Professional Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/319165448
CITATIONS READS
38 27,961
1 author:
K.V. Vidyanandan
NTPC Limited
16 PUBLICATIONS 465 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by K.V. Vidyanandan on 18 August 2017.
An Overview of Factors
Affecting the Performance of Solar PV Systems
Dr. K.V. Vidyanandan, Senior Member, IEEE
Power Management Institute, NTPC Ltd., NOIDA, India.
kvvidyas@gmail.com, kvvidyanandan@ntpc.co.in
Abstract—The output power generated by a photovoltaic 380-720 nm. Light consisting of shorter wavelength (e.g.
module and its life span depends on many aspects. Some of blue light) contains high energy photons, and longer
these factors include: the type of PV material, solar radiation wavelength (e.g. red light) contains low energy photons.
intensity received, cell temperature, parasitic resistances, cloud
and other shading effects, inverter efficiency, dust, module III. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGIES
orientation, weather conditions, geographical location, cable
thickness etc. This paper reviews few of the major factors that Photovoltaic cells are semiconductor devices which
significantly affect the performance of solar PV systems. convert energy of light into electricity. A semiconductor is a
substance, usually a simple element or a compound, that can
Index Terms— fill-factor, irradiance, parasitic resistances,
conduct electricity under some conditions but not always,
shading, cell temperature.
making it a good medium for the control of electric current.
Silicon, a group IV element, is the most commonly used
I. INTRODUCTION
semiconductor for PV cells. Other materials from a
Fig. 4. A single cell and a 72 cell crystalline PV module. Fig. 6. Single-diode model of Fig. 7. Current-Voltage & Power-
Table 1. Datasheet of a Solar PV Module a solar PV cell. Voltage curves of a PV module.
Maximum Power, Wp (P max) 295 W A wide range of PV technologies are currently available.
No of cells per module 72 no. Popular among them include silicon based mono and poly
Voltage at Pmax (Vmax) 36.4 V crystalline, thin-film technologies of amorphous silicon (a-
Current at Pmax (Imax) 8.11 A Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper-indium-gallium-
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 44.9 V diselenide (CIGS), multi-junction & emerging technologies
Short circuit current (Isc) 8.76 A such as Organic PV (OPV) and Concentrating PV (CPV)
Temp. coefficient of Isc (α) 0.0681 %/oC technologies. PV types differ according to the material,
Temp. coefficient of Voc (β) -0.2941 %/oC manufacturing process, efficiency and cost. Crystalline
Temp. coefficient of P max (γ) -0.3845 %/oC silicon modules represent about 85% of the global PV
o
NOCT (Nominal Operating Cell Temp.) 46 ± 2 C market. Space requirements for crystalline PV are around 7 -
Efficiency 15.2 % 8 m2/kW (4.5 - 5 acres/MW) and for thin-film PV, it is
Fill-Factor (FF) 0.73 – 0.78 around 10 - 15 m2/kW (9 - 10 acres/MW) [10]. Table 2
The PV datasheet values are derived at STC (Standard shows a comparison of common PV technologies.
Test Conditions). STC represents; irradiance: 1000 W/m2, Table 2. Comparison of Common PV Technologies
module temp.: 25 °C, wind speed: 0 m/s, AM 1.5, and light Mono-Si Poly-Si Thin Film
incidence angle: 0°. Air mass (AM) represents the optical Most efficient Less efficient Least efficient
Efficiency
path length of the Earth's atmosphere. At sea level during (18 - 22%) (14 - 18%) (10 - 12%)
mid-day, AM is 1.0. AM 1.5 means the light has to travel From single By fusing Si Many layers
Manufacturing
Si crystal crystals of PV material
atmospheric depth of 150% than that at mid-day.
Standard Moderately
Basic arrangement of a PV based power generation Suitable for High temp.
temperature high temp.
system is shown in Fig. 5. Major components of the system Area need/kW Least Less Large
are: PV array, inverter(s), a step up transformer in case of Energy yield Hi due to high Hi due to high Lo due to low
high voltage grid connection and optional trackers. per unit area Si content Si content Si content
Performance
Low Low Moderate
at low light
Gap between 15 - 20%
15 - 20% 22 – 28%
Voc and Vmp (less is better)
Temperature Low
High High
Fig. 5. Basic arrangement of a solar PV generation system. Coefficients (Lo is better)
70 - 80%
Fill-factor 70 - 80% 60 - 68%
A PV system generates DC power, which is converted (Hi is better)
into AC power by using centralized inverters, commonly Several factors affect the energy efficiency of a PV cell.
called String Inverters. In a 1000 V inverter, a string may These are: wavelength (colour) of the light, cell temperature,
have 18 to 20 modules connected in series to get around 650 surface reflection and recombination of holes and electrons.
to 750 V DC. These inverters may be of transformer-based The theoretical maximum energy conversion efficiency
(TB) or transformer-less (TL) type. TL inverters are more possible for a single junction PV cell is limited by the
compact, lightweight and have higher efficiency 97% Shockley-Queisser (SQ) limit, which is 33.7% [11]. As
(nearly 2% more than TB inverters). Latest PV inverters use reported in the “Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (version 49)”,
a control philosophy called maximum power point tracking as of Nov. 2016 under STC, the highest efficiency reported
(MPPT) to optimize the PV power output. Maximum power for single-junction mono-crystalline Si was 26.3 ± 0.5%
point represents a unique point on the Current-Voltage (I-V) with fill-factor (FF): 83.8% and for poly-crystalline; it was
and the Power-Voltage (P-V) curves at which a PV module 21.3 ± 0.4% at FF: 80% [12]. An efficiency of 28.8 ± 0.9%
produces its maximum power corresponding to the available was reported for GaAs (thin film) at FF: 86.5%. Breakup of
solar radiation. The location of MPP is searched using various losses in a typical solar PV cell with an overall
complex algorithms. TL inverters usually have two MPPT conversion efficiency of 17% is shown in Fig. 8 [13].
trackers as against one MPPT in TB inverters.
For representing the electrical behaviour of a PV cell, it
is usually modeled as an equivalent circuit consisting of a
photo-current source (Iph) in parallel with a single diode D
(or two diodes for more detailed analysis), a shunt resistor
(Rsh) and a series resistor (Rs) in the load branch [9]. The
single diode model (shown in Fig. 6) is used by the
manufacturers to represent the PV data. The I-V and P-V
characteristics of a PV module are shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Energy conversion efficiency and losses in a PV cell.
3
The level of impacts of temperature on PV modules will monitoring the quality and evaluating the performance of a
vary depending upon the type of semiconductor used. To PV system. PV module data sheets usually do not provide
reduce the temperature related issues on PV modules, the the values of Rs and Rsh, but they can be calculated. Table 5
following aspects could be considered. shows the calculated values of Rs and Rsh for few of the PV
i. Keep sufficient gap between the modules and the roof modules used in NTPC stations.
(or ground) to allow convective air flow to cool them. Table 5. Calculated values of Parasitic Resistances of PV Cells
ii. Ensure that panels and supporting structure are of light- PMI P‟Blair Dadri F‟Bad Singrauli
coloured so that heat absorption will be less. Power (Wp) 295 235 240 230 240
iii. Use perforated base structure to increase cooling. Silicon Type Poly Mono Poly Poly Poly
iv. Do not keep inverters below and close to the modules. No. of cells 72 60 60 60 60
v. Use cooling fans Rs/cell (m) 7.181 6.610 7.017 7.383 7.15
In a rooftop PV system mounted close to the roof floor, Rsh/cell () 4.529 3.674 3.535 3.818 3.543
the module temperature may reach about 150% of the
ambient temperature, whereas in a properly ventilated f. Shading
system, such as a pole mounted module, the rise in Shading results in mismatches in the generated currents
temperature will be in the range of about 120%. of individual cells of a module. Even partial shading on a
single cell can significantly reduce the power output of the
d. Fill-Factor entire module as if all the cells were shaded. A shaded cell
The fill-factor of a PV cell is defined as the ratio of the produces much less current than the unshaded ones. Since
maximum power to the product of Voc & Isc. Based on the I- cells in a module are connected in series, same current has
V curve shown in Fig. 13a, fill-factor can be represented as to flow through all the cells. If more current than the shaded
Vmax . Imax area A capability is forced through a shaded cell, it will be over-
Fill-Factor (1) heated and might be damaged.
Voc . Isc area B
A common solution to avoid hot-spot heating of PV cells
Graphically, fill-factor is a measure of the squareness of due to shading is by using Bypass Diodes. A bypass diode is
the PV cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle connected across a sub-string of cells in the module. During
which will fit in the I-V curve. A good quality PV module is normal operation with uniform light falling on each cell, the
expected to have fill-factor above 70%. A lesser fill-factor bypass diode will acts as an open switch. However, when
indicates larger value of Rs or lesser value of Rsh, increased current mismatches occur due to shading, the diode
recombination current in the space charge region and connected across the shaded sub-string will act as a closed
increased reverse saturation current of the junction Io, all switch and thus bypasses that sub-string. PV modules with
these conditions representing increased losses. Increasing 60 or 72 cells usually have 3 bypass diodes (Fig. 15a).
cell temperature reduces the fill-factor as shown in Fig. 13b. Another outcome of shading of PV cells is the distortion
of the I-V and P-V curves, shown in Fig. 15b. This results in
inefficient operation of string inverter MPPT controller.
(a) (b)
Fig. 13. a. Fill-factor of a module, b. Impact of temperature on FF.
e. Parasitic Resistances
Fig. 15a. Arrangement of Fig. 15b. Shaded array
The series and shunt resistances of a PV cell, called bypass diodes in a PV module. string I-V and P-V curves.
Parasitic Resistances, results in increased I2R losses, which
In string inverters many series connected modules are
eventually results in reduced module efficiency. The series
treated as a single unit (Fig. 16a). The MPPT controller in
resistor (Rs) represents the internal resistance of the PV cell.
these inverters is at the string level and it responds to the
It comprises of the resistance of metal contacts, fingers,
least efficient module of the string. This will leave some
impurities, and resistance of the semiconductor itself [15].
modules operating below their MPP, leading to loss of
The shunt resistor (Rsh) represents the leakage resistance and
efficiency. The solution to correct this issue is that the
is responsible for the leakage current. The impacts of Rs and
MPPT algorithm must take into account the entire voltage
Rsh on the I-V curve of a PV cell are shown in Fig. 14. The
range of the string in order to detect the presence of a global
resulting reductions in area of the I-V curve leads to a
maximum instead of local maximum. Inverters with this
reduction in fill-factor, and thereby drop in cell efficiency.
capability are known as the Shade-Tolerant String Inverters.
A Micro-Inverter is another effective solution to reduce
the negative impacts of partial shading. In this scheme (Fig.
16b), each module has its own inverter that is connected in
parallel to the common AC bus. Due to parallel connection,
mismatches in currents between different modules will not
Fig. 14. Impacts of parasitic resistances on I-V characteristic.
be an issue. Micro-inverters are usually connected below
For optimum performance of a PV module, Rs must be as each module. They feature the MPPT at the module level
low as possible and Rsh must be as high as possible. The which increases array production by about 20%. However,
knowledge of these resistance values is important for micro-inverters are more expensive than string inverters.
5
variations in the Sun‟s position. By using single axis preserve water for evening peaks and summer periods. This
trackers, PV performance can be optimized against daily will also help in saving transmission cost of PV power due
variations in Sun‟s position from morning to evening and by to the already available lines of the hydro station. In Brazil,
using dual axis trackers, performance can be optimized work is in progress to install 350 MW floating PV array at a
against both daily and seasonal variations. dam in Amazon [18]. In India, few small scale canal-top PV
Module tilt angle is the angle between a PV module and a systems are already in service. At present 50 MW canal-top
horizontal surface. For small scale PV systems, modules are and 50 MW canal-bank PV projects in India are in different
usually fixed at some inclination. Several algorithms are stages of execution, spreading in 8-states: A.P., Gujarat,
available to calculate the optimum tilt angle [17]. As a rule Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, U.P., Uttarakhand and W.B [19].
of thumb, tilt angle is generally set at ±15o, where, is the Another major step forward for clean energy is the Solar
latitude angle, „+‟ for winter and „-‟ for summer period. Roadways by using PV panels to form a smart highway [20].
During the months of March and September, tilt angle will This will include: parking lots, sidewalks, motorways, cycle
be almost same as latitude angle; while during summer, tilt paths, playgrounds, garden paths etc. The solar road is made
is to be decreased and during winter, it is to be increased. by covering existing roads with PV panels. These panels are
Adjusting module tilt twice a year produce more output than strong enough to withstand heavy vehicles and are skid-
a completely fixed system, and adjusting tilt four times a resistant to reduce accidents. The Netherlands had installed
year produces little more energy. For further optimization, the world‟s first solar road (a 230 feet cycle path) in 2014
the tilt angle setting for different seasons is given in Table 6. and the French government is planning to install solar PV
Table 6. Calculation of Optimum Module Tilt Angle panels on 1000 km of road over the next five years.
Period Tilt Angle Setting Tilt at Noida Research level efficiencies of many PV technologies
March / Sept. Latitude - 2.5o 26o have been published by National Renewable Energy Lab.
Winter (Latitude x 0.9) + 29o 54.7o (NREL), USA [21]. This includes (i) multi-junction cells,
Summer (Latitude x 0.9) - 23.5o 2.2o (ii) single-junction gallium arsenide, (iii) crystalline silicon,
(iv) thin-film technologies, and (v) emerging PVs. The list
The suggested module tilt angle during various seasons at covers 26 types with the highest efficiency of 46% reported
Noida (lati: 28.57o N) is shown in Fig. 22. In some PV for multi-junction cells. Though many new cell technologies
designs, provision is available to change the angle manually are being developed, increasing efficiency of the established
in steps. For example, in the 5 MWp PV plant of NTPC at technologies is the best solution for PV cost reduction.
Port Blair (lati: 11.67o N), three slots are provided for
REFERENCES
manual tilting in steps of 12.5o, i.e., +12.5o and -12.5o,
[1] http://newsroom.unfccc.int/climate-action/renewable-energy-fully-
where, is the latitude in degrees. competitive-in-many-countries/
[2] http://www.ren21.net/wp-
content/uploads/2016/06/GSR_2016_Full_Report.pdf
[3] http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=133220
[4] http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/Tentative-State-wise-break-up-
of-Renewable-Power-by-2022.pdf
[5] Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets - IEA PVPS, International
Energy Agency report IEA PVPS T1-29:2016.
[6] http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/
[7] http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2/radiation-sun.php
Fig. 21. Impact of Fig. 22. Suggested tilt angle for [8] M. Orchin, R.S. Macomber, A.R. Pinhas et al, The Vocabulary and
incident angle. fixed solar PV system at Noida. Concepts of Organic Chemistry, New Jersey: Wiley, 2005.
[9] S. Liu, R.A. Dougal, “Dynamic multiphysics model for solar array”, IEEE
V. WAY FORWARD IN SOLAR PV AND CONCLUSIONS Trans. Energy Conv. vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 285-294, June 2002.
[10] Solar PV, Renewable Energy Technologies: Cost Analysis Series, Int. Ren.
One major drawback associated with solar PV systems is Energy Agency, vol. 1, no. 4/5, June 2012.
the low energy density of the solar radiation. For this reason, [11] S. Rühle, "Tabulated values of the Shockley-Queisser limit for single
junction solar cells", Solar Energy, vol. 130, pp. 139-147, Feb. 2016.
PV systems require large areas to the tune of 10 times as [12] M. A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa, et al, “Solar cell efficiency tables
compared to a thermal power plant. In order to limit the use (ver. 49),” Prog. in Photovoltaics, vol. 25, pp. 3–13, Jan. 2017.
[13] Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation, GSES India
of land space for harnessing solar energy, new concepts Sustainable Energy Pvt. Ltd., Dec. 2015.
such as floating PV system, solar roads etc. are emerging. [14] D.C. Jordan and S.R. Kurtz, “Photovoltaic Degradation Rates - An
Floating PV systems, also known as floatovoltaics, are Analytical Review”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Applications, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 12-29, Jan. 2013.
installed over water bodies such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, [15] http://www.pveducation.org
canals etc. Countries such as Japan, Brazil etc. are already [16] M.S. El-Shobokshy, F.M. Hussein, “Effect of the dust with different
physical properties on the performance of PV cells”, Solar Energy, vol. 51,
having few MW level floatovoltaics. A floating PV system no. 6, pp. 505-511, 1993.
will be relatively more efficient as compared to a land based [17] A Shariah, MA Akhras, IA Omari, “Optimizing the tilt angle of solar
system as these modules are naturally cooled by the water collectors”, Ren. Energy, vol. 26 pp. 587-598, 2002.
[18] http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/brazil-launches-first-
body. The reported increase in generation from a floating stage-of-10-mw-floating-pv-system_100023576/#axzz4JsT2qkCV
PV is about 10% as compared to identical land based [19] http://mnre.gov.in/schemes/canal-banks-tops/
[20] http://inhabitat.com/france-to-pave-1000-kilometers-of-road-with-solar-
systems. Besides, the impacts of dust will be less severe on panels/
water bodies. Additionally, PV panels over the water bodies [21] http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/
will reduce the water evaporation and limit algae growth.
Further advantage of floating PV system, if installed over Published in: Energy Scan
large water reservoirs of hydro power plants, is that PV can A house journal of Corporate Planning, NTPC Ltd.,
supplement hydro power during day time and thus helps to issue 27, pp. 2-8, Feb. 2017, New Delhi.