflect heat from the roof.
Like in any other tropical country, summer heat in the Philippines,
which lasts for 4–6 months each year (usually June to September), is
accompanied by very high relative humidity. This climatic condition has
been observed to cause significant reduction in the survival rate and
overall growth performance of broiler chickens. To protect the birds
from the ill effects of high environmental temperature and humidity,

some commercial broiler farms, particularly the large ones, install cool
cell or tunnel ventilation to effectively control the temperature in broiler
houses. Although the effectiveness of tunnel ventilation in creating
comfortable microclimatic condition for birds in local farms still needs
further investigation, many farms have indicated reduction in stress-
related problems and general improvement in broiler production
performance. However, with the rising fuel oil and power costs, the
economic feasibility of using tunnel ventilation will surely be an important
issue to resolve.
Local broiler raisers commonly brood and grow broiler chickens in
the same house. This practice eliminates possible stress associated with
the transfer of chicks during the growing period. However, a recent
study shows that stress brought about by transferring chicks can be
effectively managed to avoid adverse effects on growth performance.
Keeping the birds in the same house from brooding to finish limits the
utilization of the housing facility. When brooding and growing of broiler
chicks is done in separate housing facilities, production can be increased
from 5 batches to 8 batches per year.
Fig. 6. A slatted-floor monitor type of housing for better ventilation

and waste handling.

Brooding
Brooding is the process of providing supplemental heat to keep the

brooder temperature at 31.1–33.3oC for 24 hours from hatching up to the
time that the chicks have grown sufficient feathers to control their own
body temperature. During the brooding period, optimum heat should be
provided to the chicks to prevent them from chilling, which may
predispose them to disease and eventually, death. In the Philippines, this
period takes about 2–3 weeks, depending on the season.
The first 24 hours of the chick’s life is the most important. Hence,
optimum brooder temperature together with a warm, dry, clean space,
and plenty of clean, fresh water must be provided to the chicks upon
delivery to the farm.
Elements of Successful Brooding
Good Quality Chicks
Quality chicks look active and have dry and fluffy feathers, bright
eyes, and well-healed navels (Fig. 7). The size of DOCs, as long as they
Fig. 7. An example of good quality chicks.

come from the same flock, has no bearing on their subsequent
performance. However, chicks of similar sizes are always preferred.
Proper Temperature
Maintain proper temperature inside the brooding house to make

chicks feel comfortable. The range of temperatures ideal at various
ages of broiler chicks is as follows:
Age of Chicks Temperature

(days) ( oC)
1–7 32.2–35.0
8–14 29.4–32.2
14–21 26.7–29.4
Beyond 21 days Provide heat only when necessary
A thermometer could be used to measure actual temperature inside

the brooder compartment. However, the behavior of the broiler chicks
in the brooder can be used as a practical guide in determining adequate
brooder temperature.
When chicks are uniformly distributed (Fig. 8) inside the brooder
and doing varied activities such as feeding, drinking, sleeping, and
playing, then brooding temperature could be presumed adequate.
Fig. 8. Evenly distributed chicks inside the brooder .

If the temperature inside the brooder is lower than what is required
by the chicks, they huddle to each other or stay together near the source of
heat and produce an unusual chirping sound. If the brooder temperature is
critically low, chicks tend to huddle and pile on top of one another causing
high incidence of mortality due to suffocation.
If the temperature, on the other hand, is higher than what the chicks
need, they tend to move away from the source of heat. Chicks spread
their wings, pant, and drink a lot of water. Extremely high temperature
inside the brooder may cause death to the chicks due to heat stroke.
The presence of draft inside the brooder is evident if the chicks form
a wedge-like pattern.
Adequate Space Allowances
Adequate floor, feeding, and drinking space allowances should be

provided to the broilers during the brooding period. Broilers should be
provided with wider floor space allocation by widening the area enclosed
by the brooder guard. Sheets of old, but clean newspapers or similar
materials may be used as floor matting during the first few days to serve
as temporary feeders and help conserve the heat inside the brooder
compartment. More units of regular feeder and drinker should be
provided, as the broiler chicks grow bigger.
During the brooding stage, the recommended floor space allowance
is 1 m2 (10.8 ft2) per 75–150 chicks under the heat source and at least
1 m2 per 25–50 chicks within the chick guard. For the feeding space,
each chick should be given 5–8 cm (2–3.1 in) linear space.
Depending on the weather, growing broiler chickens should be
provided with 0.07–0.11 m2 (0.8–1.2 ft2) of floor space per bird. Linear
space allowances for feeders and waterers should be 10.16 cm (4 in)
and 2.03 cm (0.8 in) per bird, respectively.
In large flocks, automatic watering system is usually installed. In a
float-controlled drinking trough, 2 cm (0.8 in) linear space per bird is
considered sufficient. One hanging fountain would be enough for 80–
100 birds, while a smaller cup can accommodate 50 birds, and one nipple
would be adequate for 10–12 birds.
Proper Ventilation
A good air movement without draft is necessary inside the brooder

house. The chicks need a fresh supply of oxygen, while carbon dioxide,

ammonia, and excess moisture that have accumulated inside the brooder
compartment have to be removed. The effect of draft can be avoided
by providing burlap curtains along the walls of the brooder house
(Fig. 9). The curtain can be made of empty feedbags, jute cloth, or
similar materials.
Fig. 9. Burlap curtain used on the walls of brooder house to keep the
chicks from draft.
Adequate Lighting Facilities
Adequate lighting facilities have to be provided within the brooder

compartment. Proper lighting in brooder pens encourages the chicks to
keep close to the sources of heat and help them locate the feed and
water. If the source of heat is an incandescent bulb, then lighting of the
brooder pen is accomplished at the same time. However, if other
sources of heat are used, light from a 5- to 10-watt bulb would be needed
to enable the broiler chicks to locate the feed and water. If natural light
is sufficient during daytime, artificial light may only be provided at night.
Proper Sanitation
Hygiene and sanitation is one of the critical factors that determine

successful brooding of broiler chicks. Brooding pens need to be kept
clean and dry at all times to minimize if not prevent contamination and
growth of parasites and other disease-causing organisms.

Protection from Predators
The brooder must be constructed to provide sufficient protection

from rats, dogs, cats, snakes, and other animals that could unduly disturb
or kill young chicks. Enclose the brooder house with materials that are
sturdy enough to prevent the entry of these predators.
Sources of Heat for Brooding
Any cheap source of heat that could adequately provide the required
brooding temperature may be used. While the mother hen’s body
provides the best brooding temperature, this is not practical for commercial
broiler production. Electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or fuels
such as charcoal and rice hulls maybe used depending on their costs,
availability, and convenience.
Electricity
Electricity is a popular source of heat, particularly for backyard

operations. Incandescent bulb, infrared lamp, and hover-type heaters
with resistant coils are examples of electric heat sources. In some
cases, thermostats are provided to automatically regulate the temperature
inside the brooder compartment.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG-fueled heaters are popularly used in large-scale poultry farms.

These are found to effectively and efficiently provide heat for larger
number of chicks at a relatively lower cost. This type of heat source is
commonly used in areas where electricity is either not available or
expensive. A 50-kg LPG cylinder is adequate to provide sufficient heat
for 1,000 broiler chicks for 18 days.
Brooding Management
Preparation of the Brooder House
The brooding house must be ready and properly cleaned, repaired,

and disinfected prior to the arrival of broiler chicks. The heater should
be turned on 4 hours before the arrival of the chicks. Heating units with

hover must be adjusted such that the edge of the hover is 15 cm above
the back of newly arrived chicks. As the broiler chicks grow bigger, the
height of the heater must be adjusted. For chicks older than 4 days, the
hover may be set at 15–30 cm above the back of the broilers provided
optimum brooding temperature is maintained.
Brooder guards are used to confine the broiler chicks near the
source of heat. These should be circular to eliminate corners that can
possibly trap the chicks and make them liable to trampling, particularly
when they are agitated or scared of predators or other unusual figures
in the brooding area. Aluminum sheets, lawanits, plywoods, hard
cardboards, or similar materials could be used as brooder guards. The
area enclosed by the brooder guard can be expanded as deemed
necessary until it is removed at the end of the brooding period.
Some poultry farms, particularly the smaller ones, use cages with
incandescent bulb as source of heat in brooding broiler chicks. Some
farms install ‘false ceiling’ (Fig. 10), which is made of burlap curtain to
better control the temperature inside the brooder house.
Fig. 10. Brooder house with burlap curtain used as “false ceiling”
to control temperature.
Handling of Broiler Chicks
Handling of newly arrived broiler chicks is one of the critical

factors that influence survival rate and growth performance during the
brooding period. The following are some suggested steps in handling
broiler chicks.

1. Place the boxes containing the broiler chicks on the floor of the
brooder. Spread out the boxes to allow adequate air supply and keep
the chicks from suffocation.
2. Open the chick boxes and separate the weak chicks from the active
ones. Remove and properly dispose dead chicks found in the boxes.
Immediately release the chicks into the brooder compartment.
Dispose empty boxes properly.
3. Check the condition of the newly arrived chicks more frequently
during the first 48 hours.
4. Provide the broiler chicks with 5% sugar solution for drinking within
3 hours of arrival. Thereafter, give them fresh feeds and water.
Vitamin-mineral supplements with antibiotics may be added to the
drinking water during the first 3–5 days to enhance the chicks’ vigor.
5. Regulate the brooder temperature, as the broiler chicks grow
bigger. Brooder temperature can be reduced by 3oC/week until the
chicks are 3 weeks old. During warm months, the brooder heater
may be provided intermittently during daytime, but it should be
provided continuously at night.
6. Provide additional units of larger feeders and waterers as the
broilers grow. Waterers should be set about 1 m away from the
nearest feeder. Choose proper feeder design and follow proper
feeding management to minimize feed wastage.
7. Vaccinate the broilers against common poultry diseases (e.g., New
Castle Disease [NCD], Infectious Bronchitis [IB], Infectious Bursal
Disease [IBD]).
8. Cull and properly dispose all weak, deformed, and sickly chicks.
Immediately burn or bury dead birds.
9. Consult a veterinarian if mortality and morbidity of the flock goes
higher than the acceptable level.

Other Management Practices
Prevention and Control of Cannibalism
Cannibalism is a nasty behavior that may develop in a flock. It is

manifested by pecking on others’ toes, tails, and feathers. In broilers, the
outbreak of cannibalism could result in stress that could affect their
production efficiency and downgrading of their carcass when dressed.
Under extreme conditions, cannibalism could result in higher mortality
and morbidity.
The possible causes of the outbreak of cannibalism in broiler
chickens are:
a. Overcrowding
b. Poor ventilation
c. Inadequate feeders and drinkers
d. Imbalance or poor diet
Prevention of Cannibalism
The following are commonly recommended practices to prevent

cannibalism:
a. Provide adequate floor space.

b. Provide proper ventilation.
c. Provide sufficient feeding and drinking spaces.
d. Give good quality feeds and balanced diet.
Control of Cannibalism
a. Isolate immediately injured broilers.

b. Treat wounds of injured broilers with pine tar or anti-peck
solution as soon as possible.
c. If cannibalism persists, beak trimming is recommended.

Proper Catching and Hauling of Broilers
As soon as the broiler chickens have achieved the desired age and
weight, they should be marketed. The following are some useful tips in
catching and hauling of broilers.
1. Catch the broilers at night. Broilers are less active during the night.
2. Remove feeders and waterers from the pens before catching the
birds.
3. Divide the broiler flock into small groups by using portable panels or
frames.
4. Hold the broilers on the body or on both legs. Place them inside the
crate with care. Avoid rough handling of broilers. The skin of
broilers, particularly on the breast portion, is easily bruised.
5. Do not overcrowd broilers inside the crate.
6. Handle filled crates with care.
Management During Stress
Stress is a state whereby the normal physiological condition of an

organism is adversely affected. Stress comes in many forms and affects
the performance of broilers. Sudden change in weather, fear due to the
presence of predators, frequent change in diet, frequent handling,
vaccination and so on, can create conditions of stress. However,
through proper housing and management stress can be minimized.
Housing. A long and narrow house will allow better ventilation than
a square house; a width of 10–12 m should be considered maximum. It
is important that broiler houses should be maintained in good condition.
Water. If nipple drinkers are used, adjust the pressure regulators to

supply optimum volume of water to the birds. Hot drinking water causes
adverse effects on broiler performance. To prevent heating of the
drinking water, tanks should be insulated and/or located in the shade.
Also, water pipes and waterers should be kept away from direct
sunlight. Broilers perform better if provided with cold drinking water.
Feed Management and Nutrition during Warm Weather.

During warm weather condition, pellets and crumbles are recommended
to improve feed consumption and minimize dusts. If sudden high

temperatures are anticipated, feed may be restricted. Fats as energy
source are also useful because it produces lower metabolic heat than
carbohydrates. Full-fat soya is an excellent ingredient as it contains 18%
high-quality fat. A good quality and digestible phosphate source is also
important during hot weather.
Mold inhibitors and antioxidants based on ethoxyquin should be
added in fat sources, high fat ingredients, and vitamin premixes to
prevent growth of mycotoxin-producing organisms and oxidation of fats.
Stabilized forms of vitamin C have been found useful under certain
situations. At 200–600 mg/kg, growth can be improved, as well as feed
efficiency and livability, particularly of heat-stressed birds. Vitamin E
at levels higher than 80 ppm has also been observed to be beneficial,
particularly during stressful conditions.
During summer months, extra calcium at a rate of 1 g/bird should be
provided in the form of oyster shell grit or limestone. Supplementing the
diet with 0.5% sodium bicarbonate or 0.3–1% ammonium chloride or
sodium zeolite minimizes alkalosis related to heat stress.
Other Causes of Stress. Some of the most often ignored causes

of stress in broiler chickens include slamming of doors, honking of horns,
and children or dogs running around. These forms of unnecessary stress
must be avoided. Other causes of stress include the presence of
parasites like coccidia, worms, lice, and mites. A regular program to
eliminate these pests is therefore necessary.

Feeding Broilers
Proper nutrition plays a vital role in broiler performance. The

genetic potential of broiler chickens can be expressed only if proper
nutrition and management are provided to them.
Feed Types and Forms
As practiced, broilers are fed ad libitum from start to market. They

should be encouraged to eat as much as possible. Recent observations
indicate that high feed consumption in broiler chickens is positively
correlated with growth rate and feed conversion efficiency.
The three types of feeds commonly offered to broiler chickens are
the following:
a. Prestarter or chick booster - given to chicks from day-

old to 2 weeks.
b. Broiler starter - given to chicks from 2 weeks old to 4
weeks old.
c. Broiler finisher - given to chicks from 4 weeks old until
desired market weight and age are achieved.
The recommended nutrient requirements and supplementary vitamin

and mineral for broiler chickens are presented in Tables 2 and 3,
respectively. Three nutrient densities (low, medium, and high) are
presented for each type of feed. The ratio of other nutrients (protein,
amino acids, minerals, and vitamins) to the different energy levels is
made constant in each feed type. This provides flexibilities in formulating
broiler diets, depending on the desired level of feed efficiency, availability
and cost of feedstuffs, without sacrificing the efficiency of nutrient
utilization. When efficient feed is desired, use the high-nutrient density
formulation. Chicks will eat less of this feed per unit gain in body weight
compared with those chicks, which are fed low- or medium-nutrient
density feeds. The low- or medium-nutrient density requirements are
adopted when by-products such as rice bran are to be used in the ration,
which results in increased feed consumption per kilogram body weight

Table 2. Nutrient recommendations for broiler-type chicken.
Booster Starter Finisher
(0–2 Weeks) (2–4 Weeks) (4–6 Weeks)
Nutrient Unit Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
26 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS
ME; Protein Ration 130 130 130 140 140 140 150 150 150
Energy, ME Kcal/kg 2,800 2,900 3,000 2,700 2,800 2,900 2,700 2,800 2,900
FOR
Crude Protein % 21.50 22.30 23.00 19.30 20.00 20.70 18.00 18.70 19.30
Calcium % 0.84 0.87 0.90 0.81 0.84 0.87 0.76 0.78 0.81
Phosphorus, Available % 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.41 0.42 0.44 0.38 0.39 0.41
Salt (NaCl) % 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Amino Acid
BROILER PRODUCTION
Lysine % 1.12 1.16 1.20 0.97 1.01 1.04 0.86 0.90 0.93
Methionine % 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.38 0.39 0.41 0.32 0.33 0.35
Met + Cys % 0.84 0.87 0.90 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.59 0.62 0.64
Threonine % 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.62 0.64 0.67 0.57 0.59 0.61
Tryptophan % 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.17
Source: Feed Reference Standards, Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists (PhilSAN), 2003.
Table 3. Recommended vitamin and mineral supplementation
for broilers.
Type of Feed/Age (weeks)
Vitamin/Mineral Unit/kg Booster Starter Finisher
Supplement Feed 0–2 2–4 4–Market
Vitamins:
Vitamin A IU 10,000 10,000 8,000
Vitamin D3 IU 2,500 2,500 2,500
Vitamin E mg 30.0 30.0 25.0
Vitamin K3 mg 3.0 3.0 2.5
Vitamin B1 mg 2.0 2.0 1.0
Vitamin B12 mcg 12.0 12.0 12.0
Biotin mcg 200.0 200.0 100.0
Folic Acid mg 1.0 1.0 0.5
Niacin mg 30.0 30.0 30.0
Pantothenic Acid mg 12.0 12.0 10.0
Choline mg 500.0 500.0 300.0
Trace Minerals:
Copper mg 8.0 8.0 8.0
Iron mg 80.0 80.0 80.0
Iodine mg 0.8 0.8 0.8
Manganese mg 80.0 80.0 80.0
Selenium mg 0.1 0.1 0.1
Zinc mg 40.0 40.0 40.0
Source: Feed Reference Standards, Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists (PhilSAN), 2003.
gain of broilers. Table 4 shows the estimated feed consumption and

weight gains of broilers up to market age. Tables 5, 6, and 7 present
sample formulations for low-, medium-, and high-nutrient density broiler
rations, respectively.
The three forms of broiler feeds are:
Mash - a mixture of ground and powdered form of feedstuffs

Pellets - compressed mash feed. Feeds are compressed through
pelleting machine (Fig. 11). Pellets vary in size.
Crumbles - coarsely ground pellets
Mash feed is recommended for use only during the first 2 weeks as

Fig. 11. Pelleting machine.
Table 4. The estimated feed consumption and average daily

weight gain of broilers from day-old up to market age.
Ave. Feed Ave. Daily
Age Consumption Weight Gain
(days) (g/days) (g) Feed Type
1–10 24.60 24.50 BB
11–24 67.10 45.00 BST
25–30 115.00 65.00 BFN-1
31–42 136.25 64.50 BFN-2
an alternative to crumbles. However, under local condition, mash feed

is commonly used for the entire growing period. Mash feed is easier to
prepare and cheaper than crumbles or pellets. However, when pellets
and crumbles are available they are preferred over mash. Broilers may
be fed with crumble during the entire growing period. When chicks are
2–3 weeks of age, broilers prefer starter pellets to mash or crumbles. At
about 4 weeks of age, broiler finisher pellets, which are larger in particle
size, is commonly recommended. Based on total feed consumption,
prestarter feed accounts for 15%, while starter and finisher feeds
account for 35% and 50%, respectively.

Table 5. Sample formulation of chick booster mash*.
Chick Booster Mash
Ingredient Low Medium High
Corn, yellow 513.00 463.00 415.00
Soybean HP 341.00 367.00 390.00
Rice bran D1 50.00 50.00 50.00
Copra meal 50.00 50.00 50.00
Limestone, fine 11.50 11.50 12.00
Monodicalcium phosphate 14.50 14.60 15.30
Crude coconut oil 9.00 32.80 56.40
Salt 3.00 3.00 3.00
DL - methionine 1.30 1.40 1.60
Vitamin premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Choline, 50% 1.20 1.20 1.20
Toxin binder 1.00 1.00 1.00
Enzyme 0.50 0.50 0.50
Mold inhibitor 0.50 0.50 0.50
Coccidiostat 1.00 1.00 1.00
Antioxidant 0.50 0.50 0.50
Total 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
Calculated nutrient content
Crude protein, % 21.50 22.30 23.00
M.E., kcal/kg 2800 2900 3000
Crude fat, % 4.34 6.57 8.77
Crude fiber, % 3.66 3.63 3.60
Calcium, % 0.84 0.87 0.90
Available phosphorus, % 0.45 0.46 0.48
Lysine, % 1.19 1.25 1.30
Methionine, % 0.49 0.50 0.53
Met + Cys, % 0.84 0.87 0.90
Tryptophan, % 0.26 0.27 0.28
Threonine, % 0.81 0.84 0.87
* Formulated based on the nutrient recommended for broilers.

Table 6. Sample formulation of broiler starter diets*.
Broiler Starter Mash
Corn, yellow 519.00 481.00 432.00
Soybean HP 266.50 288.00 312.00
Rice bran D1 100.00 100.00 100.00
Copra meal 80.00 80.00 80.00
Limestone, fine 12.00 12.20 12.50
Crude coconut oil - 16.00 39.50
Salt 3.00 3.00 3.00
DL - methionine 0.50 0.50 0.70
Choline, 50% 0.80 0.80 0.80
Enzyme 0.50 0.50 0.50
Coccidiostat 1.00 1.00 1.00
Total 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
Crude protein, % 19.30 20.00 20.70
M.E., kcal/kg 2737 2800 2900
Crude fat, % 4.32 5.80 8.00
Crude fiber, % 3.97 3.95 3.91
Calcium, % 0.81 0.84 0.87
Lysine, % 1.01 1.07 1.12
Methionine, % 0.38 0.39 0.41
Met + Cys, % 0.71 0.72 0.75
Tryptophan, % 0.23 0.24 0.25
Threonine, % 0.72 0.75 0.78

Table 7. Sample formulation of broiler finisher mash*.
Broiler Finisher Mash
Corn, yellow 539.00 506.00 461.00
Soybean HP 230.00 251.00 271.50
Rice bran D1 120.00 120.00 120.00
Copra meal 80.00 80.00 80.00
Limestone, fine 11.20 11.40 11.70
Crude coconut oil - 11.50 34.80
Salt 3.00 3.00 3.00
DL - methionine - 0.10 0.20
Choline, 50% 0.80 0.80 0.80
Enzyme 0.50 0.50 0.50
Total 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
Crude protein, % 18.00 18.70 19.30
M.E., kcal/kg 2759 2800 2900
Crude fat, % 4.59 5.65 7.82
Crude fiber, % 3.98 3.98 3.94
Calcium, % 0.76 0.78 0.81
Lysine, % 0.92 0.97 1.02
Methionine, % 0.32 0.33 0.35
Met + Cys, % 0.63 0.65 0.67
Tryptophan, % 0.21 0.22 0.23
Threonine, % 0.67 0.70 0.72

Pelleting of broiler feeds is expensive. If costs are to be regained,
the advantages of pelleting must outweigh the disadvantages.
Advantages of Pelleting
The following are some advantages of pelleting broiler feeds:
a. Less feed loss due to wind

b. Reduces feed dustiness
c. Keeps all ingredients bound in pellet form during handling
d. Destroys bacteria in feeds (e.g., salmonella)
e. Increases feed density, allowing chicken to consume more
low energy (high-fiber) feeds
f. Markedly increases consumption of certain feed ingredients
that are otherwise unacceptable to chickens when they are
not pelleted
g. Less feed wastage from feeders
Disadvantages of Pelleting
The following are some of the major disadvantages of pelleting:
a. Added cost of pelleting

b. Wasting of fine particles when pellets break into crumble
c. Increased water consumption of broiler chicken that often
results to wet droppings
d. Increased incidence and severity of cannibalism
Considering the aforementioned advantages and disadvantages of

pelleted feeds, the choice of the form of feed to adopt largely depends
on economic considerations. The following are the observed responses
of broilers to pelleting or crumbling broiler feeds.
a. Pelleting of high-fiber feeds shows more improvement in

feed consumption than pelleting low-fiber feed.
b. Pelleting reduces the feeding time of chickens.
c. Pelleting per se does not increase the growth rate of
broilers. Pelleting increases feed consumption, which is
often translated into fast growth rate.
d. From day-old to 2 weeks, chicks eat more feeds in mash

form than crumbles or very small pellets, but thereafter,
pellet feeds are preferred.
e. When mixture of three-fourth pellets and one-fourth mash
is given, some broilers show preference for mash and some
for pellets. This practice results in greater average body
weight than when pellets alone are fed.
f. If pellets are too large, acceptance will be reduced. Broilers
under 4 weeks of age should be given pelleted feed with a
diameter of 2.3 mm, while broilers over 4 weeks of age
should be given pellets of 4.7 mm.
Nutritional Deficiency
Feed rations, which are balanced and contain adequate nutrients,

are important in disease prevention. Deficiencies in any of the nutrients
can cause disease or make broilers more susceptible to infectious and
non-infectious disease. Deficiency problems related to protein, vitamin
A, vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus, among others, are often seen in
small flocks. Table 8 presents the symptoms of nutritional deficiencies
in broilers.
Feeding Systems
Unless otherwise recommended by the supplier, feed must be

available to the chickens at all times. Birds must be provided with
artificial light to enable them to eat at night. When open trough feeders
are used, refill the troughs as frequently as possible. Fresh feed must
be mixed with the remaining feed in the trough during feeding time.
In most commercial broiler farms, tube feeders are commonly used
to ensure continuous supply of feeds to the chickens and make feeding
convenient to the caretaker. Occasionally check the tube feeders to
ensure the flow of feed from the tube to the pan. Hang the tube feeder
at a height where the brim of the pan is leveled with the back of the
chickens. This will make the chickens eat more conveniently and at the
same time reduce feed wastage.
To avoid overcrowding during feeding, allow 2.54 cm (1 in) of
feeder space for each chick for the first 2 weeks (Fig. 12), 5.08 cm (2
in) up to 4 weeks, and 10.16 cm (4 in) up to slaughter age (6 weeks). For
every 100 chicks, use three tube feeders.

Table 8. Nutritional deficiency for broilers.
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
Energy Increased feed intake; as the energy content of the
chicks drop below the critical level (600/kg) growth is
reduced and the amount of deposited fat in the carcass
is decreased; when the energy level is decreased below
maintenance requirement, the animal loses weight (using
up its own body fat and protein tissues for energy) until
this process becomes severe enough to affect a vital
function, causing the animal to die.
Protein/Essential acid Decreased feed intake, decreased growth in proportion

to degree of deficiency, decreased deposition of fat.
Essential fatty acid Reduced growth and condition progresses as build

(Linoleic acid) up of fat occurs in the liver; susceptibility to
respiratory diseases
Vitamins
Vitamin A Anorexia, growth retardation, drowsiness,
incoordination, emaciation, and ruffled feathers
Vitamin D Retarded growth, leg weakness, beak and claws

become soft and pliable, squatting on their hocks.
Poor calcification of tibia and femur.
Vitamin E Encephalomalacia, exudative diathesis, and muscular

dystrophy
Vitamin K Subcutaneous and internal hemorrhages, delayed

blood clotting
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Anorexia, polyneuritis, and paralysis
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Slow growth, curled toe paralysis; walk with hocks
with the aid of their wings
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Retarded growth, dermatitis, convulsion, and anemia
Vitamin B12
(Cyanocobalamin) Reduced weight gain and feed intake along with poor
feathering and nervous disorder
Niacin (Nicotinic acid) Loss of appetite, retarded growth, general weakness

and diarrhea, enlargement of the tibiotarsal joint, bowing
of the legs, poor feathering, and dermatitis on the head
and feet

Table 8. Nutritional deficiency for broilers (continued).
Panthothenic acid Reduced growth and feed consumption, poor feathering,
encrustations around beak and eyes, dermatitis of the
feet
Biotin Crusty dermatitis of foot pod, eyes, and mouth; perosis,

poor feathering
Folacin (Folic acid) Poor feathering, slow growth, perosis, macrocytic

anemia, and reduced white blood cell
Choline Poor growth, perosis
Minerals
Calcium Growth retardation and reduced feed intake, rickets,
reduced activity and sensitivity, abnormal posture and
gait, increased urine value
Phosphorus Rickets and poor growth
Sodium Growth retardation, soft bones, corneal keratinization,

impaired feed utilization, and decrease in plasma volume
Potassium Muscle weakness characterized by weak extremities,

poor intestinal tone with intestinal distention, cardiac
and respiratory muscle weakness
Chlorine Extremely poor growth rate, high mortality,

hemoconcentration, dehydration and reduced blood
chloride level, nervous reaction reduced by sudden
noise or fright
Magnesium Retarded growth, lethargic and often pant and gasp,

exhibit convulsions and go on to comatose state when
disturbed
Manganese Perosis characterized by enlargement and malformation

of the tibio-metatarsal joint, twisting and bending of the
distal end of the tibia and proximal end of the torso-
metatarsus, thickening and shortening of the
gastrocnemius or Achilles tendon from its condyles
Zinc Retarded growth, shortening and thickening of leg

bones, enlargement of the hock joints, scaling of the
skin, very poor feathering, reduced feed utilization,
loss of appetite, and in severe cases, mortality

Table 8. Nutritional deficiency for broilers (continued).
Iron Severe anemia with reduction in packed cell volume,
impaired feather pigmentation
Copper Anemia, increased fragility of bone, thickened epiphyseal

cartilage, reduced vascular penetration of the thick
cartilage
Selenium Exudative diathesis, muscular dystrophy
Iodine Enlarged thyroid
Fig. 12. Two-week old broiler chicks raised in slatted-floor

housing with tube feeders placed alternately with
automatic waterers.
Management Practices to Avoid Feed Losses in Feeders
The following are some tips to minimize feed wastage:
1. Avoid filling beyond one-third of the capacity of the trough feeders.

This will require frequent feeding, but less feed will be wasted
through beaking out. Also, the feed will remain fresh and more
palatable.
2. Use the right size of feeder for a particular age of chickens. Each
feeder should have a guard or lid to avoid the feed from being beaked
out.

3. Keep the brim of feeders level with the back of the chickens to
reduce wastage from beaking out feeds and make eating easier for
the chickens.
4. Give pelleted or crumbled feed instead of mash feed if the cost is
reasonable. These kinds of feed are less likely to be blown out from
feeders. These forms of feeds are preferred by broilers. These
stimulate them to eat more feeds than the feed in mash form.
Feed Additives
Feeds for broilers are formulated to contain optimum nutrient

concentration to enhance growth and better efficiency of feed utilization
at reasonable cost. To ensure that the dietary nutrients are ingested,
digested, protected from destruction, absorbed, and transported to the
cells of the body, certain feed additives are included in the ration.
The following are commonly used feed additives in broiler rations:
Antifungal agents. These are used to prevent fungal (mold)

growth in stored ingredients and mixed feeds. Molds reduce palatability
and may produce mycotoxins. The use of mold inhibitor is strongly
recommended when moisture content of grains exceeds 13–14%,
relative humidity increases to more than 80–85%, temperature rises
above 12.8oC, or the grain is damaged, broken, or insect-infested.
Antioxidants. These are preservatives that prevent the oxidation

(rancidity) of fats. Unsaturated fatty acids may react with oxygen to
produce undesirable products with offensive odors and toxic properties
and destroy nutrients (i.e., fat-soluble vitamins).
Anticoccidial agents. These are substances used to prevent the

incidence of coccidiosis in poultry.
Antitoxins. These are substances that bind mycotoxins present in feeds.

Disease Prevention and Control
Broiler production has developed into a large-scale industry during

the past two decades. However, its further development is deterred by
some constraints. One major problem is the prevalence of infectious
diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma, and/or parasites.
Losses from feed containing mycotoxins and from non-infectious
diseases such as sudden death syndrome (SDS), ascites, and leg
disorders, which adversely affect fast-growing chickens are among the
recent problems confronting the broiler industry.
Over the years, biosecurity measures based on disease infection
and transmission mechanisms have been developed to protect the health
status of the flock. With the use of effective vaccines, anti-microbial
agents, extensive health management systems, and continuous research,
it is hoped that losses from poultry diseases will eventually be controlled
and minimized.
Vaccination
Vaccination is an effective and economical means of preventing

infectious poultry diseases. Vaccines are biological products prepared
from the organisms causing the disease. Live vaccines are available
against most viral diseases. However, availability of bacterins against
bacterial infections is still limited. Live vaccines consist of living
attenuated organisms capable of replicating in the chicken to induce
immune response or antibody production. There is always a time
interval between the administration of a vaccine and the appearance of
protective antibodies. This usually takes 10–14 days after initial
vaccination with a live vaccine. Vaccinated chickens, therefore, never
become immunized immediately upon vaccination, but only after an
interval of time.
The presence of high levels of egg-transferred antibodies (maternal
antibodies) in chicks may seriously interfere with vaccine responses. If
present, maternal bodies may destroy or neutralize the viruses in
vaccines that may result in a significantly shortened period of protection
or failure of the chicken to produce antibodies. Chicks are not

immunologically competent or capable of fully responding to vaccines
until they are 6 weeks of age. It is for these reasons that there is often
the need to revaccinate chicks when they are immunized at day-old or
during the first week of life.
Post-vaccination reaction such as decreased feed consumption and
development of mild respiratory symptoms may be observed after
vaccination with live vaccines for respiratory diseases (e.g. NCD, IB).
Often, this problem is associated with poor environmental conditions,
improper management, and rough handling of chickens during vaccination.
In this case, post-vaccination reaction may cause concurrent infection
such as chronic respiratory disease (CRD) to become more severe. To
avoid severe vaccination reactions, only healthy chickens should be
vaccinated following proper vaccination procedures.
A vaccination program should be developed based on disease
history of the area where the poultry farm is located. An example of a
typical vaccination program for broilers is shown in Table 9.
Table 9. Vaccination schedule for broiler chicks.

Age of Route of
Chicken Type of Vaccination Administration Remarks
7–10 days NCD (B1 strain) + Intraocular Chicks from

IB (live vaccine) (eye drop) unvaccinated
Intranasal parents may be
(nose drop) vaccinated
as early as 1–3
days of age
7–15 days IBD, mild or Via drinking If chicks are

intermediate strain water vaccinated before
(live vaccine) 7 days old,
re-vaccination at 21
days of age may be
indicated for
optimum protection.
21–28 days NCD (La Sota strain) Via drinking

+ IB (live vaccine) water

Vaccination Failure
Occasionally, vaccines may fail to immunize or adequately protect

chickens from field pathogens due to the following reasons:
1. Administration of vaccines that do not contain the appropriate strain

or serotypes of the pathogen causing the disease
2. Decreased vaccine potency due to improper storage and/or handling,
or use of expired vaccines
3. Improper method of administering the vaccine or giving of inadequate
dosage
4. Presence of high levels of maternal antibody that interferes with the
immunization process, particularly in very young chicks
5. Stress, incomplete development of immuno-competence, poor
nutrition, mycotoxin, presence of concurrent immunosuppressive
infections (e.g., IBD, CRD, coccidiosis) that tend to cause less
effective or incomplete immune responsiveness to vaccines
Vaccination Tips
1. Purchase recommended strain/type of vaccines from reliable sources.

2. Keep vaccines cool at all times. They are best stored in the
refrigerator at 4oC where they are kept cold, but not subjected to
freezing and thawing.
3. Put vaccines in an icebox during transport.
4. Take note of the expiry date, which is stamped on each packet of
vaccine. Vaccines lose potency slowly even when stored under
ideal conditions. Vaccines should be purchased as required, stored
properly, and used within the expiry period.
5. Follow strictly vaccination schedule and proper use of vaccines as
indicated by the manufacturer.
6. Administer the correct dose. Dosages should not be decreased nor
increased unnecessarily.
7. Vaccinate healthy chickens only. Do not vaccinate the flock when
there is an outbreak of disease in the farm (e.g., infectious coryza,
coccidiosis, CRD, etc).
8. Administer live vaccines within 1 hour after reconstitution. Keep
vaccines cool during vaccination time.
9. Avoid unnecessary stress during vaccination. Anti-stress supplement
may be given via the drinking water at least 2 days before and 3 days

after vaccination that requires individual handling of chickens (e.g,
intraocular or intranasal route of administration).
10. Destroy unused reconstituted live vaccines. Burn or bury empty
vials/bottles and leftover live reconstituted vaccines.
11. Check or monitor the immune response to NCD or IBD live
vaccines by using the hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) test of
ELISA, 10–14 days after each NCD or IBD vaccination. These
tests are conducted in most diagnostic laboratories. Revaccinate
flock if the protection or antibody titer is low.
Medication
Most viral diseases of poultry can be prevented by vaccination and

management procedures. However, there are instances where the use
of appropriate chemotherapeutic agents is necessary for the prevention
or treatment of some bacterial or parasitic diseases for which no vaccine
is available.
In poultry, mass medication through the feed or drinking water has
been a labor-saving practice. Most chemotherapeutic agents are
incorporated in the feed. When chickens are sick, however, medication
via the drinking water is preferred over feed medication because sick
chickens may not have the appetite to eat but will continue to drink.
The amount of chemotherapeutic agent added to the feed or
drinking water is a concentration usually expressed as grams per ton or
parts per million (ppm). This always refers to the active drug ingredient.
The average dose rate can be calculated from the average daily intake,
the concentration of the chemotherapeutic agent, and the average body
weight of the chickens in the flock.
The commonly used therapeutic agents, if administered correctly,
are generally free of toxic effects; however, prolonged use of anti-
microbial agents at low levels can lead to the development of resistance
by microorganisms to those agents. In general, about 5 days of
medication is required for the successful treatment of a bacterial
disease. Sometimes, however, there may be a need to resume treatment
after 2–5 days to prevent the disease from resuming its course upon
withdrawal of the drug. Requirements for successful anti-microbial
therapy include clinical diagnosis, isolation and identification of the
causative pathogen, drug sensitivity testing to provide the basis for
selecting the anti-microbial drug, correct dosage and route of
administration.

The continued use of chemotherapeutic agents such as antibiotics
in animal feeds also requires adequate attention since drug residues in
animal tissues can be a risk to human health if the animal is slaughtered
before the recommended withdrawal period. It is therefore, strongly
recommended that all medications in the feed or drinking water be
withdrawn at least 5 days prior to slaughter. The following are common
medications given to broiler chickens.
1. Anti-stress preparations (e.g., antibiotic-vitamin-electrolyte

supplements) may be given via the drinking water during the first 3–
5 days of age, and 2 days before and 3 days after each vaccination
with live virus vaccine that requires individual handling of the
chickens for its administration.
2. Coccidiostat preparations should be given continuously through the feed
from the 1st day to 28th day of age. Observe proper withdrawal period.
3. Anti-malarial preparations (e.g., pyrimethamine-
sulfamonomethoxine/ sulfadimethoxine plus vitamins) may be given
in the feed or drinking water, starting at 10–14 days old for 2
consecutive days each week for 5 weeks if the disease is prevalent.
Observe proper withdrawal period.
Sanitation
Sanitation is very important to the modern intensive system of

poultry production where the continuous rearing and high animal density
often lead to a disease build-up. Although vaccination helps in the
development of the flocks’ resistance to diseases, it is still necessary to
keep exposure to disease-causing organisms to a low level as possible.
Proper cleaning and disinfecting of poultry houses, premises, and
equipment reduce microbial challenge in the environment and allow
vaccination to be more effective. Thorough cleaning and disinfecting
also provide the only effective way of breaking the cycle of infection in
the farm.
Cleaning and Disinfection
1. Cleaning must precede disinfection since the potency of most

disinfectants may be greatly reduced by organic matter (e.g.,
dropping, feed dust accumulation).

2. Cleaning is best accomplished by the use of pressure hose with or
without a detergent.
3. Disinfectants do not act instantly, thus time must be allowed for their
germicidal effect.
4. Most disinfectants act more effectively when applied in solution,
because solutions penetrate a greater depth, thus killing more
organisms.
5. A disinfectant intended for decontamination of buildings should
work well in the presence of a moderate amount of organic matter.
It should be compatible with soap or detergents, safe to building
materials, and relatively non-toxic to man and animals.
6. A disinfectant must be readily soluble even in hard water, effective
against a wide variety of infectious agents (e.g., viruses, bacteria,
fungi, protozoa), free from objectionable or lingering odor, readily
available, and inexpensive.
Disinfectants for Poultry Farms
1. Phenolic compounds (e.g., cresol, orthophenyl-phenol, and

orthobenzyl-parachlophenol)
Indications:
! Foot dips
! Routine disinfection of poultry houses, premises, and
equipment before restocking or after outbreak of disease.
2. Organic iodine combinations/iodophores (e.g., povidone-iodine)
Indications:
! Final disinfection of poultry houses and equipment. These
compounds are most effective on clean surfaces.
3. Quaternary ammonium compounds/quats (e.g., benzalkonium

chloride, benzathonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride)
Indications:
! Final disinfection of feeders, waterers, and other equipment.
Effective on clean surfaces.
! Water sanitizer

4. Hypochlorite (e.g., chlorine)
Indications:
! Final disinfection of feeders, waterers, other equipment.
Effective on clean surfaces.
! Water sanitizer
5. Combinations of organic acids, organic biocides, and surfactants
Indications:
! Final/terminal disinfection of poultry houses and equipment
before restocking.
6. Glutaraldehyde-dimethyl ammonium chloride complex
Indications:
! Routine disinfection of poultry houses, premises, and
equipment before restocking and after a disease outbreak.
! Wheel/foot dips
Health Management Tips
1. Raise only healthy and vigorous stocks.

2. Feed chicken with nutritionally balanced rations and provide fresh
drinking water at all times.
3. Implement a vaccination program for prevalent diseases. Follow
strictly the vaccination schedule.
4. Provide comfortable housing with good ventilation and maintain
clean surroundings.
5. Construct poultry houses in such a way that wild birds and rodents,
which may serve as carriers of diseases, cannot enter.
6. Avoid overcrowding by providing adequate floor space and enough
feeding and watering spaces.
7. Fence the production area to provide ample protection against
scavengers and stray animals, which may be vectors of disease.
8. Practice an all-in-all-out method of operation if possible. Clean and
disinfect poultry houses after depopulation and allow cleaned and
disinfected buildings at least 2 weeks rest period before restocking.
9. Only flockmen should be allowed into the broiler houses. Visitors
and other unauthorized persons should stay off the production area.

10. Control flies and blood-sucking insects by applying suitable
insecticide. Provide good drainage and remove piles of trash,
unused equipment, and unnecessary junks, which could serve as
breeding places for insects and rodents.
11. Provide foot dips at the entrance of poultry houses to keep disease
out of any house and to prevent the spread of infections within the
farm through the movement of farm personnel.
12. Dispose sick and dead chickens by burning or burying. Sick
chickens could contaminate feed, water, and equipment with their
excrements.
13. Minimize activities that will cause unnecessary stress to the chickens.
14. Keep honest and accurate health and production records. Health
records should include vaccination, medication, and all health
problems encountered in the farm. Production records usually
include daily feed consumption, weight gains, and mortalities. Daily
evaluation of these records is recommended.
15. Consult a veterinarian at the first sign of disease in the flock. A
veterinarian is in a better position to make a diagnosis, advise on
medication and other biosecurity measures to prevent spread of the
infection.
Common Diseases of Broiler Chickens
NCD (Avian Pest)
An acute rapidly spreading respiratory disease characterized by

harsh breathing, coughing, sneezing, and often followed by nervous
manifestation.
Cause:
! Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) - a paramyxovirus
Transmission:
! Direct contact with infected broiler
! Contaminated farm equipment, feed, or water
! Farm personnel and visitors with contaminated clothing and
footwear
! Free-living birds, (e.g., sparrows) and imported exotic
psittacine birds, which are often carriers of NDV

Symptoms:
! Drop in feed intake
! Respiratory signs such as gasping, coughing, sneezing,
rales, nasal discharge, often followed by neurologic signs
(e.g., incoordination, leg and/or wing paralysis, twisting of
head and neck)
! Marked variation in morbidity, mortality, signs, and lesions
due to the degree of chicken susceptibility and virus
pathogenicity.
! Common post-mortem lesion is proventricular hemorrhages
(Fig. 13).
! Poultry flock affected with NCD may show high mortality,
acute onset with various respiratory and gastrointestinal
lesions.
Fig. 13. Proventiculus of broiler chicken with hemorrhagic lesions.
Prevention:
! Vaccinate healthy flocks with live, attenuated vaccine.
! Thoroughly clean and disinfect farm equipment and
premises.

! Keep backyard chickens, fighting cocks, and exotic birds
out of the farm and its premises.
! Bird-proof poultry houses.
! Quarantine farm and isolate sick chickens from the healthy
ones as soon as NCD disease outbreak is suspected.
! Mix supportive medication with broad-spectrum antibiotic
in drinking water to prevent or reduce severity of secondary
bacterial infections.
! Depopulate and thoroughly clean and disinfect premises,
especially after a disease outbreak.
IBD (Gumboro Disease)
A highly contagious disease primarily affecting broiler chickens

between 2 weeks and 6 weeks of age, characterized by edema and
swelling of the cloacal bursa resulting in marked immunosuppression.
Cause:
! Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) - a birnavirus
Transmission:
! Direct contact with infected chickens
! Fecal-contaminated feed, water, and equipment
! Poorly cleaned poultry house and premises
! Transported from farm to farm by wild birds, rodents, and
insects
Symptoms:
! Droopy appearance, ruffled feathers, marked depression,
lack of appetite.
! Diarrhea, soiled vent, trembling due to dehydration
! Chickens tend to pick at their vent
Prevention:
! Vaccinate with mild or intermediate live vaccine.
! Require strict sanitation. Thoroughly clean and disinfect
poultry houses and equipment with iodophore-based
disinfectant.
! Practice all-in-all-out system of operation and allow a rest
period of at least 30 days between batches.

Fowl Pox
A viral infection characterized by formation of scab-like lesions on

the skin of the legs and head and/or formation of yellowish membranous
plaques on the mucous membrane of the oral and pharyngeal cavity.
Cause:
! Avipox virus
Transmission:
! Direct contact with infected broilers
! Mosquitoes and other blood-sucking flies through their bites
Symptoms:
! Dry/Skin form: papules, vesicles, pustules, and scab-like
lesions on the unfeathered skin of the head and legs
! Wet/Diphtheritic form: raised, yellow plaques on mucous
membranes of mouth and pharynx, which may induce
inappetence and difficulty in breathing
Prevention:
! Vaccinate broilers in areas where the disease is common
with pigeon or chicken pox virus strains.
! Mix broad-spectrum antibiotic in drinking water to prevent
aggravating secondary bacterial infection if disease outbreak
occurs.
Infectious Bronchitis
A highly contagious respiratory disease of chickens characterized

by rapid spread, respiratory signs without nervous system involvement.
Cause:
! Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) - a coronavirus
Transmission:
! Air-borne or aerosol transmission, direct contact with sick
birds
! Contaminated feed, water, equipment, premises

Symptoms:
! Gasping, coughing, tracheal rales, and nasal discharge
! Chicks appear depressed and huddle under the heat source.
! Poor appetite
! A cloudy airsacs (airsacculitis) (Fig. 14) is a common
pathologic sign.
Fig. 14. Broiler's abdomen with cloudy airsacs.
Prevention:
! Vaccinate broilers with live attenuated virus vaccine in
areas where the disease is common.
! Practice sanitation and sound management practices.
Infectious Coryza (IC) or Roup/Cold
An acute respiratory disease of chickens generally limited to the

upper respiratory tract. This disease is considered to be of economic
importance in many parts of the world.
Cause:
! Bacterium: Hemophilus paragallinarum (sero-types A,
B, C).

Transmission:
! Direct contact with infected birds/recovered carrier birds
! Airborne
! Contaminated feeds, water, equipment, and premises
Symptoms:
! Watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils, which later
becomes sticky, thick, and odorous
! Swelling of the face and eyelids
! Sneezing, respiratory rales, snicking
! Decreased feed intake
Prevention:
! Follow all-in-all-out type of operation.
! Provide good ventilation to reduce ammonia fume.
! Follow strict sanitation and sound management practices.
! Medicate with broad-spectrum antibiotics after stressful
conditions, e.g., vaccination and weighing.
! Avoid overcrowding.
Colibacillosis (E. coli)
A septicemia frequently occurring as secondary to respiratory and

other infections
Cause:
! Bacterium: Eschericha coli
Transmission:
! Inhalation of infected dust
! Fecal-contaminated feeds or water and equipment
! Unsanitary poultry houses and premises
Symptoms:
! Symptoms vary according to portal of entry and syndrome
induced.
In-Chicks:
! Omphalitis (navel infection) - inflamed navel; distended
abdomen due to yolk sac infection; abnormal color and
smell of yolk sac content; depressed chicks
! Enteritis - watery dropping, depression, inflamed intestinal
tract
! Air sacculitis - thickened air sacs with yellow, cheesy
exudate, pericarditis, perihepatitis, and peritonitis
Prevention:
! Avoid predisposing conditions such as overcrowding, poor
ventilation, high ammonia level, and poor brooding
management.
! Apply preventive medication with broad-spectrum
antibiotics in the drinking water during certain critical and
stressful periods in the chickens’ life.
! Follow strict sanitation in the farm and hatchery.
! Chlorinate drinking water if positive for E. coli.
Mycoplasma Gallisepticum (MG) Infection

or Chronic Respiratory Disease
A lingering disease, which affects the respiratory tract. It is

characterized by slow growth, poor feed conversion, and inferior
carcass quality.
Cause:
! Pleuropneumonia-like organism: Mycoplasma
gallisepticum
Transmission:
! Often triggered by stresses such as high ammonia level,
poor ventilation, overcrowding, vaccination, concurrent
infection with NCD, IBV, or E. coli
! Transmitted from parent to chicks thru the egg
! Direct contact with infected birds
! Air-borne transmission
! Contaminated feed, water, farm equipment, and personnel
Symptoms:
! Respiratory rales, coughing, sneezing, oculonasal discharge
! Decreased feed efficiency and growth rate
! Mortality is low unless complicated by air sacculitis due to
E. coli

Prevention:
! Practice an all-in-all-out system of operation.
! Clean and disinfect poultry houses and equipment thoroughly
after removal of infected flock.
! Avoid stresses such as ammonia fumes, poor ventilation,
overcrowding, high temperature, and marginal nutrition.
! Apply medication with antibiotics specific against
mycoplasma (e.g., tiamulin, in the feeds or drinking water).
Do not medicate with tiamulin in conjunction with monensin
(a common anti-coccidial incorporated in feeds).
Mycotoxicosis
A poisoning with toxic substances of fungal origin.
Causes: There are three mycotoxins considered to be potentially

harmful to poultry:
! Aflatoxin - hepatotoxin produced by the molds Aspergillus

flavus and A. parasiticus
! Ochratoxin - a nephrotoxin produced mainly by A.
ochraceus but also by some species of Aspergillus and
Penicillium
! Trichothecenes (T-2) - a mycotoxin having an
epithelionecrotic effect produced by Fusarium spp. of
mold
Common sources of mycotoxin are moldy cereal grains used in feed

manufacture, as well as formulated feeds. Poultry litter may also be a
source of this type of toxin.
Symptoms:
Severity and type of clinical disease depend upon the type,
amount, time, duration of toxin ingestion, as well as age of the
chicken.
! Aflatoxin
- Aflatoxin level of 0.6 ppm induces increased
susceptibility to bruising and infectious diseases due to
immuno-suppression.

- About 1.5–2.5 ppm aflatoxin causes decreased feed
efficiency and impaired growth.
- About 5–10 ppm aflatoxin causes acute death from
liver necrosis and hemorrhage.
! Ochratoxin
- About 0.6–2 ppm ochratoxin causes marrow and
lymphoid depression and impaired growth.
- About 3–4 ppm ochratoxin level in the diet causes
kidney damage, diarrhea, dehydration, emaciation, and
death.
! Trichothecenes (T-2)
- About 4–8 ppm T-2 toxin level in the diet causes oral
mucosal ulcers, gastroenteritis, increased susceptibility
to bruising, and impaired growth.
- About 8 ppm T-2 toxin and 3.5 ppm aflatoxin in the diet
have an additive effect of severely depressing growth
and weight gains in broilers.
- About 20 ppm T-2 toxin and 8 ppm ochratoxin
combination in the feed produce marked growth
depression and mortality.
Prevention:
At the feedmill level
! Use only cereal grains that meet quality specifications.
! Inspect and clean feedmill equipment and premises
frequently.
! Incorporate antifungal agents (e.g., organic acids such as
propionic acid and acetic acid) into the feed or cereal grains
such as corn to inhibit or retard mold growth and prevent
subsequent mycotoxin formation.
At the farm level
! Clean and disinfect thoroughly storage bins, hoppers, and
feeders between flocks.
! Avoid long periods of feed storage.
! Store feeds in cool and dry conditions.
Coccidiosis
A disease caused by protozoan parasites called coccidia, which

enter, multiply, and destroy the cells lining the intestinal tract.

Cause:
! Cecal coccidiosis: Eimeria tenella
! Intestinal coccidiosis - E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E.
maxima and other species
Transmission:
! Ingestion of sporulated oocyst in fecal-contaminated feed,
water, and litter
! Mechanical transmission by contaminated footwear and
farm equipment
! Mechanical carriers such as rodents, flies, beetles, and wild
birds
Symptoms:
Symptoms vary greatly depending on the severity of the
infection and species of Eimeria.
! Depression, ruffled feathers, loss of appetite
! Blood-stained feces (Fig. 15)
! Decreased feed efficiency and growth rate
! Eimeria acervulina within the duodenum of the broiler
(Fig. 16)
Prevention:
! Apply coccidiostat in the feed or drinking water.
Fig. 15. Watery feces stained with blood.

! Observe strict sanitation. Provide footbath with disinfectant
at the entrance of poultry houses.
! Change or remove damp litter, especially during brooding.
Fig. 16. The duodenum part of the broiler's intestines that is infected
with Eimeria acervulina.
Exudative Diathesis/Encephalomalacia
(Crazy Chick Disease)/Muscular Dystrophy
Nutritional disorders arising from Vitamin E and/or selenium

deficiency.
Cause:
Vitamin E and/or selenium-deficient diet or poor absorption of
these essential nutrients from the intestinal tract because of an
enteric disorder.
Symptoms:
! Exudative diathesis: Depression, sitting on the hock.
Subcutaneous edema, swelling underneath the beak and
wattles, and greenish-blue discoloration of the skin in the
abdominal region and under the wings
! Encephalomalacia: Softening of the brain seen during the
first 4 weeks of age (Fig. 17). Characterized by
incoordination, trembling, twisting of the neck, loss of
balance, falling on the side.
! Muscular dystrophy: Depression, slow growth, whitish-
gray areas of muscle degeneration in the breast muscle
(Fig. 18)
Prevention:
! Use only quality feed ingredients and stable forms of
antioxidant and vitamin E in the feed.
! Store feed properly. Use feed on the first-in-first-out basis.
Fig. 17. Softening of the brain due to degenerative changes in nervous

tissue.
Malabsorption Syndrome
(Pale bird syndrome, helicopter disease, brittle bone disease, infectious

proventriculitis, femoral head necrosis). This syndrome is characterized
by poor feathering, runting, leg weakness, and osteoporosis.
Cause:
Several reoviruses are suspect cause of the disease, with
nutrition and management as contributing factors.

Fig. 18. Breast muscle with whitish-gray area.
Transmission:
! Reoviruses transmitted vertically through the eggs of
infected hens
! Horizontal spread by direct contact with feces and
contaminated feed, water, and equipment
Symptoms:
! Stunted growth
! Abnormal feathering, paleness of skin
! High incidence of leg weakness
! Diarrhea
Prevention:
! Obtain chicks from reovirus-vaccinated breeders.
! Clean and disinfect poultry houses and equipment thoroughly
following disposal of broilers.
! Allow at least 2 weeks break before restocking the farm.
! Mix broad-spectrum antibiotics in drinking water to minimize
secondary bacterial infection; vitamin-electrolyte
preparation in drinking water may help avoid vitamin
deficiencies and dehydration.
! Provide nutritionally balanced diet and good management.
SDS (Sudden Death Syndrome) or Flip-Over Disease
A condition afflicting heavy, fast-growing broiler chickens, mostly

males between 2–6 weeks of age characterized by sudden death from
no apparent cause.

Cause:
The cause is unknown but it is suspected to be a result of
physiologic and nutritional interactions. It is believed that a
combination of low level or bioavailability of biotin and stress
associated with rapid growth could precipitate SDS.
Symptoms:
! None; chickens suddenly convulse and die within
1–2 minutes with no premonitory signs.
Prevention:
! Induce a period of initial slow growth through physical feed
restriction and/or use of low-nutrient density rations can
reduce the incidence of the condition..
! Provide adequate amount of biotin in the diet.
Other diseases of broilers are listed in Appendix 1.

Farm Records
Importance
Keeping the records “up-to-date” and accurate is a must in the

broiler business. It should be made part of the regular activities in the
farm. Records give ready and reliable information about the general
performance of the business.
With good records, one can compute the production cost, which may
be used in pricing and in the adjustment of operations. The whole
financial status of the business can also be measured. Knowledge of
feeding efficiency, health conditions, and program of operations is an
important consideration for efficient management.
Farm records also provide the basic data in the planning of
succeeding business operations. They also facilitate the flow of
information for credit purposes. The overall efficiency of business can
only be quantified if records are accurate.
Broiler Record
A simplified farm record has been developed especially for

independent broiler raisers (Appendix 2). This may serve as a guide to
all broiler producers and must be the minimum information needed in
flock management. Farm record must include the following:
- Strain and source

- Date and number of chicks received
- Average body weight of day-old chicks
- Feed consumption
- Water consumption (if possible)
- Mortality
- Medication
- Vaccination
- Feed Delivery
- Sales of broilers and by-products such as empty feed bags
and manure

At the end of the growing cycle, feed conversion efficiency is
calculated from the data on total feed consumption over total weight of
broilers harvested. All other variable costs are computed at the end of
the growing cycle.
Record keeping for contract growers is a part of the company’s
requirements. Each company has its own set of records, the basic parts,
however, are similar.
Measuring Income from Broiler Enterprise
The cost items that can be derived from the broiler records include
chicks, feeds, labor, supplements, and vaccination and medications
applied. Other items that should be included as production costs are
shown in sample form (Appendix 3).
Methods of measuring income vary, depending upon the purposes
and the scale of operations. For producers who are interested only in
cash transactions, net cash income may be used as the first measure.
This is attained by subtracting all cash expenses from cash receipts,
which include sales from broilers, manure, and feedbags. Cost items
that do not involve cash outlays should not be included in this measure.
One alternative, therefore, is to include all costs; cash and non-cash cost
may include depreciation of all equipment used in the operations on the
farm and the value of family labor employed in the business. Non-cash
receipts, on the other hand, include the value of broilers used at home and
for other purposes. Total net income derived by subtracting the total cost
from total receipts. This measure represents the return to operator’s
labor, management, and to fixed investment.
Efficiency Indicators
Feed Conversion
This measures the quantity of feeds used to produce 1 kg of broiler

liveweight. It can be obtained by dividing the total kilogram of feed
consumed by the number of kilogram of liveweight broiler produced.
Example:
3.5 kg feed consumed
= 2.0
1.75 kg liveweight broiler

This indicator is important in determining the relative efficiency of
feed formulation and quality of the rations.
Feed Cost/Kilogram of Broiler Produced
This is determined by multiplying the feed conversion by the cost of

feed per kilogram.
Example:
2.0 x P18.82/kg feed = P37.64 feed cost/kg broiler produced
Production Efficiency Factor (PEF)
This is a standard measurement for determining broiler performance.

The factors involved are harvest recovery, average live weight,
harvestable age, and feed conversion efficiency. Using this method, one
can compare performance with other growers. Within a given farm, one
can compare the performance of one broiler house from the other broiler
houses. This is useful, especially in giving workers incentives on the
basis of overall performance. The formula is as follows:
HR (%) X ALW (kg)

PEF = X 100
Age X FCR
Where:
PEF = Performance efficiency factor
HR = Harvest recovery (%)
ALW = Average live weight (kg)
Age = Harvestable age (days)
FCR = Feed conversion ratio
Note: “The higher the value of PEF, the better is the performance.”

Broiler Marketing
Quality
Sell high-quality broilers. Quality is the result of careful and efficient

production and marketing practices. Ultimately, final consumers
determine whether the quality of the farmers’ produce is acceptable or
not. This information is relayed to the grower by the wholesale buyer
by means of the regularity of purchases, and even the offer of higher
than average farmgate prices in the locality.
Timing
Sell finished broilers at the optimal age of not more than 42 days, with
the chicken having attained a body weight of 1.75 kg. Delaying the sale
of the chickens may increase body weight, but this may reduce profits
since feed efficiency falls, as older chickens require greater amounts of
feed for every additional unit of body weight gained.
Market Outlets
Initially, arrangements should be made in the marketing of the output

with regular and reputable buyers of broiler chicken. The stability of the
market base is very important in starting out any business venture. This
tests the capability and discipline of the grower to meet certain industry
standards on a continuous basis.
For the more adventurous and experienced growers who want to be
independent, various market outlets can be explored. Delivery
arrangements could be contracted with local hotels, restaurants, fastfood
outlets, and supermarkets. Arrangement could also be made with well-
known, established, and respectable broiler buyers or traders in the
locality.
Finally, the local wet market can also be explored. It is important
to be informed, however, whether the local market has the capacity to
regularly absorb all outputs scheduled for disposal, considering the scale
of the independent grower.

Price Fluctuations
Prices of broilers are totally determined by the seasonal behavior of

demand for and the supply of chicken meat in the relevant market of the
produce. Prices are not within the control of the producer. For this
reason, the grower has to be very keen on the seasonal behavior of
demand, production, and prices.
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to establish how much broiler
chicken is being produced in each season, as the year progresses. It is,
however, possible to get a feel of how prices behave throughout the
year.
Broiler Inventory Holding
Another guide for growers in the operations of the farm could be the
historical broiler chicken inventory in the country over the last six years.
This shows estimate of the number of head of broiler chicken all the
farmers in the country held at a particular time during the year.
Inventory holding at a certain period represents the number of head that
are being grown for slaughter, and also those that are about to be sold.

Cost-and-Return Analysis
One of the most commonly used measures in determining the

profitability of an enterprise is the cost-and-return analysis, also called
the enterprise analysis. The net income can be computed by deducting
the total costs from the total returns.
Costs
Costs are two major categories: investment and operating costs.

Investment costs are associated with starting the project, and maintaining
it over the lifetime of the activity. Operating costs refer to the day-to-
day expenditures that have to be incurred to produce the output
projected.
Investment Costs
The major investment costs are incurred on the first year, on the
year of the establishment of the broiler farm. The amount of investment
depends on the scale of the project.
The major investment items are the following: (a) buildings/housing,
(b) equipment, and (c) site development. While housing and equipment
costs would directly depend on scale, site development cost is assumed
to be the same, whether the scale is for a 10,000-chicken model or a
5,000-chicken model, as the proposed area to be developed is the same.
Only the size of housing would vary.
Equipment. It includes (a) brooding heaters, (b) regulators and gas
lines, (c) feeders, and (d) waterers. The waterers used here are of the
automatic type. To account for replacement investments over the life
of the project, the heaters and waterers have a 5-year lifespan each.
The tube feeders have a lifespan of 3 years. Cost of replacement
investment shall take the place of depreciation costs.
Operating and Maintenance Costs
Operating and maintenance costs cover the costs of the following:

(1) DOCs; (b) feeds; (c) medicines, vaccines, and feed supplements;

(d) utilities; (e) brooding; (f) repairs and maintenance; (g) labor; and
(h) miscellaneous expenses.
Except for labor costs, all other costs are pro-rated on a per chicken
basis. For all such expenses, operating and maintenance costs depend
on the scale of operations.
Cost per cycle is calculated on a 42-day raising period. Extrapolated
to an annual basis, the frequency of five cycles per year is adopted.
The bulk of costs come in the form of expenses on feeds for the
chickens. The estimate for feed cost per chicken is calculated by using
the following standard parameters.
Feed conversion ratio = 2.0;

Weight of chicken at harvest = 1.75 kg; and
Price of mixed feed = average of P941 per 50-kg bag.
The 10,000-Chicken Module
For the 10,000-chicken module, total operating cost over a 1-year

period is estimated at P4.997M. Of this, P3.29M or 65.45%, is
accounted for by feed expenses. The second major operating expenditure
item is on day-old chicks, set at P19.00/chick, amounting to P950,000/
year. This is 19% of the total. Feed and DOCs expenses, together,
account for 84.45% of total operating expenses.
The structure of operating and maintenance costs for a 10,000-
chicken module is shown in Table 10.
Returns
Returns from the project are assumed to start only one year after
the initial investment has been made. Main revenue comes from the sale
of finished broilers. The standard parameters that are used in calculating
the revenue from broiler sales are the following:
Weight of chicken at 42 days = 1.75 kg;

Price of chicken = P61.45/kg;
Number of cycles per year = 5; and
Mortality rate = 5%
On an annual basis, the returns from a 10,000-chicken module is

P139,231.25.

Table 10. Cost and return for 10,000-chicken capacity broiler farm.
Items Amount (P)
Income
Sale of broilers ............................................................... 1,021,606.25
Sale of manure ...................................................................... 2,090.00
Sale of sacks ......................................................................... 3,500.00
Total ............................................................................. 1,027,196.25
Cost
Cash
Day-old chicks ............................................................. 190,000.00
Feeds ............................................................................ 654,100.00
Vaccines, medicine, etc. ................................................... 40,000.00
Electricity ....................................................................... 15,500.00
Brooding expense (LPG) .................................................... 18,500.00
Farm rental ......................................................................... 35,000.00
Hauling expense .................................................................... 2,375.00
Repair and maintenance ...................................................... 12,500.00
Permits and licenses .............................................................. 1,200.00
Salaries ............................................................................... 25,175.00
Miscellaneous expenses ........................................................ 5,000.00
Total ............................................................................. 999,350.00
Net Income ........................................................................... 27,846.25
Assumptions:
1. Price of day-old chicks ........................................................ P19.00
2. Price of broilers ................................................................... P61.45/kg
Market weight is 1.75 kg
3. Feeds ................................................................................... P65.41/hd
4. Vaccines, medicine, disinfectant ............................................. P4.00/hd
5. Electricity .............................................................................. P1.55/hd
6. Brooding cost ........................................................................ P1.85/hd
7. Farm rental ............................................................................ P3.50/hd
8. Hauling cost ........................................................................... P0.25/hd
9. Repair and maintenance cost .................................................. P1.25/hd
10. Permits and licenses ............................................................... P0.12/hd
11. Salary .................................................................................... P2.65/hd
12. Miscellaneous ........................................................................ P0.50/hd
13. Volume of marketable manure/chicken ..................................... 0.88 kg
14. Price of manure ...................................................................... P0.25/kg
15. Estimated revenue from manure/chicken ................................ P0.22

Minor benefits are also realized from the sale of by-products. These
by-products are chicken manure and used feed sacks. Chicken manure
has a market in the processing of organic fertilizer. Roughly, the amount
of marketable manure generated per chicken is one-fourth the weight
of the total feed consumed. In calculating the quantity and value of
marketable manure per chicken, the following parameters are used:
Feed consumption/chicken = 3.5 kg;

Marketable manure recovery factor = 0.25;
Volume of marketable manure/chicken = 0.875 kg;
Price/kg of manure = P0.25 kg; and
Estimated revenue from manure/chicken = P0.22/chicken.
Assuming five batches per year, at 5% mortality, revenue per year

from sales of manure is P10,450.00 for the 10,000-chicken module.
Used feeds sacks are priced at P5/sack. Each bag contains 50 kg
of feed. For the calculation of revenue from used sacks, the relevant
parameters used are the following:
Feed consumption/1,000 chickens = 3,500 kg;

No. of sacks/1,000 chickens =70 sacks;
Revenue from sacks/1,000 chickens (@P5.00/sack) = P350.00;
Thus, for the 10,000-chicken module, annual revenue from used

sacks is P3,500.

References
Cobb Breeder Management Guide. 2005. Cobb-Vantress, Inc.,

Arkansas.
Esplana, E. R. and Bascuguin, M.D. 2005. Development of an early

warning system for broiler industry: focus on production
forecasting. Paper presented during the BAI Research and
Development In-House Review, BAI-APDC, Marulas,
Valenzuela City. July 21, 2005
Feed Reference Standards, third edition 2003. Philippine Society of

Animal Nutritionist (PHILSAN). Animal and Dairy Sciences
Cluster, UPLB Los Baños, College, Laguna.
Livestock Development Council. LDC Annual Report 2004. Department

of Agriculture, Elliptical Rd., Diliman, Quezon City.
National Academy of Science and Technology. 2005. NAST Agriculture

2020: Industry Strategic Plan 2020 – Swine-Poultry-Corn
Cluster (Draft). DOST Cmpd., Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila.
STRIVE Foundation 2004. Cross Country analysis of the Hog, Broiler

and Layer Industries of the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, and
Indonesia – Final Report. May 2004. Livestock Development
Council, Department of Agriculture, Elliptical Rd., Diliman,
Quezon City.
The Broiler Production Committee, 1997. The Philippines recommends

for broiler production. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines:
PCARRD, 1997. 91 p. – (Technical Bulletin Series No. 10-B).

Appendix 1. Other Diseases of Broiler
Pullorum Disease (Bacillary White Diarrhea)
An acute bacterial disease of chicks causing high mortality, especially

during the first 3 weeks of age
Cause:
Bacterium: Salmonella pullorum
Transmission:
Egg transmitted (i.e., from hen to progeny chicks)
Fecal-contaminated feed, water, and equipment
Contact with infected chicks and contaminated hatchery
incubators and equipment
Symptoms:
Chicks appear sleepy, weak, and anorexic
Chicks chirp continuously and have pasty white diarrhea
High mortality during the first 3 weeks of life
Some respiratory signs (e.g., labored breathing)
Prevention:
Purchase chicks only from reliable sources (i.e., pullorum-
free breeder farms and hatcheries).
Observe strict sanitation.
Avoid stress conditions.
Mix medication with broad-spectrum antibiotics or
nitrofurans in feed or drinking water during the first 3 weeks
of life to lower mortality and transmission of disease.
Paratyphoid (Salmonellosis)
An acute septicemic disease similar to pullorum, which can cause

extremely high early chick mortality

Cause:
Bacteria: Salmonella organisms other than S. pullorum and S.
gallinarium.
Transmission:
Fecal contamination of eggshells during the process of
laying or from contaminated nests, litter, or incubators
leading to infection at hatching time
Fecal contamination of feeds or feed ingredients, water,
and equipment
Rodents and their dropping may readily contaminate poultry
feeds
Pigeons, sparrows, and other species of wild birds may
serve as source of infection
Symptoms:
Chilled chicks huddle for warmth
Weakness, ruffled feathers, loss of appetite, and increased
water consumption
Watery diarrhea with pasting of the vent
Moderate to high mortality
Prevention:
Observe sound management practices.
Reduce contact with rodents, wild birds, and flies.
Observe strict hatchery and egg sanitation.
Use Salmonella-free stock and only Salmonella-free feed
ingredients.
Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics or nitrofurans in feed or
drinking water as preventive medication.
Aspergillosis (Brooder Pneumonia)
A fungal infection of the respiratory system of young birds
Cause:
Fungus: Aspergillus fumigatus

Transmission:
Inhalation of large number of spores from moldy
environment, litter, and feed
Unsanitary hatchery conditions
Symptoms:
Gasping, gurgling, and harsh coughing
Loss of appetite, weakness
Nervous signs and eye lesions
Moderate-to-high mortality
Prevention:
Follow strict hatchery sanitation.
Observe proper poultry house environment management
and sanitation.
Store feeds properly to avoid moldy conditions.
Remove moldy feeds and litter.
Leucocytozoonosis (Avian Malaria)
A disease caused by a blood protozoan parasite characterized by

anemia, weakness, and death.
Cause:
Protozoa, Leucocytozoon caulleryi
Intermediate biological vector: Culicoides sp. or biting
midges
Transmission:
Biological vectors feeding on carrier birds and later
transmitting the infection as they feed on susceptible birds
Symptoms:
Depression, lack of appetite, weakness, tendency to huddle,
ruffled feathers
Anemia
Greenish diarrhea
Mortality

Prevention:
Apply medication with sulfamonomethoxine-pyrimethamine
in the feed or drinking water
Control insect vector.

Appendix 2. Broiler record.

Appendix 3. Sample form for computing income.
I. COST
Cash cost
Broiler chicks ________
MVS (medicine, vaccines, supplements) ________
Feeds ________
Electricity ________
Water ________
Hired labor ________
Interest on operating capital ________
Total cash cost (A) P ________
Non-cash cost
Depreciation ________
Value of family labor ________
Total non-cash cost (B) P ________

Total Cost (C) = (A) + (B) P ________
II. RECEIPTS
Cash receipts
Broiler sales ________
Manure sales ________
Feedbags sold ________
Total cash receipts (D) P ________
Non-cash receipts
Value of broiler used home ________
Value of broilers used for promotions ________
Total non-cash receipts (E) P ________

Total receipts (F) = (D) + (E) P ________
III. MEASURES OF INCOME
1. Net cash income (D - A) P ________

2. Total net income (F - C) P ________

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OFFICEOFTHEEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR

To Our Valued Reader:

This fourth edition, The Philippines Recommends for Broiler

We hope you will find this volume a useful reference material.

Very truly yours,

PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 10-C

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Los Baños, Laguna

This publication may not be reprinted or

Published with funding support from the

The Broiler Production Committee 2004. The Philippines

Poultry is one of the world’s major and fastest growing sources of

The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

The technical committee members for drafting this revised edition;

The Broiler Industry 1

Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda

Dr. Javier P. Mateo Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Mr. Gregorio A. San Diego, Jr. Dr. Synan S. Baguio

Dr. Edwin S. Luis Ms. Marites M. Ramil

Dr. Francis Andrew Eugene M. Bernardo

Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan

Antibiotic - a dilute substance produced by microorganisms that have

Characterized by widely diverse production and marketing systems,

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 1

Fig. 1. Per capita consumption of broiler meat, 1999–

Fig. 2. Yearly broiler production from 2002 to 2004.

2 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

Large commercial farms - farms that produce 100,000 or more

In terms of type of operation, broiler farms are classified as follows:

Integrated grower farms - farms that breed, hatch, grow, and

Contract grower farms - farms that grow chickens for the

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 3

about 36–42 days. The grower is assured of at least 5 batches (crops)

Contract-to-buy grower farms - farms that have tie-ups with

Independent commercial grower farms - farms that buy broiler

Contract breeding farms - farms that produce hatching eggs for

4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

The Broiler Breeding Operation

A breeder farm operation is a vital component of the local broiler

The Supply Chain Structure

The supply chain of the Philippine broiler industry (Fig. 3) is largely

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 5

CONTRACT INTEGRATOR Logistics

Logistics CONTRACT VIAJERO

CONTRACT Logistics Logistics

CONTRACT Logistics VIAJERO

Fig. 3. Broiler supply chain structure.

6 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 7

Before engaging in a broiler production enterprise, it is worthwhile

1. Personal qualifications and capabilities - A prospective grower

2. A regular supply of quality broiler chicks from reliable DOC

3. Sustained supply of feeds and other farm inputs - The availability

4. Market assurance - Broilers should be marketed as soon as they

8 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

6. Community environmental policies and regulations - The

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION 9

Different broiler genetic stocks respond according to different

1. Performance - The performance of broilers is determined by their

2. Adaptability and availability of stocks – A broiler strain that is

3. Reliability of suppliers - Purchase day-old broiler chicks from a

10 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

The following is a list of major sources of commercial broiler