Design of Convection Section and Stacks: Exxon Engineering

FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
DESIGN OF CONVECTION Section Page

EXXON SECTION AND STACKS VIII-C 1 of 79
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999
Changes shown by ➧
CONTENTS
Section Page
SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 4
DESIGN PRACTICES............................................................................................................................. 4
INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES.............................................................................................................. 4
OTHER LITERATURE ............................................................................................................................ 4
BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................................. 4
CONVECTION SECTION ....................................................................................................................... 4
STACK .................................................................................................................................................... 4
DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................................................................. 5
CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE ............................................................................................................. 5

SHIELD SECTION .................................................................................................................................. 5
BARE TUBE SECTION........................................................................................................................... 5
EXTENDED SURFACES ........................................................................................................................ 5
Studded Tubes..................................................................................................................................... 5
Finned Tubes ....................................................................................................................................... 6
CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT ................................................................................................................ 7

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................................... 7
FLUE GAS MASS VELOCITY Gc ........................................................................................................... 9
Calculation Procedure.......................................................................................................................... 9
Design Flue Gas Mass Velocity ......................................................................................................... 10
CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN ............................................................................................................... 11

CONVECTION SECTION DUTY........................................................................................................... 11
CALCULATION PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................. 11
HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS .......................................................................................................... 12
Fired Heater Equations ...................................................................................................................... 12
Shield Section (Bottom Two Rows of Convection Section) ................................................................ 13
Overall Heat Transfer Equation.......................................................................................................... 14
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U ................................................................................................... 14
AREA CALCULATIONS........................................................................................................................ 15
INSIDE FILM COEFFICIENT hi ............................................................................................................ 16
OUTSIDE (FLUE GAS SIDE) FILM COEFFICIENT ho ......................................................................... 17
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM TUBE METAL TEMPERATURE ......................................................... 20
CALCULATION OF STUD OR FIN TIP TEMPERATURE..................................................................... 22
ALLOWANCE FOR INTERNAL COKING AND EXTERNAL FOULING................................................ 22
STACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................................... 23

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT ......................................................................... 23
STACK DIAMETER............................................................................................................................... 24
STACK LININGS................................................................................................................................... 24
EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page DESIGN OF CONVECTION
VIII-C 2 of 79 SECTION AND STACKS EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only
CONTENTS (Cont)
Section Page
STACK DESIGN PROCEDURE.................................................................................................................... 25

BASIS FOR CALCULATIONS............................................................................................................... 25
FLUE GAS PRESSURE VARIATION ................................................................................................... 25
PRESSURE LOSSES AND ALLOWANCES......................................................................................... 27
PRESSURE GAINS .............................................................................................................................. 29
STACK HEIGHT.................................................................................................................................... 29
SAMPLE PROBLEMS - CUSTOMARY UNITS............................................................................................. 30

PROBLEM 1 - CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT .............................................................................. 30
PROBLEM 2 - SHIELD SECTION DESIGN.......................................................................................... 31
PROBLEM 3 - BARE TUBE SECTION DESIGN................................................................................... 34
PROBLEM 4 - STUDDED TUBE........................................................................................................... 37
PROBLEM 5 - STUDDED TUBE SECTION DUTY ............................................................................... 39
PROBLEM 6 - STACK DESIGN............................................................................................................ 40
PROBLEM 7 - GROUND SUPPORTED STACK DESIGN.................................................................... 42
SAMPLE PROBLEMS - METRIC UNITS...................................................................................................... 44

PROBLEM 1 - CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT .............................................................................. 44
PROBLEM 2 - SHIELD SECTION DESIGN.......................................................................................... 45
PROBLEM 3 - BARE TUBE SECTION DESIGN................................................................................... 48
PROBLEM 4 - STUDDED TUBE........................................................................................................... 50
PROBLEM 5 - STUDDED TUBE SECTION DUTY ............................................................................... 52
PROBLEM 6 - STACK DESIGN............................................................................................................ 53
PROBLEM 7 - GROUND SUPPORTED STACK DESIGN.................................................................... 55
NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................................................ 57
COMPUTER PROGRAMS ............................................................................................................................ 61

GUIDANCE AND CONSULTING .......................................................................................................... 61
LITERATURE........................................................................................................................................ 61
AVAILABLE PROGRAMS ..................................................................................................................... 61

ENGINEERING Date
CONTENTS (Cont)
Section Page
FIGURES
Figure 1A Cylindrical Stud Extended Surface ..................................................................................... 62
Figure 1B Helical Fin Extended Surface ............................................................................................. 62
Figure 2 Arrangement of Convection Section Tubes ........................................................................ 63
Figure 3 Temperature Factor F1 ....................................................................................................... 64
Figure 4 Partial Pressure of CO2 + H2O in Flue Gas ....................................................................... 65
Figure 5 Convection Section Characteristic Factor, F ............................................................................................. 66
Figure 6 Stud Efficiency Factors E, E′, E′′ ........................................................................................ 67
Figure 7A Stud Efficiency Factors E, E′ for 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) Diameter Carbon Steel Studs.............. 68
Figure 7B Stud Tip Temperatures Factors E′′ for 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) Diameter Carbon Steel Studs .... 69
Figure 8 Fin Efficiency factors E, E′ .................................................................................................. 70
Figure 9 Fin Tip Temperature Factor E′′ ........................................................................................... 71
Figure 10 Flue Gas Pressure Gains And Losses................................................................................ 72
Figure 11 Pressure Losses in Bends .................................................................................................. 73
Figure 12 Ducting Arrangements ........................................................................................................ 74
Figure 13 Convection Section Friction Factor ..................................................................................... 75
Figure 13A Convection Section Friction Factor (Equilateral Pitch)........................................................ 76
Figure 14 Approximate Stack Temperature Losses for Steel Stacks.................................................. 77
Figure 15 Approximate Stack Exit Temperatures for Concrete Stacks ............................................... 78
Figure 16 Stack Effect ........................................................................................................................ 79
Revision Memo
12/99 The highlights of these revisions are:
1. Page 4 Updated Reference List
2. Page 4 Updated Background information on Stacks
3. Page 5 Updated Extended Surfaces information
4. Page 6 Updated table to include stud spacing
5. Page 13 Updated equations for Shield Tube Heat Density
6. Page 16 Added table for equivalent lengths between studs and thick fins
7. Page 16 Replaced equations for inside heat transfer coefficients with the
Dittus Boelter equation
8. Pages 20-23 Corrected tube metal temperature calculations
9. Page 23 Corrected equation for equivalent tube conductivity
10. Page 24 Updated information in Stack Linings section
11. Page 25 Updated density equations to reflect effect of molecular weight
12. Page 26 Added section on Flue Gas Pressure Variation and added
graph for draft in a furnace
13. Page 41 Updated frictional pressure drop formula to reflect changes in
DP XIV, Fluid Flow
14. Pages 32-59 Updated examples to reflect changes in equations
15. Page 57-60 Updated units in Nomenclature
16. Page 61 Added Computational Fluid Dynamics to Computer Programs
listing
17. Relocated TMT calculation from Appendix to Convection
Section Design
18. Deleted Figures 3A and 3B - Heat transfer coefficients for
fluids in tubes
19. Deleted Figure 4 - Inside film coefficients for fluids containing
hydrogen (Colburn correlation)
20. Page 77 Corrected Metric axes in Figure 14

Date ENGINEERING
SCOPE
This section contains calculation procedures to be used for designing convection sections and stacks for aIl fired heaters. Where
specialized procedures are required for the convection section design, they are noted.
The procedures outlined below are based on conventional single service convection section arrangements, with countercurrent
flow of flue gas and process fluid. Flue gas flow is upward, and the process fluid flows downward from the top of the convection
section to the bottom (see SHIELD SECTION). Although the basic equations are unchanged, other arrangements, as well as
auxiliary services such as steam superheaters, will require modifications to these procedures.
➧ REFERENCES
DESIGN PRACTICES
Other sections of Section VIII, Fired Heaters
Section XIV Fluid Flow
INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES
IP 7-1-1, Fired Heaters
OTHER LITERATURE
ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, 1969.
General Electric Company, Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow (1970).
Grimison, E. D., Cross Flow of Gases Over Tube Banks, ASME Transactions PRO-59-8 (1937).
Tenner, A. R. and Golan, L. P., Graphic Procedure for Calculating Heat Transfer Coefficient and Flow Regimes for Single and
Two Phase Flow in Tubes, ER&E Report No. EE.6ER.71 (March 1971).
BACKGROUND
CONVECTION SECTION
Flue gases leave the fired heater radiant section and pass through the convection section before entering the stack. At flue gas
temperatures below 1500 to 1800°F (815 to 980°C), radiant heat transfer becomes relatively uneconomical, and if further heat
recovery from the flue gas is desired, this is more economically accomplished by convective heat transfer. Typically, 35 to 40%
of the total fired heater duty is obtained in modern extended surface convection sections. The convection section must be
designed to transfer heat economically to the process fluid, and at the same time not to impede unduly the flue gas leaving the
fired heater. Since the flue gas heat transfer coefficient on the outside tube surface is relatively poor, extended surface is usually
used to increase heat transfer.
➧ STACK
The purpose of the stack is to create the necessary draft for flue gases to flow properly through the fired heater system and to
dispose of the flue gases. This must be done without imposing a positive pressure on any part of the fired heater box, since the
construction box is not pressure-tight and flue gases leaking out can cause severe damage to the fired heater casing and
structure. Also, flue gas leakage could seriously injure nearby personnel. Adequate draft is also necessary for natural draft
burners, to inspirate the required combustion air. The hot stack gases must also be discharged at a safe height with respect to
surrounding equipment (towers and other structures).
Since flue gases contain pollutants such as SOx, NOx, and particulates, the stack must be designed to discharge these gases in
a manner that avoids causing a local pollution problem. Stack height and flue gas exit velocity are important design variables
that allow the stack to discharge and disperse pollutants for the purpose of meeting regulatory emission requirements. Turndown
conditions (as well as design conditions) must be considered, since ground-level concentrations of pollutants from the flue gases
are affected by the flue gas exit velocity.

ENGINEERING Date
DEFINITIONS
See Section VIII-A.
CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE
SHIELD SECTION
The first two rows of the convection section are exposed to radiation from the radiant section and are known as “shield tubes."
The radiant heat transfer to these two rows is included in the total fired heater radiant duty (see Section VIII-B). Since the shield
tubes also pick up some heat by convection, the total shield duty is the sum of these radiant and convection heat duties.
Extended surface must not be used on the shield tubes, since the resulting heat pickup and heat densities would be excessive,
causing high tube metal temperatures and/or vapor blanketing.
IP 7-1-1 requires the shield tubes to be of the same material as the radiant tubes. An exception can be made where the shield
service is different from the radiant service, such as a steam generator coil in a process fired heater.
BARE TUBE SECTION

Although extended surface should be used as low in the convection section as possible after the shield section, this is usually not
practical for the tubes immediately following the shield tubes. Flue gas temperatures may still be high and could cause
excessively high heat densities and tube metal temperatures. Therefore, a few rows of bare tubes are usually required before
extended surfaces can be used.
IP 7-1-1 requires at least one bare row after the shield in all cases.
EXTENDED SURFACES
➧ Selection of Extended Surface Type - The type of extended surface to be used is based on the fuel to be fired in the fired
heater.
1. Stud type and thick-fin type extended surfaces are the only types that may be used if heavy liquid fuels [containing greater
than 0.01% ash and 25° API or lower, ρ = 56.4 lb/ft3 (904 kg/m3) or greater] are to be fired. Figure 1A shows a studded
tube.
2. Thin-fin type extended surface should be used only when fuel gas or light liquid fuels [containing less than 0.01% ash and
above 25° API, ρ less than 56.4 lb/ft3 (904 kg/m3)] are to be fired. Figure 1B shows a finned tube.
In fired heaters where a number of fuels are to be fired, the heaviest fuel governs the selection of extended surface type. Note
that in fired heaters where heavy liquid fuels are to be fired at any time in the future, studded or thick-finned tubes should be
used. Conversion of a fired heater originally designed for only gas firing to permit heavy liquid fuel firing would require major
revamping of the fired heater. The criteria for selecting thick-fins versus studs is usually based on cost and availability.
Studded Tubes
1. Application - Cylindrical studs are resistance welded to the tube in circular or helical rows. Carbon steel studs, 1/2-in.
(12.7 mm) diameter, and spaced on rows 5/8 in. (15.9 mm) apart (19.2 rows per ft of tube or 63.0 rows per m of tube) are
standard and should be so specified. Other types of studded surface, including 1/4 and 3/8 in. (6.4 and 9.5 mm) diameters
and elliptical shaped studs, are available. However, these should not be used because of their disadvantages, such as
reduced mechanical strength and poorer cleanability.
2. Temperature - Carbon steel studs should be limited to about 1050°F (565°C) maximum tip temperature, based on stud
oxidation considerations. CS studs can be applied to any tube material. Stress relieving is not required. It is generally not
economical to use alloy studs.
➧ 3. Stud Arrangement - Studs can be applied on the entire tube diameter, or on just the bottom half of the tube (the side facing
the flow of flue gas). Half-studded tubes (studded along the bottom half of the tube) were used in the past but should no
longer be used. Fully studded tubes are recommended.
4. Stud Length - Studs are available in length increments of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm), starting at 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) long (5/8 in. or
15.9 mm studs can also be obtained, but they must be cut to length by hand and should therefore not normally be used.)
The maximum possible stud length is based on manufacturing capabilities, and depends on tube size, since the outside
diameter of the tube and studs is limited to 11 1/8 in. (282.6 mm). Maximum stud lengths should usually be limited to about
2 in. (50 mm) because stud efficiency drops sharply with increasing length.
Selection of stud lengths depends upon convection section geometry and flue gas mass velocity, as discussed below. Short
studs should be used as soon as possible in the lower convection section, as limited by stud tip, tube and film temperatures;
and stud length should be increased as flue gas temperature decreases through the convection section.

Date ENGINEERING
CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE (Cont)

➧ 5. Studs per Row - The number of studs per circumferential row depends upon tube diameter. The number of studs per row
should be limited to the maximum values listed below:
OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.563 6.0 6.625 8.625
OR TUBE, IN.
mm 63.5 76.2 88.9 101.6 114.3 127.0 141.3 152.4 168.3 219.1
Studs per circumferential row 8 10 12 12 14 16 18 20 22 28
BASED ON ROWS SPACED AT 5/8 in. (15.9 mm)
Studs per foot 153.6 192.0 230.4 230.4 268.8 307.2 345.6 384.0 422.4 537.6
Studs per meter 504.0 630.0 756.0 756.0 882.0 1008.0 1134.0 1260.0 1386.0 1764.0
Finned Tubes
1. Application - Thin-fins are continuously wound around the tube in a spiral, with up to about 5 turns per in. (2 turns per cm).
Thick-fins are also continuously wound in a spiral, with up to about 3 turns per in. (1.2 turns per cm). The fins should be
continuously welded to the tube by a fillet or resistance weld. These welds are generally required over intermittent spot-
welding attachments, because of their better heat transfer capabilities and their stronger bond to the tube (see IP 7-5-1).
➧ 2. Fin Type - Continuous solid fins (Figure 1B) are made by stretching a continuous strip of metal around the tube. As
covered by IP 7-5-1, solid fins are preferred over serrated fins, which are formed by partially splitting the metal strip before
winding it around the tube. Solid fins have superior mechanical rigidity. Calculation procedures given in this section are
based on solid fins. It may not be possible to obtain solid fins for all combinations of tube diameter, fin height, and fin
material due to mechanical constraints imposed by the manufacturing process.
3a. Availability of Thin-Fins - A variety of fins are available, as follows:
Fin height from 1/4 to 1-1/2 in. (from 6.4 to 38.1 mm).
Fin thicknesses from 0.02 to 0.06 in. (from 0.5 to 1.5 mm).
Fin spacing of up to10 fins per in. of tube length (fins as close as 2.5 mm).
Not all combinations of these variables are available. For economical design, fins should be based on the following:
Fin height of 1/2, 3/4 or 1 in. (12.7, 19.1 or 25.4 mm).
Fin thickness of 0.05 in. (1.3 mm).
Spacing of 4 to 5 fins per in. (5.1 to 6.4 mm).
3b. Availability of Thick-Fins
Fin height from 1/2 to 1-1/4 in. (12.7 to 30.6 mm).
Fin thicknesses of 0.105 in. (2.7 mm).
Fin spacing of 1 to 4 fins per in. (6.4 to 25.4 mm).
To minimize fouling potential, it is recommended that a maximum height of 3/4 in. (19 mm) and a spacing of 3 fins per in.
(8.5 mm) be used.
4. Material - Almost any fin material can be attached to any tube material. Since fins are much thinner than studs, fin materials
should be selected for zero oxidation at the maximum tip temperature. The higher the tip temperature, the better grade fin is
required. The following fin materials are commonly used:
MAXIMUM FIN TIP TEMPERATURE

FIN MATERIAL
°F °C
CS 850 455
11-13 Cr 1250 675
18/8 Cr/Ni 1450 790
25/20 Cr/Ni 1800 980

ENGINEERING Date
CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The convection section tube spacing and layout are based largely on process considerations, such as the required or optimum
flue gas mass velocities, heat transfer rate, etc. However, the following mechanical considerations also limit or influence the
convection section layout.
Length Lc - The effective length of the convection section (and shield) tubes depends on the particular type of fired heater being
designed. In general, the maximum convection section length permitted by the radiant section design should be used.
Convection section return bends should always be located in header boxes. Therefore, the inside length of the convection
section box is the tube effective length.
Width Wc - Each horizontal row in the convection section should have at least 4 tubes or the number or passes in the fired
heater, whichever is greater. (In very small fired heaters, 2 or 3 tubes per row may be used.)
If the convection section is long enough to require one or more intermediate tubesheets, it should not be made wider than about
14 ft (4.3 m), because of difficulties encountered in the design and fabrication of intermediate tubesheets larger than this. Short
convection sections without intermediate tubesheets may be designed wider than 14 ft (4.3 m).
Number of Passes - In vaporizing services, the number of tube passes in the convection section should be the same as in the
radiant section, each pass being connected with its own crossover. In all-vapor services, where distribution can be made by a
natural split, a different number of passes may be used in the radiant and convection sections. Flows may be combined at the
convection section outlet and redistributed at the radiant section inlet. See Section VIII-J.
Return Bends - Whenever possible, the tube arrangements and layout should permit the use of standard short-radius 180°
U-bends (center-to-center spacing = 2 times nominal diameter = 2 IPS). Long-radius U-bends (3 IPS) are used in unusual
situations.
For other cases, where non-standard spacings are required, the following tables list minimum tube spacing for convection section
tubes, based on clearances required for fabrication. Since return bends purchased for non-standard spacing are all custom
made, any spacing above the minimum is obtainable.
STANDARD SPACING MINIMUM SPACING

PIPE SIZE CENTER-TO-CENTER CENTER-TO-CENTER
(IPS) in. Nominal (mm) in. mm in. mm
2 50 4 102 4 102
3 80 6 152 6 152
4 100 8 203 6.75 171
5 125 10 254 8.25 210
6 150 12 305 9.5 241
8 200 16 406 12 305
STANDARD SPACING MINIMUM SPACING

TUBING SIZE CENTER-TO-CENTER CENTER-TO-CENTER
(O.D.) in. (O.D.) (mm) in. mm in. mm
3 76.2 6 152 5 127
4 101.6 8 203 6 152
5 127.0 10 254 7.5 191
6 152.4 12 305 9 229

Date ENGINEERING
CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT (Cont)

Some current vendor designs employ plug headers in special applications, such as delayed coker service. Consult a
manufacturer's catalog or fired heater design consultant for the minimum center-to-center spacing if less than the standard 2
times IPS spacing is desired.
Tube Arrangement and Spacing (see Figure 2) - Although convection section tubes may be placed on either a triangular or
rectangular pitch, an equilateral or isosceles triangular pitch is always used for fired heater convection sections. (Heat transfer
coefficients for bare tubes on rectangular pitch have been included with the heat transfer equations since a rectangular pitch is
common in offsite boilers). If further information on rectangular pitch convection sections is required, consult the Heat Transfer
Equipment Section of EETD.
Tubes are usually placed on equilateral triangular pitch. However, where the number of tubes per horizontal row equals the
number of passes, the tubes may be located on an isosceles triangular pattern. The base (tube-to-tube spacing in the horizontal
row) may be varied to give the desired flue gas mass velocity.
When extended surface convection tubes are used, the minimum spacing between fin or stud tips on adjacent tubes is 1-1/2 in.
(38.1 mm). This is in any direction and is based on minimum requirements for mechanical design of tube supports. This
requirement limits the maximum length of extended surface that can be used for a given tube-to-tube spacing.
A minimum spacing of 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) should be provided between the fin or stud tip and the convection section side wall.
Corbelling - Corbelling must be provided for each convection section row to prevent bypassing of flue gas up the side of the
convection section. Figure 2d shows an approximate layout of the corbelling and convection section tubes. The normal
maximum width of corbelling is 6 in. (152 mm). The same size corbelling is usually used throughout the convection section.
Corbelling reduces the open area for flow of flue gases, increasing the flue gas mass velocity and heat transfer rate. Therefore,
corbelling should not be provided on the bottom shield row, since no increase in heat transfer is desired on this row.
Tube Supports - The standard maximum unsupported length for horizontal fired heater tubes is 35 times the tube O.D. (except
for steam cracker shield tubes, which require more support). Convection sections longer than this will require alloy intermediate
tube sheets to reduce the unsupported length. For some cases with very high tube metal temperatures (e.g., Steam Crackers)
the 35:1 rule is recognized as being excessive and shorter tube spans are required. Likewise, for lower tube metal temperatures
this criteria may be overly restrictive. Refer to W. B. Bedesem's ER&E memorandum 52870, of April 19, 1973, in order to
perform more accurate calculations if necessary.
PIPE SIZE MAXIMUM UNSUPPORTED LENGTH

(IPS) in. Nominal (mm) ft m
4 100 13.1 4.0
5 125 16.2 4.9
6 150 19.3 5.9
Convection Section Cleaning - The requirement for sootblowers and attendant erosion protection of convection section
refractory walls (see Section VIII-H) has a significant effect on fired heater investment. The convection section layout should
take into consideration the optimum arrangement of sootblowers, tubesheets and tubes.
Consideration should be given to widening the convection section as a means of minimizing the number of sootblower rows
required. The wider convection section permits the use of more tube surface per row, resulting in fewer vertical rows to be
covered by sootblowers. Even though the total number of tubes is increased (lower flue gas mass velocity and heat transfer
coefficient), the reduction in sootblower investment would more than compensate for the increased number of tubes. However,
reducing the number of sootblowers by this means is often not possible. Conventional flue gas mass velocities should then be
used.

ENGINEERING Date
FLUE GAS MASS VELOCITY Gc

One of the main variables in developing the convection section layout is the flue gas mass velocity.
Calculation Procedure
Wf
Gc = Eq. (1)
Af
where: Gc = Flue gas mass velocity through convection section (for heat transfer calculations),
Ib/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)
Wf = Flue gas rate, lb/sec (kg/s)
Af = Free cross-sectional area for flue gas flow, ft2 (m2)
Fg FG
Wf = (Customary) Eq. (2)
3600
Wf = Fg FG (Metric) Eq. (2)M
where: Fg = Gross fuel required, Ib/hr (kg/s)

FG = Lb flue gas/lb fuel (kg flue gas/kg fuel) (see Section VIII-M)
Af = L c Wc − R Eq. (3)
where: Lc = Convection section length, ft (m)

Wc = Convection section width ft (m)
R = Restriction to flow area for flue gas due to tubes, corbelling, and extended surface, ft2
(m2) (see below)
1. Shield Section Restriction Rsh
Do
Rsh = ( Lc Nt ) (Customary) Eq. (4a)
12
R sh =
Do
1000
(L c Nt ) (Metric) Eq. (4a)M
where: Rsh = Restriction in shield section, ft2 (m2)

Do = Tube outside diameter, in. (mm)
Nt = Number of tubes per row
Although not accounted for in this calculation, corbelling should be specified for the second shield
row.
2. Bare Tube Section Restriction Rb
R b = R sh +
C
12
Lc ( ) (Customary) Eq. (4b)
C
R b = R sh + (L c ) (Metric) Eq. (4b)M
1000
where: Rb = Restriction in bare section (from tubes and corbelling), ft2 (m2)
C = Corbelling width, in. (mm)

Date ENGINEERING

3. Studded Section Restriction Rs
hs
Rs = Rb + (Lc Nt ) (Customary) Eq. (4c)
15
hs
Rs = Rb + (L c N t ) (Metric) Eq. (4c)M
1250
where: Rs = Restriction in studded section, ft2 (m2)

hs = Stud length, in. (mm)
Note: Since studs in adjacent rows on the tube are staggered, the restriction of studded tubes to flue gas
flow is based on only every other stud in the plane of the tube row acting as a restriction to flow.
Eq. (4c) is based on 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter studs on 5/8 in. (15.9 mm) pitch. A more general
form of the equation is:
h d 
Rs = Rb +  s s  (Lc Nt ) (Customary) Eq. (4c1)
 12 ps 
 h d 
Rs = R b +  s s  (L c N t ) (Metric) Eq. (4c1)M

 1000 p s 
where: ds = Stud diameter, in. (mm)

ps = Stud row pitch, in. (mm)
4. Finned Section Restriction Rf
Rf = Rb +
hf
6
(
t f nf Lc Nt ) (Customary) Eq. (4d)
(
hf hf Lc Nt )
R f = Rb + (Metric) Eq. (4d)M
500 nf
where: Rf = Restriction in finned section, ft2 (m2)

hf = Fin height, in. (mm)
nf = Number of fins per in. (fin spacing, mm)
tf = Fin thickness, in. (mm)
Design Flue Gas Mass Velocity

1. Where stack heights are based on draft requirements, recommended maximum flue gas mass velocities are found in the
following tabulation. For combination firing applications, the heaviest liquid fuel is controlling.
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FLUE GAS MASS VELOCITIES, Gc

FUEL
lb/sec ft2 kg/s•m2
Clean or Natural Gas 0.5 to 0.6 2.5 to 3.0
Low Metals Fuel Oil and 0.4 to 0.5 2.0 to 2.5

Sour Fuel Gas
High Metals Fuel Oil 0.3 to 0.4 1.5 to 2.0
(Pitch)

ENGINEERING Date

These recommendations are for the portion of the convection section with the highest mass velocity (i.e., the longest
extended surface). Mass velocities in sections of the convection section with bare tubes or shorter extended surface may fall
below the recommended ranges.
These ranges of maximum mass velocity are considered optimum for convection section design and should be used if
practical. Under certain conditions, as discussed below, higher mass velocities should be used. In other cases, lower mass
velocities may be advantageous, such as to minimize the number of sootblowers by making the convection section wider, as
previously discussed. However, design flue gas mass velocities below about 0.2 lb/sec ft2 (1.0 kg/s m2) should be avoided,
because of poor flue gas flow characteristics.
2. If the flue gas mass velocity calculated above is higher than the recommended range for the particular fuel, the convection
section layout should be revised. More tubes may be added to each convection section row or the tube to tube spacing in
the row may be increased. In either case, the convection section width (Wc) will also increase. Preferentially, the number of
tubes per row should be increased. However, the total number of tubes per row should be a multiple of the number of
passes, i.e., a two-pass fired heater should have 4, 6, or 8 tubes per row in the convection section.
Under certain conditions, the number of tubes per row can deviate from this principle. For example, a 4-pass fired heater
could have 6 tubes per row (Figure 2c). One pass would have two tubes in one row and one tube in the next row. The next
pass would have one tube in the first row then two tubes in the next row, etc. However, care must be taken so that the total
heat input to each pass is equal. Also note that this arrangement requires an equilateral triangular tube pitch.
Where the number of convection tubes per row equals the number of passes, as previously discussed, the tube spacing in
the row may be varied to give the desired mass velocity. This spacing should be used for the entire convection section.
3. Where stack heights are set by pollution considerations rather than draft requirements, flue gas mass velocities higher than
those shown above are acceptable. However, in these cases the pressure drop across the convection section should never
be more than one half the total draft provided by the stack.
4. Fired heaters equipped with induced draft fans may be designed with higher flue gas mass velocities. However, the
necessity for bypassing the fan during fan outages and sending flue gas directly to the stack should be considered. The
optimum velocity should be based on an economic study of fan cost (investment and operating cost) versus convection
section investment savings. In general, with induced draft fans, a mass velocity of 0.7 to 0.9 lb/sec ft2 (3.5 to 4.4 kg/s m2) is
optimum.
5. In convection sections where flue gas flow is forced by a positive pressure, the mass velocity should also be higher. CO
boilers are typical of this situation. Flue gas mass velocities in the range of about 0.8 to 1.2 Ib/sec ft2 (3.9 to 5.9 kg/s m2)
should be considered. The convection section in these cases must be completely sealed to prevent hot flue gases leaking
out through any openings.
CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN
CONVECTION SECTION DUTY

This equals the total fired heater duty minus the radiant section duty. Remember that the shield tubes (bottom two rows in
convection section) have received part of their heat through radiation, in addition to the convection duty. The flue gas leaving the
radiant section is considered to have given up its radiant heat to both the radiant tubes and shield tubes.
CALCULATION PROCEDURE
The procedure outlined below is used to calculate the required convection section surface. This procedure consists of a series of
trial and error solutions. The Fired Heater Simulation Program 3558 may be used for these calculations.
The necessary equations for design of the convection section are presented following this calculation procedure.
Step 1 - Divide the convection section into smaller increments of several tube rows each. Start calculations at the shield section
and work upward to coil inlet.
Step 2 - By a heat balance around the radiant section, the crossover temperature (oil side temperature out of shield section) can
be determined. The shield radiant duty must be calculated and separated from the radiant section duty. The flue gas
temperature into the shield section will be the bridgewall temperature previously determined.
Step 3 - For each new section being designed, calculate the maximum oil film temperature, tube metal temperature, and stud/fin
tip temperature to insure they are not excessive. This should be done for the first row of each new material, extended surface,
etc. used. These calculations should all be based on entering flue gas and leaving oil temperatures for that row.

Date ENGINEERING
CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN (Cont)

Excessive temperatures cause the following:
1. Excessive oil film temperature: coking or product degradation.
2. Excessive stud/fin tip temperature: oxidation.
3. Excessive tube metal temperature: oxidation, corrosion, loss of strength.
Step 4 - If oil film, tube metal, or stud/fin tip temperatures are excessive, heat transfer should be reduced as follows:
1. For bare tubes, reduce flue gas mass velocity and/or increase inside film coefficient by reducing tube size and/or increasing
tube spacing.
2. For extended surface tubes, reduce stud or fin height, reduce fin pitch, or use bare tubes. It is often necessary to use a
number of bare tube rows above the shield rows to prevent excessive temperatures in the lowest row of extended surface
tubes.
Step 5 - For each new section being designed, determine the inlet and outlet flue gas and oil side temperatures. The inlet flue
gas and outlet oil side temperature are known from the previous section. Assume an oil side temperature entering the new
section, and by heat balance, calculate the flue gas temperature leaving this section. (Alternatively, assume leaving flue gas
temperature or heat absorbed, and calculate the others by heat balance.)
Plots of heat absorbed vs. fluid temperature and flue gas temperature are useful for this purpose.
Step 6 - Calculate the heat absorbed for this section, using the heat transfer equations given below based on average flue gas
temperature, and check against the assumed heat absorbed or oil inlet temperature.
Step 7 - By trial and error, recalculate until the assumed heat absorbed or oil inlet temperature checks the calculated value.
Step 8 - Proceed to the next section of the convection section and repeat Steps 2 through 7 above. It is usually economical to
use two or three different stud lengths in a single convection section, to maintain reasonable oil film and metal temperatures. For
finned tubes, a number of combinations of fin height, fin density and/or materials can be used.
Step 9 - Proceed as above until sufficient surface has been provided to transfer the entire convection section duty.
Step 10 - Check the convection and radiant layout to see that piping to the convection section and from the radiant section are
best suited for the overall unit plot plan.
HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS
Fired Heater Equations

1. Total Fired Heater Duty
Qa = Qr + Qsr + Qc Eq. (5)
where: Qa = Total fired heater heat duty, Btu/hr (W)

Qr = Heat absorbed by radiant section surface, Btu/hr (W)
Qsr = Shield section radiant heat duty, Btu/hr (W)
Qc = Total heat absorbed in convection section, excluding shield section radiant duty,
Btu/hr (W)
2. Total Radiant Duty
Q tr = Qr + Qsr Eq. (6)
where: Qtr = Total fired heater radiant duty, Btu/hr (W) (Note that bridgewall temperature (Tbw) is
based on Qtr)
3. Total Convection Section Duty
Q tc = Qc + Qsr Eq. (7)
where: Qtc = Total convection section heat duty, Btu/hr (W). (Note that Qtc is the basis of the crossover
temperature from the convection section to the radiant section.) Also note that Qtr and
Qtc overlap, since both include the shield radiant duty, Qsr.

ENGINEERING Date
Shield Section (Bottom Two Rows of Convection Section)

1. Total Heat Transfer
Qs = Qsr + Qsc Eq. (8)
where: Qs = Total shield section duty Btu/hr (W)

Qsc = Heat transferred in shield section by convection, Btu/hr (W)
2. Shield Section Radiant Duty Qsr - The shield tubes are directly exposed to the radiant section and absorb a portion of the
total radiant duty. This duty is included in the heat absorbed in cooling the flue gases down to the bridgewall temperature.
Qsr = L c Wc φs Eq. (9)
where: Lc = Convection section length, ft (m)

Wc = Convection section width, ft (m)
φs = Radiant heat density on front face of shield tubes, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
For most process fired heaters, φs can be considered equal to the radiant section front face heat density:
➧ 3. Shield Tube Front Face Heat Density φs
φs = C1 φ1−side Eq. (10)
where: φ1 side = Average radiant section heat density based on one-side firing, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
 (T + 460 ) 4 − T
φs = 
bw (
mas + 460 )
4
 φ la FBL (Customary) Eq. (10a)
 (Tbw + 655 ) 4 − (Tma + 460 ) 4 
 
φs = 
(
 T + 273 4 − T
bw ) (
mas + 273
4
)
 φ la FBL (Metric) Eq. (10a)M
(
 (Tbw + 381) 4 − T ma + 273 4 
  )
where: Tbw = Bridgewall temperature, °F (°C)
Tma = Length average radiant tube metal temperature, °F (°C)
For steam reforming fired heaters, refer to Section VIII-E for Tma. For process fired
heaters, Tma should be calculated on the basis of φr and the average bulk fluid
temperature in the radiant section (uncoked), and assuming no maldistribution of heat
input (C1 • C2 • C3 = 1.0)
Tmas= Length average shield tube metal temperature (on front 180 of all shield tubes), °F (°C)
= 0.866 Tms – 0.266 Tb1 + 0.4 Tb2 Eq. (55)
Tms = Maximum shield tube metal temperature, °F (°C) (see below)
Tb1 = Process fluid temperature leaving the shield section, °F (°C) (crossover temperature)
Tb2 = Process fluid temperature entering the shield section, °F (°C)
φla = Radiant section front face length average heat density, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
= C1 φr
φr = Radiant section average heat density, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
C1 = Peripheral maldistribution of heat around tube. See Section VIII-B.
C2 = Vertical maldistribution of heat around tube. See Section VIII-B.
C3 = Luminosity factor. See Section VIII-B.
FBL = Mean beam length correction factor (Use 1.5)

Date ENGINEERING
Overall Heat Transfer Equation

Heat transfer in the convection section (except for shield radiant heat duty) is determined by the following equation:
qc = U A (LMTD ) Eq. (11)
where: qc = Heat transferred in the section being designed, Btu/hr (W)

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
A = Total outside surface area for the section being designed, ft2 (m2)
LMTD = Logarithmic mean temperature difference between flue gas and process fluid, °F (°C)
LMTD =
(Tg1 − Tb1) − (Tg2 − Tb2 ) Eq. (12)
 Tg1 − Tb1 
In  
 Tg2 − Tb2 
 
where: Tg1 = Flue gas temperature entering the section, °F (°C) (see Figure 2a)
Tb1 = Process fluid temperature leaving the section, °F (°C)
Tg2 = Flue gas temperature leaving the section, °F (°C)
Tb2 = Process fluid temperature entering the section, °F (°C)
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U

This coefficient takes into consideration the resistances of the fluid side film coefficient, the tube wall and the flue gas side
coefficient.
1 1 A   1 A   ta 
= +  o    +  o
h  A 

k 
 (Customary) Eq. (13)
U ho  Ai   i  m  m
1 1 A   1   Ao   ta  −3
= +  o    +     x 10 (Metric) Eq. (13)M
U ho  Ai   hi   Am   km 
where: U = Overall coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)

ho = Outside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
Ao = Total outside surface area, (includes extended surface, if any) ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ai = Inside tube surface area, ft2/ft (m2/m)
hi = Inside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 F (W/m2 °C)
Am = Area at mean tube diameter ft2/ft = 0.262 (Do – ta)
or metric [m2/m = 3.14 x 10-3 (Do – ta)] Eq. (14)
ta = Average thickness of tube wall, in. (mm)
Btu / hr ft 2
km = Thermal conductivity of tube wall, o
(W/m °C)
F / in.
(see Section VIII-B)

ENGINEERING Date
AREA CALCULATIONS
Ao = A e + Ab Eq. (15)
where: Ao = Area of total outside surface, ft2/ft (m2/m)

Ae = Area of extended surface on tube, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ab = Area of exposed bare tube surface, ft2/ft (m2/m)
1. Studded Tubes
Ae = 0.209 hs ns + 0.0262 ns (Customary) Eq. (16)
−3 −3
A e = 2.51 x 10 h s n s + 7.98 x 10 ns (Metric) Eq. (16)M
A b = 0.262 Do − 0.0262 ns (Customary) Eq. (17)
−3
A b = 3.14 x 10 D o − 7.98 x 10 −3 n s (Metric) Eq. (17)M
where: Do = Tube outside diameter, in. (mm)

hs = Stud length, in. (mm)
ns = Number of studs per circular row
Note: Eqs. (16) and (17) are valid for 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter studs on circular rows with 5/8
in. (15.9 mm) pitch. General equations are:
d   d2s 
A e = 0.262  s  hs ns + 0.0654   ns (Customary) Eq. (16a)
 ps   ps 
 
d   d 2s 
Ae = 3.14 x 10 −3  s  h n + 7.85 x 10 −4  n (Metric) Eq. (16a)M
p  s s  ps  s
 s   
 d2 
A b = 0.262 Do − 0.0654  s  ns (Customary) Eq. (17a)
 ps 
 
 d s2 
A b = 3.14 x 10 −3
D o − 7.85 x 10 −4  n (Metric) Eq. (17a)M
 ps  s
 
where: ds = Stud diameter, in. (mm)


Date ENGINEERING

2. Finned Tubes
Ae = 0.131 nf (D 2
f − Do2 + 2 Df t f ) (Customary) Eq. (18)
A e = 1.57 x 10

−3

(
/ n f  • D 2f − D o2 + 2 D f t f ) (Metric) Eq. (18)M
Ab = 0.262 Do (1 − t f nf ) (Customary) Eq. (19)
A b = 3.14 x 10 −3
D o (1 − t f / n f ) (Metric) Eq. (19)M
where: nf = Number of fins per in. (fin spacing, mm)

Df = Fin outside diameter, in. (mm)
Df = Do + 2hf Eq. (20)
where: hf = Fin height, in. (mm)

➧ The table below shows the equivalent extended surface heights between thick fins and studs for various pipe sizes. The
following standard dimensions are used for thick fins: height of 3/4 in. (19 mm), spacing of 3 fins per in. (8.5 mm), and a thickness
of 0.105 in. (2.7 mm). Half-inch (12.7 mm) stud diameters are assumed having the standard 5/8 in. (15.9 mm) stud pitch. This
table should be applied to convection section geometries in oil-fired heaters, where thick fins and studs are typically used.
NOM. / OD THICK FINS (AO) STUDS: EQUIVALENT hS ( @ nS )
(in.) (mm) ft2 / ft sq m / m (in.) (mm)

3 / 3.500 76.2 / 88.9 6.047 1.844 2.041 (12) 51.9 (12)
4 / 4.500 101.6 / 114.3 7.487 2.283 2.152 (14) 54.7 (14)
5 / 5.563 127.0 / 141.3 9.017 2.749 2.006 (18) 50.9 (18)
6 / 6.625 152.4 / 168.3 10.547 3.215 1.913 (22) 48.6 (22)
8 / 8.625 203.2 / 219.1 13.426 4.093 1.904 (28) 48.4 (28)
INSIDE FILM COEFFICIENT hi

➧ 1. Single Phase
For single-phase turbulent flow heat transfer calculations, the Dittus Boelter correlation is used. The equation is rearranged
and grouped into two terms that describe the process data and the geometric data.
0.8 0.4 k
hi = 0.023 Re D Pr Eq. (21)
D
hi = φ1 φ 2 Eq. (21a)

ENGINEERING Date

0.8
G
φ1 = 18.6 0.2
Eq. (21b)
D
0.8
G
φ1 = 23.0 0.2
Eq. (21b)M
D
0.4
 Cp 
φ 2 = k 0.6  
 Eq. (21c)
 µ 
where: ReD = Reynolds number based on the inside diameter, D, dimensionless

Pr = Prandtl number, dimensionless
G = Mass velocity of process fluid, lb/s-ft2 (kg/s m2)
D = Inside diameter of tube, in. (mm)
k = Thermal conductivity of process fluid, Btu/hr ft °F (W/m °C)
Cp = Specific heat of process fluid, Btu/lb °F (kJ/kg °C)
µ = Dynamic viscosity of process fluid, cP (mPa s)
3. Two-Phase
For two-phase flow, the heat transfer coefficients are found by taking the mass average of the single phase coefficients.
a. Determine the all-liquid coefficient, assuming that the total bulk fluid is liquid. Use the single-phase equation using the
liquid properties of the process fluid.
b. Determine the all-vapor coefficient, assuming that the total bulk fluid is vapor. Use the single-phase equation using the
vapor properties of the process fluid.
c. Calculate the two-phase coefficient, as a weighted average of (a) and (b), using weight fractions of vapor and liquid:
htp = X hv + (1 − X ) h l Eq. (21d)
where: htp = Two-phase inside heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
X = Weight fraction of vapor in the fluid
hl = Liquid film coefficient, based on no vaporization at bulk temperature, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hv = Vapor film coefficient, based on 100% vaporization at bulk temperature, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
Note: This method is recommended for calculating design coefficients for two-phase flow. Assuming
satisfactory fluid flow patterns, the actual coefficient at any given point may be significantly higher
than either the all-liquid or all-vapor coefficient. However, it is not practical to use these anticipated
higher coefficients for design. For special cases requiring better definition of coefficients, consult
Report No. EE.6ER.71 or the Heat Transfer Equipment Section of EETD.
OUTSIDE (FLUE GAS SIDE) FILM COEFFICIENT ho

This coefficient takes into account both radiation and convection.
1. For Bare Tubes
ho = hc + hr Eq. (22)
where: ho = Outside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)

hc = Heat transfer coefficient for convection, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C) [see Eq. (23)]
hr = Heat transfer coefficient for radiation, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C) [see Eqs. (24a) and (24b)]

Date ENGINEERING

For triangular pitch
 G 0.67   Tg + 460  0.40
h c = 5.4  c    (Customary) Eq. (23)

 D o 0.33   100 
0.40
 G 0.067   Tg + 273 
h c = 30.7  c   (Metric) Eq. (23)M
0.33 55.6 
 D o  
where: Gc = Flue gas mass velocity, lb/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)

Tg = Flue gas temperature, °F (°C)
(Use entering flue gas temperature for calculating maximum metal and oil film
temperature, average flue gas temperature for calculating heat absorbed in the section.)
For shield section,
hr = 0 Eq. (24a)
(Accounted for in shield section radiant heat duty Qsr.)

For convection section,
hr = F1 F2 Eq. (24b)
where: F1 = Temperature Factor, based on average flue gas and tube metal temperatures in the
bank. (Assume average tube metal temperature is 50°F (28 °C) hotter than fluid
temperature.) See Figure 3.
F2 = Convection Section Characteristic Factor, a function of tube geometry and flue gas
( )
properties (Lb) PCO2 +H2O . See Figures 4 and 5.
PCO 2 +H2O = Partial pressure of CO2 + H2O in the flue gas Eq. (25)
For triangular pitch,
S S  S S2 − (ST / 2) 2
Lb = 0.0903  R T  − 0.0708 Do = 0.0903 T L − 0.0708 Do (Customary) Eq. (26)

 Do  Do
−3  SR S T  −4 −3
S T S L2 − (S T / 2 ) 2
L b = 1.08 x 10   − 8.50 x 10 D o = 1.08 x 10 − 0.0708 D o (Metric) Eq. (26)M
 D  Do
 o 

ENGINEERING Date

where: Lb = Mean beam length of convection bank, ft (m)
SR = Distance between centers of tube rows, in. (mm)
ST = Distance between tube centers in horizontal row, in. (mm)
SL = Distance between tube centers in adjacent rows, in. (mm)
For tubes on 2 IPS equilateral triangular pitch, Lb is as follows:
Do SL = ST Lb
in. mm in. mm ft m
4.5 114.3 8 203 0.79 0.241
5.563 141.3 10 254 0.96 0.293
6.625 168.3 12 305 1.16 0.354
8.625 219.1 16 406 1.62 0.494
For rectangular pitch, use

0.40
 G 0.67   Tg + 460 
h c = 4.3  c   (Customary) Eq. (23a)
 D o 0.33   100 
0.40
 G 0.67   Tg + 273 
h c = 2 4.4  c    (Metric) Eq. (23a)M
 D o 0.33   55.6 
For rectangular pitch, use
S S 
Lb = 0.108  R T  − 0.085 Do
 (Customary) Eq. (26a)
 Do 
S S 
Lb = 1.30 x 10 −3  R T  − 1.02 x 10 −3 Do
 (Metric) Eq. (26a)M
 Do 
2. For Extended Surface
 EA + Ab 
ho = he  e  Eq. (27)
 Ao 
where: ho = Outside film coefficient for tube plus its extended surface, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
he = Film coefficient for extended surface [see Eqs. (28a), (28b), and (28c)], Btu/hr ft2 °F
(W/m2 °C)
E = Extended surface efficiency factor. See Figure 6 or 7a for studded tubes, or Figure 8 for
finned tubes.
For fully-studded tubes,
0.48
 G 0.55   Tg + 460 
he = 7  c    (Customary) Eq. (28a)
 D o 0.45   100 
0.48
 G 0.55   Tg + 273 
h e = 71.3  c    (Metric) Eq. (28a)M
 D o 045   55.6 

Date ENGINEERING

For half-studded tubes,
 G 0.55   Tg + 460  0.48

h e = 8.5  c   (Customary) Eq. (28b)
 D o 0.45   100 
 G 0.55   Tg + 273  0.48

he = 86.5  c   (Metric) Eq. (28b)M
 D o 0.45   55.6 
For finned tubes,
 G 0.55   Tg + 460  0.48

h e = 4.0  c    (Customary) Eq. (28c)
 D o 0.45   100 
 G 0.55   Tg + 273  0.48

he = 40.70  c    (Metric) Eq. (28c)M
 D o 0.45   55.6 
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM TUBE METAL TEMPERATURE

The following equations for calculating tube metal temperatures include factors to account for maldistribution of heat transfer
around the tubes.
Tm = Tb1 + ∆Tf + ∆Tm Eq. (29)
where: Tm = Maximum tube metal temperature, °F (°C)

Tb1 = Oil temperature leaving section (i.e., the maximum bulk fluid temperature), °F (°C)
∆Tf = Temperature rise across inside oil film, °F (°C)
∆Tm = Temperature rise across tube wall, °F (°C)
➧ 1. Shield Tubes
Ao 1
∆T f = [U′ (Tbw − Tb1 ) + φ s ] Eq. (30)
A i hi
Ao ta
∆Tm = [ U′ (Tbw − Tb1) + φs ] (Customary) Eq. (31)
Am km
−3
Ao t a x 10
∆Tm = [U′ (Tbw − Tb1 ) + φ s ] (Metric) Eq. (31)M
Am km
1 1 A 1 A ta
= + o + o + fe (Customary) Eq. (31a)
U′ 1.5 hc Ai h i Am km

ENGINEERING Date
t x 10 −
3
1 1 Ao 1 A
= + + o a + fe (Metric) Eq. (31a)M
U′ 1.5 hc Ai h i Am km
where: Tbw = Bridgewall temperature, °F (°C)

U′ = Local coefficient for shield tubes, based on Tbw and Tb1, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C). A
maldistribution factor of 1.5 is used to account for nonuniform heat transfer around the
tubes. It is applied only to the outside heat transfer coefficient, where this behavior
occurs.
φs = Shield tube front face radiant heat density, as previously calculated, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
fe = external resistance due to fouling, ft2 °F/Btu/hr (m2 °C/W)
➧ 2. Bare Tubes
Ao 1
∆Tf = U′ (Tg1 − Tb1 ) Eq. (32)
Ai h i
Ao ta
∆Tm = U′ (Tg1 − Tb1 ) (Customary) Eq. (33)
Am km
(
∆Tm = U′ Tg1 − Tb1 ) Ao ta
Am k m
x 10 −3 (Metric) Eq. (33)M
where: Tg1= Flue gas temperature entering section, °F (°C)

U′ = Local coefficient for bare tubes being investigated, based on Tg1, Btu/hr ft2 °F
(W/m2 °C). For all practical purposes, it has the same form as the U previously
calculated.
3. Extended Surface Tubes
Ao 1
∆Tf = U′ (Tg1 − Tb1 ) Eq. (34)
Ai h i
Ao ta
∆Tm = U′ (Tg1 − Tb1 ) (Customary) Eq. (35)
Am km
(
∆Tm = U′ Tg1 − Tb1 ) Ao ta
Am km
x 10 −3 (Metric) Eq. (35)M
where: U′ = Local overall coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
a. Local Overall Coefficient U'
1 1 A 1 A ta
= + o + o (Customary) Eq. (36)
U′ h ′ A i hi Am km
o
1 1 A 1 Ao ta
= + o + x 10 −3 (Metric) Eq. (36)M
U′ h ′ A i hi Am km
o
where: ho′ = Local extended surface coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)

Date ENGINEERING

b. Local Extended Surface Coefficient ho′
 E′ A e + A b 
h o′ = h e′   Eq. (37)
 Ao 
where: he′ = Local extended surface film coefficient (based on Tg1)
h e ′ = fm h e Eq. (38)
where: E′ = Local extended surface efficiency factor, based on he′.

See Figure 6 or 7A for studs, Figure 8 for fins.
fm = Extended surface maldistribution factor.
Recommended values: fins fm = 1.5, studs fm = 1.9, half-studs fm = 6.
CALCULATION OF STUD OR FIN TIP TEMPERATURE
(
Tt = Tg1 − E ′′ Tg1 − Tm ) Eq. (39)
where: Tt = Maximum stud or fin tip temperature, °F (°C)

E′′ = Local extended surface temperature factor, based on he′.
See Figures 6 or 7B for studs, Figure 9 for fins.
ALLOWANCE FOR INTERNAL COKING AND EXTERNAL FOULING

An allowance for coking is not normally included in convection section heat transfer calculations, even in coking services.
Likewise, for new designs, an allowance for external fouling of convection section tubes is not normally included in convection
section calculations. It is assumed that for instances where fouling fuels are used that the normally provided sootblowers will
keep the external surfaces clean.
However, on occasion, the design must include provision for a layer of internal coke or external fouling. Examples include all-
convection fired heaters, such as CO heaters; or severe high-temperature coking services, such as thermal crackers. Additional
terms for the coke layer and the external fouling layer must be included in the overall heat transfer coefficient as well as in tube
metal temperature calculations:
1 1 A 1 A t A ta
= + o + o c + o + fe (Customary) Eq. (40)
Uc ho Ai ′ h i A c k c A m k m
1 1 A 1 A t x 10 −3 A t
= + o + o c + o a x 10 −3 + fe (Metric) Eq. (40)M
Uc ho Ai ′ h i A c k c A m km
where: Uc = Overall coefficient in coked and/or fouled condition, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
Ai′ = Area at inside diameter of coke layer, ft2/ft (m2/m)
= 0.262 (Di − 2t c ) (Customary) Eq. (41a)
=  3.14 x 10 −3 (Di − 2t c )  (Metric) Eq. (41a)M

 
Ac = Area at mean diameter of coke layer, ft2/ft (m2/m)
= 0.262 (D i − 2t c ) (Customary) Eq. (41b)
=  3.14 x 10 −3

(D i − tc )

(Metric) Eq. (41b)M

ENGINEERING Date

Di = Inside tube diameter, based on average wall thickness, in. (mm)
fe = External fouling factor, hr ft2 °F/Btu (m2 °C/W)
Btu / hr ft 2
kc = Thermal conductivity of coke, (W/m °C) (see Section VIII-B)
o F / in.
tc = Design coke thickness, in. (mm)
➧ Note: The latest release of the Fired Heater Simulation Program 3558 allows one to enter the coke
resistance as a separate item for convection section tubes. The program calculates an equivalent
thermal conductivity and equivalent tube thickness that accounts for coke deposits in the convection
section. It effectively "lumps" the coke deposit and tube wall into an equivalent tube thickness.
The value of fe is normally less than 0.1 hr ft2 °F/Btu (0.0176 m2 °C/W). The default value is 0.0 for
new designs.
1 A m′ t c 1 A ′ t 1
➧ = + m a Eq. (41c)
k m′ Ac t kc
a
′ ′
Am t km
a
Btu / hr ft 2
where: km′ = “Equivalent” tube conductivity, (W/m °C)
o
F / in.
t a′ = t a + tC Eq. (41d)
A m ′ = 0.262 (D o − t a ′) (Customary) Eq. (41e)
 A ′ = 3.14 x 10 −3 (D o − t a ′)  (Metric) Eq. (41e)M

 m 
where: ta′ = “Equivalent" tube wall thickness, in. (mm)

Am′ = Area at “equivalent" mean tube diameter, ft2/ft (m2/m)
STACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT
Stacks used for process fired heaters are usually made of steel or concrete. Brick stacks are rarely used, although many
concrete stacks have brick liners. Stacks may be placed on the ground beside the fired heater (ground-supported stacks) or may
be mounted on top of the fired heater itself (fired heater-supported stacks).
Ground-Supported Stacks - Below a height of about 250 ft (75 m), these stacks are usually made of steel; taller stacks are
usually of concrete.
Ground-supported stacks are often used to serve several fired heaters. If the stack height is based on draft requirements only,
the fired heater system with the highest pressure drop will determine the stack height.
If a fired heater tied into a common stack is to be shut down and work carried out inside the fired heater while other fired heaters
using the stack continue to operate, provisions such as blinds or guillotine dampers in the ducting should be made to isolate this
fired heater from the operating fired heaters.
Since additional pressure losses are encountered in getting the flue gases from the fired heater exit over to the stack, ground-
supported stacks must be taller than fired heater-supported stacks, if stack height is determined by draft requirements only.
Fired Heater-Supported Stacks - These are always made of steel. The maximum economical height for fired heater-supported
stacks is 150 to 200 ft (45 to 60 m) above grade. Above 200 ft (60 m), a ground-supported stack should be specified.

Date ENGINEERING
STACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

Stack Take-Off - One fired heater exit is required for each 40 ft (12.2 m) of convection section tube length. For longer
convection sections, additional take-offs are required. Multiple fired heater-supported stacks may be used, or the take-offs may
be ducted to a common stack which can be either fired heater-supported or ground-supported.
STACK DIAMETER
The diameter is usually a function of the quantity of flue gas flowing. Stacks should usually be designed for a velocity of 25 ft/sec
(7.6 m/s). Unless details of the stack are known, for design purposes the diameter should be considered uniform for the entire
length. The design specification should state the inside diameter required at the stack exit. The following considerations may
also affect the stack diameter:
Fired Heater Supported Stacks - Where flue gases pass directly into the stack, the diameter should be no greater than the
outside width (about 12 in. or 300 mm greater than the inside width) of the convection section. Where flue gases enter the stack
from ducts (Figure 12A) the stack may have a diameter somewhat greater than the outside width of the convection section.
Pollution Control Requirements - When relatively high stacks are required by pollution control considerations or by local
regulations, stack gas velocities higher than 25 ft/sec (7.6 m/s) may be economical, because the extra draft to compensate for
the extra pressure drop is available anyway. High velocities (instead of or in addition to tall stacks) may also be required on
occasion for pollution control considerations. When a restricted stack exit (choke cone) is used to obtain this increased velocity,
the pressure drop through the choke cone may place the top portion of the stack under positive internal pressure, if the exit
velocity is much above 25 ft/sec (7.6 m/s). This can cause damage to concrete or brick stacks, and a steel liner would then
probably be required. When the exit velocity is a nominal 25 ft/sec (7.6 m/s) or less, the exit loss is relatively small, and the effect
of a choke cone on the stack can be ignored.
Minimum Stack Gas Velocity - At very low flue gas velocities in the stack, much lower than 10 ft/sec (3 m/s), inversion can
occur, with cold air spilling into the stack and running down one side. This recirculation could possibly reduce the available draft
and should be avoided. Where extended operations of the fired heater at extremely low throughputs are expected, the following
measures should be considered:
1. Operate at Higher Excess Air Rate - During operation at low throughput, the percent excess air can be increased as
necessary, to avoid recirculation if this actually becomes a problem. This solution is usually preferable to increasing the
design stack gas velocity, and is particularly recommended for cases where stack height is based on draft requirements. In
such cases, increasing the design stack gas velocity would require increasing the stack height. Another reason for accepting
higher than design percent excess air during operation at low throughput is that, due to control difficulties and air leakage
into the fired heater, it is probably not practical to operate at low excess air rates under these conditions.
2. Removable Choke Plate - A removable choke cone on the stack can be considered, as a means of increasing stack exit
gas velocity during initial operation at low throughput. The cone would be removed when the fired heater throughput is
increased.
➧ STACK LININGS
Refractory linings are not required in a stack when the flue gas contains less than 5 vppm of SO3 or if the fuel contains less than
0.25% by weight of sulfur. In these circumstances, a bare steel stack could be constructed even if its metal temperature is
expected to be below the acid dewpoint of the flue gas. Its metal temperature must, however, be above the water dewpoint. In
cold climates, ambient temperatures may cause the metal temperature to drop below the water dewpoint. The formation of
carbonic acid and rust could damage the steel shell. For this reason, bare steel stacks are usually found in refineries having
warmer climates.
When the flue gas contains more than 5 vppm of SO3, carbon steel stacks and steel liners in concrete chimneys may be at risk
from acid corrosion. Corrosion will occur if the temperature of the metal in contact with the flue gases falls below the acid
dewpoint of the flue gas. As a rule-of-thumb, the metal temperature of a steel stack (uninsulated and with no lining) is midway
between the flue gas temperature and the ambient temperature. All carbon steel stacks require linings as required to maintain
the shell temperature below 900°F (480°C). A layer of 3-inch (76.2 mm) medium weight castable refractory is common.
External insulation could also be used to keep metal temperatures above the acid dewpoint. It is generally not used because of
the increased thermal stresses/growth in the steel shell, potential problems with insulation maintenance, and under-insulation
corrosion. Furthermore, external insulation does not provide any protection from an internal fire.
Special consideration should be taken when designing stacks that will operate under steam-air decoking conditions, where the
flue gas into the stack is approximately 1000°F (538°C). As the metal temperature increases, there is a reduction of strength in
the stack material (typically carbon steel) and a thicker wall may be required. So it may be preferable to internally line the stack
with refractory, which will reduce the metal temperature and the required wall thickness.
To protect nearby personnel, furnace-supported bare stacks should be lined internally, up to the elevation where personnel
access instrumentation (stack damper elevation). Bare stacks may also have a protective screen that prevents personnel from
coming into contact with the potentially hot wall.

ENGINEERING Date
STACK DESIGN PROCEDURE

BASIS FOR CALCULATIONS
Most stack designs should be based on the following information, which should be used unless specifics of the individual case
indicate otherwise.
Flue Gas Characteristics - Assume that the molecular weight of the flue gas is 28.84 lb/lb mole (kg/kg mole), the same as for
air. For elevations up to about 1000 ft (300 m) above sea level, the flue gas density is:
39.5  Mg 
➧ ρ =   (Customary) Eq. (42)
Tg + 460  M a 
351  Mg 
➧ ρ =   (Metric) Eq. (42)M
Tg + 273  M a 
where: ρ = Flue gas density at conditions, lb/cu ft (kg/m3)

Tg = Flue gas temperature at the point in question, °F (°C)
Ma = Molecular weight of the air, lb/lb mol (kg/kg mol)
Mg = Molecular weight of the flue gas, lb/lb mol (kg/kg mol)
If the altitude is greater than 1000 ft (300 m), see Section VIII-G for altitude corrections to air density.
Temperature Loss in the Stack - Assume the following temperature drops from the fired heater exit to the stack exit:
1. Steel Stacks - See Figure 14.
2. Concrete Stacks - See Figure 15. (Infiltration of cold air through the concrete stack is accounted for in this figure.)
➧ FLUE GAS PRESSURE VARIATION

The figure below shows the flue gas pressure variation throughout the fired heater. A typical natural draft fired heater brings in
ambient air at atmospheric conditions. The air then drops in pressure as it passes through the burners. . Throughout the fired
heater, the flue gas encounters frictional pressure drops. As the flue gas travels up the radiant section, it drops in pressure (due
to friction) but also gains pressure from the stack effect due to the buoyancy of the high temperature flue gases. The net effect is
a small pressure drop through the radiant section. At the bridgewall section, the furnace should be operating just below
atmospheric pressure, usually denoted by draft. Typical drafts are about 0.10 in. H2O (0.025 kPa). The flue gas will continue to
drop in pressure as it passes through the tube bundles in the convection section, with extended surfaces suffering more pressure
losses than bare surfaces. Again, there is a small stack effect in the convection section. The flue gas also experiences pressure
drops as it encounters changes in the cross-sectional area (entrance and exit to convection section, entrance to stack, damper,
etc.). As the flue gas travels up the stack, it gains pressure from the stack effect provided by the column of buoyant gases in the
stack and also loses pressure due to friction. The net effect is a gain in draft through the stack, allowing the flue gases to be
expelled from the fired heater.

Date ENGINEERING
FURNACE DRAFT CONTROLLED BY STACK DAMPER
200
(61)
Atmospheric
Pressure
Height, ft (m)
100
Damper
(30.5)
Bridgewall Opening Closing

Damper Damper
Radiant Floor
0
14.6 14.7
2.8 inches of Water
DP8Cfh
Absolute Pressure (psia)

ENGINEERING Date
STACK DESIGN PROCEDURE (Cont)
PRESSURE LOSSES AND ALLOWANCES

The following pressure losses and allowances, in in. of water (kPa), should be included in the system pressure drop (see Figure
10):
1. Stack Exit Loss - Use one velocity head (K = 1):
 V12 
∆P1 = 0.1186 K   (Customary) Eq. (43)
 Tg + 460 
 
 V12 
∆P1 = 0.176 K   (Metric) Eq. (43)M
 Tg + 273 
 
where: ∆P1 = Stack exit pressure drop, in. of water (kPa)

V1 = Flue gas velocity in the stack, ft/sec (m/s)
2. Friction Loss in Stack and Ducts - Calculate this pressure drop (∆P2) by the standard fluid flow calculation procedures
given in Section XIV. To convert psi to in. of water:
∆P (in. H2O) = 27.8 ∆P (psi) Eq. (44)
➧ Note: In determining the Fanning friction factor f, for use in the pressure drop equation, use a roughness
factor of 0.055 in. for internally insulated stacks (from the suggested range of 0.015 to 0.15 in.). For
bare steel use 0.002 in.
For calculating pressure drop in a duct of rectangular cross-section, using equations intended for
conduits with circular cross-section, it is necessary to use an equivalent (“hydraulic") diameter:
2 xy
dc = Eq. (45)
x+y
where: dc = Equivalent diameter (for a circular duct with the same friction loss), ft (m)
x = Depth of duct, ft (m)
y = Width of duct, ft (m)
3. Friction Loss Across Damper - With the damper wide open:
∆P3 = 0.10 in. of water (0.025 kPa ) Eq. (46)
4. Additional Losses - These pressure drops depend on the ducting and stack arrangement. They include sudden
expansions and contractions, bends, and intersections of flue gas streams. The sum of these additional losses is designated
∆P4.
a. Sudden Expansion
∆Pe = 0.1186
(V1− V2 )
2
(Customary) Eq. (47)
Tg + 460
∆Pe = 0.176
(V1 −V2 )
2
(Metric) Eq. (47)M
Tg + 273
where: ∆Pe = Pressure loss due to sudden expansion, in. of water (kPa)
V1 = Flue gas velocity upstream of sudden expansion, ft/sec (kPa)
V2 = Flue gas velocity downstream of sudden expansion, ft/sec (kPa)

Date ENGINEERING

b. Sudden Contraction
V22
∆Pc = 0.1186 K (Customary) Eq. (48)
Tg + 460
V22
∆Pc = 0.176 K (Metric) Eq. (48)M
Tg + 273
where: ∆Pc = Pressure loss due to sudden contraction, in. of water (kPa)
K = Coefficient for contraction loss (Section XIV); use a value from the table below:
A2 / A1 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

K 0.5 0.42 0.34 0.25 0.15 0
A2 = Downstream area, ft2 (m2)

A1 = Upstream area, ft2 (m2)
c. Bends - Bend losses are detailed in Figure 11. For systems where stack height is determined by fired heater draft
requirements, assume that miter bends with turning vanes are to be used. Typical turning vanes should be included in
the design specification. For systems where the stack height is set by local (e.g., pollution control) requirements, i.e.,
the available draft exceeds the required draft, assume the use of rounded bends with Rt / x = 0.5 and no turning vanes.
d. Intersections - Typical intersections of flue gas streams are shown in Figure 12. Note that these losses are in addition
to normal bend and expansion or contraction losses.
5. Stack Entrance Loss - A full velocity head loss is taken at the stack (or duct) entrance from the breeching to account for a
sudden contraction plus a change in direction:
V22
∆P5 = 0.1186 (Customary) Eq. (49)
Tg + 460
V22
∆P5 = 0.176 (Metric) Eq. (49)M
Tg + 273
where: ∆P5 = Stack or duct entrance loss, in. of water (kPa)

V2 = Flue gas velocity in stack or duct (downstream of breeching), ft/sec (m/s)
6. Flue Gas Pressure Drop through Convection Section - This pressure drop is calculated for each of the different zones
(bare tubes, extended surface tubes) in the convection section.
2
Nc Gcp fc
∆P6 = 0.01195 (Customary) Eq. (50)
ρ
2
Nc Gcp fc
∆P6 = 0.002 (Metric) Eq. (50)M
ρ

ENGINEERING Date

where: ∆P6 = Pressure drop through the convection section, in. of water (kPa)
Nc = Number of tube rows in direction of flow
Gcp = Flue gas mass velocity for determining pressure drop, lb/sec. ft2 (kg/s m2). This is
based on free flow area at the tube row centerline. For extended surface tubes, the free
flow area (and friction factor) should be based on bare tubes of diameter equal to the
extreme diameter of the surface Dcp = Do + 2 [(hf or hs)]. No credit is taken for the free
area between individual studs or fins on a tube.
fc = Friction factor, dimensionless (see Figure 13 or 13A)
ρ = Flue gas density at average flue gas temperature, lb/cu ft (kg/m3)
7. Negative Pressure at Top of Radiant Section - This negative pressure, ∆P7, is required to prevent flue gas from leaking
out through the fired heater casing. Use ∆P7 = 0.10 in. of water (0.025 kPa.)
8. Pressure Drop Through Secondary Air Doors of Natural Draft Burners - This pressure drop, ∆P8, depends on the
design of the burner.
PRESSURE GAINS
The following pressure gains are found in the fired heater. They are caused by the difference between the density of the hot
gases inside the fired heater and that of the ambient air outside the fired heater. The theoretical draft per ft/m of height (stack
effect, SE) may be found from Figure 16. Be sure to use the Summer Design Air Temperature in determining available draft.
1. Radiant Section
∆PR = Stack effect caused by the radiant section.
= SE at the bridgewall temperature times the difference in height between the burner level and the top of the
radiant section.
2. Convection Section
∆PC = Stack effect caused by the convection section.
= SE at average convection section flue gas temperature times height of convection section.
3. Stack
∆PS = Stack effect in the stack.
= SE at average stack temperature times height of stack above top of convection section.
STACK HEIGHT
1. Calculations - Balances of pressure gains and losses must be made for natural draft burners and for the stack. In the
design of forced-draft systems, the fan is sized to cover the pressure drop through the burners. It is customary not to
consider the actual draft available at the burner level when sizing the fan.
a. Burners
Draft available at the burner level = ∆P7 + ∆PR Eq. (51)
The actual draft available usually equals or exceeds the requirements of the particular natural draft burner selected
(∆P8). However, if ∆P8 > ∆P7 + ∆PR, consideration should be given to revising the burner selection to one requiring less
draft. Otherwise, additional stack height must be added to cover this deficiency.
b. Stack - The calculated minimum stack height is based on maintaining a negative pressure at the top of the radiant
section (∆P7 = 0.10 in. H2O or 0.025 kPa). As discussed above, additional height must be added if necessary to provide
the required draft at the burner.
∆PS = [ ∆P1 + ∆P2 + ∆P3 + ∆P4 + ∆P5 + ∆P6 + ∆P7 ] − ∆PC Eq. (52)
∆PS
Hm = Eq. (53)
SE at average stack temp.
where: Hm = Calculated minimum stack height (for draft), ft (m)

SE = Stack effect, in. of water per ft of height (kPa per m of height)

Date ENGINEERING

2. Specified Stack Height - The final design stack height, based on draft requirements is:
Hs = 1.05 Hm Eq. (54)
where: Hs = Design stack height above convection section, ft (m)
➧ SAMPLE PROBLEMS - CUSTOMARY UNITS

Note: For Sample Problems in METRIC UNITS (see Page 39)
PROBLEM 1 - CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT
Given: Atmospheric pipestill service
Inlet Temperature = 450°F
Outlet Temperature = 725°F
Throughput = 1,610,000 lb/hr
Heat absorbed = 353 MBtu/hr
Fuel: Atmospheric pipestill bottoms, 15° API
Find: Convection section layout and shield section radiant duty Qsr
Solution:
1st Trial 2nd Trial Source
Tube Size and Spacing
Tube Size, IPS, in. 6 Same
Do, in. 6.625 Same
Tube pitch Equilateral Triangle Same
Tube spacing, in. 12 Same
Max. hs = 1/2 [tube spacing - (Do + 1.5 in. min. clearance)] 1/2 [12 – (6.625 + 1.5)]
= 1.937 in.
Assume hs, in. 1.875
Assume number of tubes per row, Nt 8 12 (Figure 2C)
Convection Section Width Wc
C = 6 in.
(Nt - 1 + 0.5) (12 in.)

6 in. 6 in.
WC
DP8CFa
W c = (Nt - 1 + 0.5)(2Dnom) + (2C)
Wc, in. = (Nt – 1 + 0.5) (12) + 2 x 6 = 102 150

Wc, ft = 8.5 12.5
Convection Section Length Lc
From Sample Problem 2 of Section VIII-B, Li = 62 ft - 1 in.
Call Lc, ft 62 Same

ENGINEERING Date
SAMPLE PROBLEMS - CUSTOMARY UNITS (Cont)

Flow Area for Flue Gas through Convection Section
Total Area = Lc W c, ft2 = 8.5 x 62 = 527 12.5 x 62 = 775
Flow restrictions:
6.625 274 411 from Eq. (4a)
R sh , ft 2 = x 62 x N t =
12
6 + 31 + 31 from Eq. (4b)
R b , ft 2 = R sh = x 62 = R sh + 31 305 442
12
1.875 + 62 + 93 from Eq. (4c)
R s , ft 2 = R b + x N t x 62 = R b + 7.75 N t 367 535
15
A f , ft 2 = L c Wc − R s = 160 240 from Eq. (3)
Flue Gas Mass Velocity

From Figure 12 of Section VIII-M, for 15° API fuel oil and 20%
excess air, lb flue gas/lb fuel = 17.7 Same
Fg, from Sample Problem 1 of Section VIII-B, lb/hr = 23,690 Same
23,690
Wf , lb / sec = x 17.7 = 116.5 Same from Eq. (2)
3,600
Wf 116.5
G c , lb / sec ft 2 = = = 0.728 0.486 from Eq. (1)
Af Af
(Too high) (OK)
Shield Section Radiant Duty Qsr
From Sample Problem 2 of Section VIII-B, φ1-side,
Btu/hr ft2 = – 12,000
φs, Btu/hr ft2 = C1 φ1-side (C1 = 1.77 is typical) = 1.77 (12,000) = – 21,200 from Eq. (10)
Qsr, MBtu/hr = Lc W c φs = 62 x 12.5 x 21,200 = – 16.4 from Eq. (9)
PROBLEM 2 - SHIELD SECTION DESIGN

Given: Same as Problem 1
Find: Shield section heat duty Qs and tube metal temperature Tm
Solution:
Heat Duties
Qa = 353 MBtu/hr (Given)
Qr = 214.7 MBtu/hr (Problem 2, Trial 2, of Section VIII-B)
Qsr = 16.4 MBtu/hr (Problem 1 of this section)
Find Qtr: Qtr = Qr + Qsr = 214.7 + 16.4 MBtu/hr = 231.1 MBtu/hr from Eq. (6)
Find Qc: Qc = Qa – Qtr = 353 - 231.1 MBtu/hr = 121.9 MBtu/hr from Eqs. (5) & (6)
Find Qtc: Qtc = Qc + Qsr = 121.9 + 16.4 MBtu/hr = 138.3 MBtu/hr from Eq. (7)

Date ENGINEERING

Temperature Balance
From the feed properties and the Blue Book, the average Cp for the feed is about 0.67 Btu/lb °F.
Temperature rise of the feed in the convection section:
138.3 MBtu / hr
∆Tb = = 128 °F
1.61 x 106 lb / hr x 0.67 Btu / lb o F
Crossover temperature = Coil inlet temperature + ∆Tb = 450 + 128°F = 578°F
Bridgewall Temperature Tbw = 1625°F (Problem 2 of Section VIII-B)
Stack Temperature Ts = 600°F (Problem 1 Section VIII-B)
Intermediate process fluid temperatures and flue gas temperatures can be calculated from the specific heat of the process fluid
and the charts showing heat available in flue gas. However, for convenience in determining these temperatures, it is helpful to
develop temperature - heat duty (T-Q) curves for the process fluid and flue gas. (See the example below).
TYPICAL T-Q CURVE FOR CONVECTION SECTION
1700 620
Qsr
1600 600
1500 580
Flue Gas
1400 Note: For Actual Design, a 560

Larger Scale Should Be Used.
Process Fluid Temperature Tb, ° F

1300 540
Flue Gas Temperature Tg, ° F
1200 520
1100 500
1000 480
Process
Fluid
900 460
800 440
700 420
600 400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Heat Absorbed In Convection Section, MBtu/hr
Bridgewall Stack DP8CFd

ENGINEERING Date

Assume Solution
Assume Qsc, Tb2, or Tg2 and by heat balance or T-Q curve determine the other two.
Assume Qsc, MBtu/hr = 13.6 16.7
Qs = Qsc + Qsr = Qsc + 16.4, MBtu/hr = 30.0 33.1 from Eq. (8)
Tg1 = Tbw = 1625 °F From T-Q Curve; Tg2 = 1515°F 1500°F
Tb1 = Crossover = 578 °F Tb2 = 550 547
∆T1 = 1047 °F ∆T2 = 965°F 953°F
LMTD, °F = 1006 999 from Eq. (12)
A, ft2 = 12 tubes/row x 2 rows x 62 ft x 1.734 ft2/ft = 2580 Same
Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient ho
Af, ft2 = Lc W c – Rsh = 775 – 411 364 Same see Problem 1
Wf 116.5 0.320 Same from Eq. (1)
Gc , lb / sec sq ft = = =
Af Af
Gc 0.67 = 0.465 Same
Do = 6.625 in.; Do 0.33 1.87 Same
Tg1 + Tg2 1625 + Tg2 1570 1563
Tg, o F = = =
2 2
0.4 3.33 3.33
 Tg + 460 
  =
 100 
0.4
2 o 0.465  Tg + 460  from Eq. (23, 24a)
hc , Btu / hr ft F = 5 .4   ; hr = 0
1.87  100 
ho, Btu/hr ft2 °F = hc + hr = 4.48 4.47 from Eq. (22)

Assume Shield Tube Properties
Assume tubes are same as radiant section tubes
Tm = 0.285 in., ta = 0.326 in., Ai = 1.564 ft2/ft See Section VIII-B
Am = 0.262 (6.625 – 0.326) = 1.65 ft2/ft from Eq.(14)
Assume average Tm = 675°F, 5% Cr material
Btu / hr ft 2
km = 190 o
See Section VIII-B
F / in.
hi = 300 Btu/hr ft2 °F (Calculation not included)
1 1 1.734 1 1.734 0.326 1 1 from Eq. (13)
= + x + x = + 0.0055 = + 0.0055
U 1.5h o 1.564
1 424 300
3 11.65
42 190
4 43
4 1.5h o 1.5 × 4.48
.0037 .0018
= 0.1543 0.1546
U, Btu/hr ft2 °F = 6.48 6.47

Date ENGINEERING

Shield Section Duty Qs
Qsc, MBtu/hr = U A (LMTD) = 16.82 16.7 from Eq. (11)
vs. assumed = 13.6 16.7
(Make 2nd Trial) (OK)
Qs, MBtu/hr = Qsr + Qsc = 16.4 + Qsc = 33.1 from Eq. (8)
Tg2 = 1500°F
Tb2 = 547°F
Shield Tube Metal Temperature Tm
φs = 21,200 Btu /hr ft2 (Problem 1)
  from Eq. (30)

104 °F 103.5 °F
∆Tf = 6.48 (1047) + (21,200) x 0.0037 =
 14442444
3
 
∆Tm = 28,100 x 0.0018 = 51 °F 51 °F from Eq. (31)
Tm = 578 + 104 + 51 = 733 °F 733 °F 732.5 °F from Eq. (29)
PROBLEM 3 - BARE TUBE SECTION DESIGN

Given: Same as in Problem 1
Shield Section calculations as in Problem 2
Find: Bare tube section duty qc and tube metal temperature Tm
Solution:
Assume Solution
Assume bare tube section will have 2 rows of Schedule 40
Carbon Steel Tubes
Assume qc, Tb2, or Tg2 and by heat balance or T-Q Curve
determine the other two.
Assume qc, MBtu/hr = 16.0 24.3
Qs, MBtu/hr = 33.1 33.1 see Problem 2
ΣQc, MBtu/hr = (total convection section so far) 49.1 57.4
Tg1 = Tg2 in Problem 2 = 1500°F From T-Q Curve; Tg2 = 1405°F 1300°F
Tb1 = Tb2 in Problem 2 = 547°F Tb2 = 531 525
∆T1 = 953°F ∆T2= 874°F 775°F
LMTD, °F = 913 861 from Eq. (12)
A, ft2 = 12 tubes/row x 2 rows x 62 ft x 1.734 ft2/ft = 2580 Same
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient hc

Af, ft2 = Lc W c – Rb = 775 – 442 = 333 Same see Problem 1
116.5
Gc , lb / sec ft 2 = = 0.350 Same from Eq. (1)
Af
Gc 0.67 = 0.490 Same
Do = 6.625 in. ; Do 0.33 1.87 Same

ENGINEERING Date

1534 + Tg2
Tg, o F = = 1453 1400
2
0.40
 Tg + 460 
  = 3.26 3.22
 100 
0.40
0.490  Tg + 460 
h c , Btu / hr ft 2 o
F = 5.4   = 4.61 4.56 from Eq. (23)
142 1.4
87
3  100 
1.415
Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient hr

Assume average Tm = 600°F
F1 = 1.27 1.26 see Figure 3
PCO2 + H2O = (based 20% excess air, H/C = 0.130 for 15° API Fuel) 0.212 Same see Figure 4
Lb, ft = 1.16 Same from Eq. (26)
Lb (PCO2 + H2O) Same
0.246
F2 = 2.54 see Figure 5
2.54
hr, Btu/hr ft2°F = F1 F2 3.20 from Eq. (24b)
3.22
Outside Film Coefficient ho
ho, Btu/hr ft2°F = hc + hr = 7.76 from Eq. (22)

7.83
Assume Tube Properties
ta = 0.280 in. ; Ai = 1.587 ft2/ft see Section VIII-B
Am = 0.262 (6.625 – 0.280) = 1.66 ft2/ft from Eq. (14)
Assume average Tm = 600°F, CS material

see Section VIII-B
Btu / hr ft 2
k m = 308
o
F / in.
1 1 1.734 1 1.734 0.280 1 1 1 from Eq. (13)

= + x + x = + 0.0046 = = 0.0851 = 0.08591
U 1.5 h o 1.587
300 1.66 308 1.5 h o 1.5 x 7.83 1.5 x 7.76
14243 14243 0.0046 0.0046
.00364 .00095 + +
0.08974 0.09051
U, Btu/hr ft2 °F = 11.14 11.05

Date ENGINEERING

Bare Tube Section Duty qc
qc, MBtu/hr = U A (LMTD) = 24.5 from Eq. (11)
26.2
vs. assumed = 24.3
16.0
ΣQc, MBtu/hr = Qs + qc = 27.9 + qc = 57.6
Tg2 = 1300°F
Tb2 = 526°F
Tube Metal Temperature Tm
Recalculate parameters based on Tg1, Tb1, and ∆T1 and use with results obtained above.
0.40
 Tg1 + 460 
  = 3.32
 100 
hc = 1.415 x 3.32 = 4.65 Btu/hr ft2 °F
F1 = 1.32 (Based Tg1 & Tm = 600°F) see Figure 3
F2 = 2.54
hr = 1.32 x 2.54 = 3.35 Btu/hr ft2 °F
ho = 4.65 + 3.35 = 8.00 Btu/hr ft2 °F
1  1 
= = 0.08333 + 0.00364 + 0.00095 = 0.08792
U  1.5 x 8.00 
U = 11.37 Btu/hr ft2 °F
from Eq. (32)
∆Tf = 11.37 x 953 x 0.00364 = 40o F
144244 3
∆Tm = 11,000 x 0.00095 = 10°F from Eq. (33)
Tm = 547 + 40 + 10 = 597°F from Eq. (29)

ENGINEERING Date
PROBLEM 4 - STUDDED TUBE

Shield and Bare Tube Section calculations as in Problems 2 and 3
Find: Acceptable stud height
Solution:

Assume Stud Length
Assume stud height hs, in. = 2.00 0.75
Temperatures for calculations:
Tg1 = Tg2 in Problem 3 = 1300°F
Tb1 = Tb2 in Problem 3 = 526°F
774°F Same
∆T1 =
Local Extended Surface Coefficient he'
Rb = 442 ft2 see Problem 1
h  from Eq. (4c)
Rs, ft 2 = 442 +  s x 12 x 62  = 442 + 49.6 hs 541 479
 15 
Af, ft2 = Lc W c – Rs = 775 – Rs 234 296 see Problem 1
116.5
G c , lb / sec − ft 2 = 0.498 0.394 from Eq. (1)
Af
0.55
Gc = 0.681 0.600
0.45
Do = 6.625 in., Do = 2.34 Same
0.48
 Tg1 + 460 
  3.96 Same
 100 
0.55
Gc 0.55 8.07 7.11 from Eq. (28a)
he = 7 x x 4.05 = 12.21 x Gc =
2.34
he′, Btu/hr ft2 °F = 6 he = 48.4 42.6 from Eq. (38a)
Studded Tube Areas
ns = 22 studs/row see Page 6
A e , ft 2 / ft = 0.209 x h s x 22 + 0.0262 x422

144 42444 3 14 424 3 from Eq. (16)
9.78 4.026
4.60 h s 0.576
Ab, ft2/ft = 1.734 – 0.576 = 1.158 1.158 from Eq. (17)
Ao, ft2/ft = Ae + Ao = 10.94 5.184 from Eq. (15)
Assume Sch 40 tubes: ta = 0.280 in. see Problem 3
Ai, = 1.587 ft2/ft; Am = 1.66 ft2/ft

Date ENGINEERING

Local Overall Coefficient U'
E′ = 0.42 0.83 see Figure 7A
 E′ x A e + A b  ′ from Eq. (37)

h o ′ , Btu / hr ft 2 o F =   he =
 0.42 x 9.78 + 1.158 
 Ao   10.94
 48.4
 0.83 x 4.026 + 1.158 

 5.184
 42.6
= 23.3 37.0
Assume Tm = 800°F; 5% Cr tubes
see Section VIII-B
Btu / hr ft 2
km = 190
o
F / in.
1 1 0.0286 0.0180 from Eq. (36)
= =
U′ 1.5 x h o ′
Ao 1 Ao 0.0230 0.0109
+ x = =
1.587 300 476
Ao 0.280 Ao 0.0097 0.0046
+ x = =
1.66 190 1125
1 0.0613 0.0335
=
U′
U′, Btu/hr ft2 °F 16.3 29.9
Stud and Tube Metal Temperatures
Ao 1 290 251 from Eq. (34)
∆Tf , o F = U′ x 854 x x
1.587 300
Ao 0.280 128 111 from Eq. (35)
∆Tm , o F = U′ x 854 x x
1.587 190
Tb1, °F = 526 526
o 944 888 from Eq. (29)
Tm , F = Tb1 + ∆Tf + ∆Tm
(km should be revised based on actual Tm, but the change is negligible for 5% Cr)
E′′ = 0.24 0.75 see Figure 7B
Tt , °F = 1390 – E′′ (1390 – Tm) 1215 991 from Eq. (39)

(too high, try (OK)
shorter stud)

ENGINEERING Date
PROBLEM 5 - STUDDED TUBE SECTION DUTY

Stud height = 0.75 in. as calculated in Problem 4
Find: Studded tube section duty qc
Solution:
Assume Solution
Assume 0.75 in. studded section will have 2 rows of tubes.
(Flue gas temperature after 2 rows will probably be low enough
to permit use of maximum stud length)
Assume qc, MBtu/hr = 36.0 43.1 see Problems
Shield and Bare Tube qc, MBtu/hr = 57.6 57.6 2&3
ΣQc, MBtu/hr = 93.6 100.7
Tg1 = 1300°F (Problem 4) From T-Q Curve: Tg2 = 1000°F 940°F

Tb1 = 526 Tb2 = 492 485
∆T1 = 774°F ∆T2 = 508°F 455°F
LMTD, °F = 632 600
Ao = 5.184 ft2/ft; Ae = 4.026 ft2/ft; Ab = 1.158 ft2/ft
7714 Same see Problem 4
A, ft2 = 2 rows x 12 tubes/row x 62 ft/tube x 5.184 ft2/ft =
1300 + Tg2 1150 1120
o
Tg , F =
2
0.48
 Tg + 460 
  = 3.80 3.76
 100 
see Problem 4
G c 0.67 = 0.536 ; D o 0.33 = 1.87
0.48
0.536  Tg + 460 
he = 7 x   7.62 7.54 from Eq. (28a)
1.87  100 
E= 0.96 0.96 see Figure 7A
 E x 4.026 + 1.158 
ho =   he 7.38 7.31 from Eq. (27)
 5.184 
Overall Coefficient U
Tube properties and film coefficient obtained from Problem 4
1 1 1 1
= + 0.0109 + 0.0046 = = 0.0903 = 0.0912 from Eq. (13)
U 1.5 x h o 144244
3 1.5 x 7.38 1.5 x 7.31
0.0155
= 0.0155 0.0155 see Problem 4
0.1058 0.1067
U, Btu/hr ft2 °F = 9.45 9.37

Date ENGINEERING

Studded Tube Section Duty qc
qc, MBtu/hr = U x 7714 x LMTD = 46.1 43.3 from Eq. (11)
vs. assumed = 36.0 43.1
ΣQc, MBtu/hr = 57.6 + qc = 100.9
Tg2 = 940°F
Tb2 = 485°F
PROBLEM 6 - STACK DESIGN

Convection Section Design per Problems 1-5
Remainder of Convection Section Consists of 5 tube rows with 1.875 in. Studs
Summer Design Air Temperature = 90°F
Find: Furnace Mounted Stack Height Required for Draft
Solution:
For 62 ft long convection section, assume 2 internally insulated stacks
Stack Diameter Ds
Wf = 116.5 lb/sec see Problem 1
Ts = 600°F see Problem 2
39.5  28.84  from Eq. (42)

3
ρ =   = 0.0372 lb/ft
600 + 460  28.84 
116.5 lb / sec
Flow = = 3130 ft 3 /sec
0.0372 lb / ft 3
Assume stack velocity Vs = 25 ft/sec
3130 ft 3 /sec
Required Area per Stack = = 62.5 ft 2
25 ft/sec x 2 stacks
1/ 2
4 
Stack Diameter D s =  A  = 8.94 ft = 8 ft − 11 in.
π 
Estimate Temperature Loss in Stack
Ts – Ta = 600 – 90 = 510°F see Figure 14
∆Tu = 20°F / 100 ft
Cvs = 1.0 ; Assume Cvw = 1.0 ;
Assume Hs = 100 ft
∆T = 20°F
Stack exit temp. = 600 – 20 = 580°F
Avg. stack temp. = 590°F
Pressure Losses
Stack Exit Loss ∆P1
from Eq. (43)
0.1186 (25 ) 2
∆P1 = = 0.071 in. H2O
580 + 460

ENGINEERING Date

Stack Pressure Drop ∆P2
From Section XIV-B Fluid Flow, Figure 1
Ds = 8 ft - 11 in. = 107 in.
Roughness = 0.055
Equiv. D = 107 x 0.055 = 6 in. for determining f
V = 25 ft/sec
µ = 0.0283 cP @ Tg = 590°F see Figure M-13
39.5  28.84  from Eq. (42)
3
ρ =   = 0.0376 lb/ft
590 + 460  28.84 
W = 0.0376 x 25 x (π/4) x (107/12)2 = 58.7 lb/sec = 211.3 klb/hr
ρVD 0.0376 x 25 x (107/12)
Re = = −4
= 4.4 x 105
µ 0.0283 x 6.7197 x 10
f (@ equiv. Diameter = 6 in.) = 0.004
For Hs = L = 100 ft
ç from Section XIV-B
 f L W2 
∆P = 13.4  5

 ρD 
 0.004 x 100 x 211.3 2 
∆P = 13.4  5
 = 4.5 x 10 − 4 psi
 0.0376 x 107 
from Eq. (44)
∆P2 = 4.5 x 10 − 4 x 27.8 = 0.0125 in. H2O (per 100 ft)
Damper Loss ∆P3
∆P3 = 0.10 in. H2O from Eq. (46)
Additional Losses ∆P4
∆P4 = 0 (for this case)
Stack Entrance Loss ∆P5
from Eq. (49)
0.1186 (25) 2
∆P5 = = 0.070 in. H2O
600 + 460
Convection Section Pressure Drop ∆P6
Shield Bare 0.75 in. Studs 1.875 in. Studs
Tg1, °F 1625 1500 1300 940
Tg2, °F 1500 1300 940 600
Avg. Tg, °F 1563 1400 1120 770
39.5  28.84  0.0195 0.0212 0.0250 0.0321 from Eq. (42)
ρ, lb /ft 3 =   =
Tg + 460  28.84 
µ, cP 0.0439 0.0423 0.0393 0.0330 see Figure M-13

Dcp, in. = Do + 2hs = 6.625 6.625 8.125 10.375
C, in. = 0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Nt, tubes/row = 12 12 12 12
 Dcp x 12 + 6  (Same as (Same as 240 101
A f , ft 2 = 62  12.5 −  =

in Prob. 2) in Prob. 3)
 12 

Date ENGINEERING

Shield Bare 0.75 in. Studs 1.875 in. Studs Source
116.5 0.320 0.350 0.486 1.15
G cp , lb / sec ft 2 =
Af
2 0.102 0.122 0.236 1.33
Gcp =
Dcp Gcp 48 55 101 362

=
µ
SL S 12 1.81 1.81 1.48 1.16
= T = =
Dcp Dcp Dcp
fc = 0.109 0.107 0.112 0.120 see Figure 13A
Nc = 2 2 2 5
Nc Gcp 2 fc
∆P6 , in. H2O = 0.01195 = 0.014 0.015 0.025 0.297 from Eq. (50)
ρ
Σ∆P6 = 0.351 in. H2O
Draft at Top of Radiant Section ∆P7
∆P7 = 0.10 in. H2O
Pressure Gain in Convection Section ∆Pc
1625 + 600 from Eq. (53)
Tg = = 1112 o F
2
Stack Effect SE = 0.009 in H2O/ft
Hc = 11 ft (approximate)
∆Pc = 0.009 x 11 = 0.099 in. H2O
Stack Height Hs
[ ]
∆Ps = 0.071 + 0.013 + 0.10 + 0 + 0.070 + 0.351 + 0.10 − 0.099 = 0.606 in. H 2 O
from Eq. (52)
Stack Effect SE @ 590°F = 0.0066 in H2O/ft see Figure 16
0.606 from Eq. (53)

Hm = = 91.8 ft
0.0066
HS = 1.05 x 91.8 = 96 ft from Eq. (54)
Use Hs = 96 ft above convection section
PROBLEM 7 - GROUND SUPPORTED STACK DESIGN

Find: Ground Supported Stack Height required for Draft
Solution: Assume the following arrangement
3
2
1
DP8CFb
3130 ft 3 / sec
Stack Area = = 125 ft 2
25 ft / sec

ENGINEERING Date

1/ 2
4 
Stack Diameter Ds =  A  = 12.7 ft
π 
Estimate Stack Exit Temperature = 460°F see Figure 15
Pressure Drops ∆P3, ∆P5, ∆P6, ∆P7 will be the same as in Problem 6
0.081 in. H2O from Eq. (43)
0.1186 (25 ) 2
∆P1 = =
460 + 460
Friction Loss ∆P2 is very small. Assume this is doubled to account for ducting and extra stack height
∆P2 = 2 x 0.0125 = 0.025 in. H2O
At Location 1: Assume miter bend with turning vanes see Figure 11
∆P = 0.75 VH
At Location 2: Assume miter bend with turning vanes and baffle plate see Figure 12c
∆Pa = 0
∆P = 0.75 VH see Figure 11
At Location 3: Assume miter bend with no turning vanes see Figure 12e
V1' = 0 (no other furnace using stack)
∆Pa = 0 see Figure 11
∆P = 1.5 VH
Σ∆P4 = (0.75 + 0.75 + 1.5) VH = 3.0 VH
= 3 x 0.1186
(25) 2 = 0.21 in. H20
600 + 460
∆Ps = [0.081 + 0.025 + 0.10 +0.21 + 0.070 + 0.351 + 0.10] – 0.099 = 0.838 in. H2O from Eq. (52)
600 + 460
Average Ts = = 530 o F
2
Stack Effect SE = 0.0061 in. H2O/ft see Figure 16
0.838 from Eq. (53)
Hm = = 137 ft
0.0061
Hs = 1.05 x 137 = 144 ft from Eq. (54)
Use Hs = 144 ft above convection section
(vs. Hs = 96 ft for furnace mounted stacks)

Date ENGINEERING
SAMPLE PROBLEMS - METRIC UNITS
PROBLEM 1 - CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT

Given: Atmospheric pipestill service
Inlet Temperature = 232°C
Outlet Temperature = 385°C
Throughput = 203 kg/s
Heat absorbed = 103 MW
Fuel: Atmospheric pipestill bottoms, 965 kg/m3
Find: Convection section layout and shield section radiant duty Qsr
Solution:

Tube Size and Spacing
Tube Size, nominal, mm 150 Same
Do, mm 168.3 Same
Tube pitch Equilateral Triangle Same
Tube spacing, mm 304.8 Same
Max. hs = 1/2 [tube spacing - (Do + 38.1 mm 1/2 [304.8 -
min. clearance)] (168.3 + 38.1)]
= 49.2 –
Assume hs, mm 48 mm –
Assume number of tubes per row, Nt 8 12 (Figure 2C)
Convection Section Width Wc
C = 152.4 mm
(Nt - 1 + 0.5) (304.8 mm)

152.4 mm 152.4 mm
WC
DP8CFa
W c = (Nt - 1 + 0.5)(2Dnom) + (2C)
Wc, mm = (Nt – 1 + 0.5) (304.8) + 2 x 152.4 = 2590.8 3810.0

Wc, m = 2.59 3.81
Convection Section Length Lc
From Sample Problem 2 of Section VIII-B,
Li = 18.9 m. Call Lc, m 19 Same
Flow Area for Flue Gas through Convection Section
Total Area = Lc W c, m2 = 2.6 x 19 = 49.4 3.8 x 19 = 72.2
Flow restrictions:
168 25.5 38.3 from Eq. (4a)M
Rsh, m2 = x 19 x Nt =
1000
152 + 2.9 + 2.9 from Eq. (4b)M
Rb , m2 = Rsh + x 19 = 28.4 41.2
1000
Rsh + 2.9 from Eq. (4c)M

ENGINEERING Date
SAMPLE PROBLEMS - METRIC UNITS (Cont)

48 + 5.8 + 8.8
R s , m2 = Rb + x 34.2 50.0
1250
Nt x 19 = Rb + 0.73 N t
Af, m2 = Lc W c – Rs = 15.0 22.4 from Eq. (3)

Flue Gas Mass Velocity
From Figure 12 of Section VIII-M, for 965 kg/m3
fuel oil and 20% excess air, kg flue gas/kg fuel = 17.7 Same
Fg, from Sample Problem 1 of Section VIII-B, kg/s = 2.98 Same
Wf, kg/s = 2.98 x 17.7 52.7 Same from Eq. (2)M
Wf 52.7 3.51 2.35 from Eq. (1)
Gc , kg / s • m2 = = = (Too high) (OK)
Af Af
Shield Section Radiant Duty Qsr
From Sample Problem 2 of Section VIII-B, φ1-side, – 37.9 x 103
W/m2 =
φs, W/m2 = C1 φ1-side (C1 =1.77 is typical) = 1.77 x 37.9 x 103 – 67.1 x 103 from Eq. (10)
Qsr, W = Lc W c φc = 19 x 3.8 x 67.1 x 103 = – 4.84 x 106 W = from Eq. (9)
4.84 MW
PROBLEM 2 - SHIELD SECTION DESIGN

Find: Shield section heat duty Qs and tube metal temperature Tm
Solution:
Heat Duties
Qa = 103 MW (Given)
Qr = 62.8 MW (Problem 2, Trial 2, of Section VIII-B)
Qsr = 4.8 MW (Problem 1 of this section)
Find Qtr: Qtr = Qr + Qsr = (62.8 + 4.8) MW = 67.6 MW from Eq. (6)
Find Qc: Qc = Qa – Qtr = (103 – 67.6) MW = 35.4 MW from Eqs. (5) & (6)
Find Qtc: Qtc = Qc + Qsr = (35.4 + 4.8) MW = 40.2 MW from Eq. (7)
Temperature Balance
From the feed properties and the Blue Book, the average Cp for the feed is about 2.8 x 103 J/kg - °C
Temperature rise of the feed in the convection section:
40.2 x 10 6 W
∆Tb = = 71 o C
203 kg /s x 2.8 x 10 3 J / kg
Crossover temperature = Coil inlet temperature + ∆Tb = 232 + 71°C = 303°C
Bridgewall Temperature Tbw = 885°C (Problem 2 of Section VIII-B)
Stack Temperature Ts = 315°C (Problem 1 of Section VIII-B)

Date ENGINEERING

Intermediate process fluid temperatures and flue gas temperatures can be calculated from the specific heat of the process fluid
and the charts showing heat available in flue gas. However, for convenience in determining these temperatures, it is helpful to
develop temperature - heat duty (T-Q) curves for the process fluid and flue gas. (See the example below.)
TYPICAL T-Q CURVE FOR CONVECTION SECTION

900
Qsr 310
800 Fl 300
ue
Ga Note: For actual design, a
s larger scale should be used. 290
Process Fluid Temperature Tb, oC

Flue Gas Temperature Tg, oC
700 280
270
600 260
250
Pro
500 ces 240
sF
luid
230
400 220
210
300 200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heat Absorbed in Convection Section, MW

Bridgewall DP8Cfe Stack

Assume Solution
Assume Qsc, Tb2, or Tg2 and by heat balance or T-Q curve determine the other two.
Assume Qsc, MW = 4.00 4.9
Qs, W = Qsc + Qsr = Qsc + 4.84 MW = 8.84 9.74 from Eq. (8)
Tg1 = Tbw = 885°C From T-Q Curve; Tg2 = 824°C 816°C
Tb1 = Crossover = 303°C Tb2 = 288°C 286°C
∆T1 = 582°C ∆T2 = 536°C 529°C
LMTD, °C = from Eq. (12)
559°C 555°C
A, m2 = 12 tubes/row x 2 rows x 19 m x 0.528 m2/m = 241 Same
Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient ho
Af, m2 = Lc W c – Rsh = 72.2 – 38.3 33.9 Same see Problem 1
Wf 52.7 1.55 Same from Eq. (1)
Gc , kg / s • m2 = = =
Af Af
Gc 0.67 = 1.34 Same
Do = 168.3 mm; Do 0.33 5.43 Same
Tg1 + Tg2 885 + Tg2 855 851
o
Tg, C = = =
2 2

ENGINEERING Date

0.40 3.33 3.33
 Tg + 273 
  =
 55.6 
0.40 25.3 25.2 from Eq. (23)M
2  1.34   Tg + 273 
o
hc , W / m • C = 30.7    
 5.43   55.6 
hr = 0 from Eq. (24a)
ho, W/m2 °C = hc + hr = 25.3 25.2 from Eq. (22)
Assume Shield Tube Properties
Assume tubes are same as radiant section tubes see Section VIII-B
Tm = 7.24 mm, ta = 8.28 mm, Ai = 0.477 m2 /m
Am = 3.14 x 10-3 (168.3 – 8.3) = 0.502 m2 /m from Eq.(14)
Assume average Tm = 360°C, 5% Cr material
km = 27.4 W/m °C see Section VIII-B
hi = 1700 W/m2 °C (Calculation not included)
−3
1 1 0.528 1 0.528 8.28 x 10
= + x + x
U 1.5 x h o 0.477
1 4241700
3 0.502 27.4
14442444
3
0.00065 0.00032
1 0.0271 0.0272 from Eq. (13)M
= + 0.00097 =
1.5 x h o
U, W/m2 °C 36.8 36.7
Shield Section Duty Qs
Qsc, MW = U A (LMTD) = 4.9 4.89
vs. assumed = 4.0 4.9 from Eq. (11)
Qs, W = Qsr + Qsc = 4.84 x 106+ Qsc = 9.7 from Eq. (8)
Tg2 = 816°C
Tb2 = 286°C
Shield Tube Metal Temperature Tm
φs = 6.71 x 104 W/m2 see Problem 1
 
∆Tf = 36.8 (582) + 6.71 x 10 4  x 0.00065 = 58 o C from Eq. (30)
 14444 4244444 3
 
∆Tm = 89000 x 0.00032 = 28°C from Eq. (31)M
Tm = 303 + 58 + 28 = 389°C from Eq. (29)

Date ENGINEERING
PROBLEM 3 - BARE TUBE SECTION DESIGN

Given: Same as in Problem 1
Shield Section calculations as in Problem 2
Find: Bare tube section duty qc and tube metal temperature Tm
Solution:
Assume Solution
Assume bare tube section will have 2 rows of Schedule 40
Carbon Steel Tubes
Assume qc, Tb2, or Tg2 and by heat balance or T-Q Curve determine the other two.
Assume qc, MW = 4.7 7.1 see Problem 2
Qs, MW = 9.7 9.7
ΣQc, MW = (total convection section so far) 14.4 16.8
Tg1 = Tg2 in Problem 2 = 816°C From T-Q Curve: Tg2 = 763°C 704°C
Tb1 = Tb2 in Problem 2 = 286°C Tb2 = 277°C 274°C
∆T1 = 529°C ∆T2 = 486°C 431°C
LMTD, °C = 507 478 from Eq. (12)
A, m2 = 12 tubes/row x 2 rows x 19 m x 0.528 m2 /m = 241 Same
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient hc
Af, m2 = Lc W c – Rb = 72.2 – 41.2 31.0 Same see Problem 1
52.7 1.70 Same from Eq. (1)
Gc , kg / s • m 2 = =
Af
Gc 0.67 = 1.43 Same
Do = 168.3 mm ; Do 0.33 = 5.43 Same
789 760
o 816 + Tg2
Tg , C = =
2
0.40 3.25 3.22
 Tg + 273 
  =
 55.6 
0.40 26.3 26.0 from Eq. (23)M
1.43  Tg + 273 
hc , W / m2 • oC = 30.7   =
14254 .43
3  55.6 
8.08
Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient hr
Assume average Tm = 315°C
F1 = 1.27 1.26 see Figure 3
PCO2 + H2O = (based on 20% excess air, H/C = .130 for 965 kg/m3 21.2 Same see Figure 4
fuel oil)
Lb, m = 0.354 Same from Eq. (26)M
Lb (Pco2 + H2O) 7.50 Same
F2 = 14.4 14.4 see Figure 5
hr, W/m2 °C
= F1 F2 18.3 18.1 from Eq. (24b)
ho, W/m2 °C = hc + hr = 44.5 44.1 from Eq. (22)

ENGINEERING Date

Assume Tube Properties
ta = 7.1 mm; Ai = 0.484 m2/m see Section VIII-B
Am = 3.14 x 10-3 (168.3 – 7.1) = 0.506 from Eq. (14)
Assume average Tm = 315°C, CS material
km = 44.4 W/m °C (Calculation not included) see Section VIII-B
−3
1 1 0.528 1 0.528 7.1 x 10
= = x + x
U 1.5 x h o 0.484
1 42 1700
4 434 0.505
1 44 44.4
424 44 3
0.00064 0.000167
1 0.0158 0.0159 from Eq. (13)M
= + 0.000807 =
1.5 x h o
U, W/m2 °C = 63.3 62.7
Bare Tube Section Duty qc
qc, MW = U x A x (LMTD) = 7.68 7.18 from Eq. (11)
vs. assumed = 4.7 7.1
(Make 2nd (OK)
Trial)
ΣQc, MW = Qs + qc = 9.7 + qc = 16.9
Tg2 = 704°C
Tb2 = 274°C
Tube Metal Temperature Tm
Recalculate parameters based on Tg1, Tb1, and ∆T1 and use with results obtained above.
0.40
 Tg1 + 273 
  = 3.29
 55.6 
hc = 8.08 x 3.29 = 26.6 W/m2 °C
F1 = 1.32 (Based Tg1 & Tm = 315°C) see Figure 3
F2 = 14.42
hr = 1.32 x 14.42 = 19.0 W/m2 °C
ho = 26.6 + 19.0 = 45.6 W/m2 °C
from Eq. (33)M
1  1 
= = 0.01459 + 0.00064 + 0.000167 = 0.01539
U  1.5 x 45.7 
U = 64.9 W/m2 °C
o from Eq. (32)
∆Tf = 64.9 x 529 x 0.00064 = 23 C
1424
3
from Eq. (33)M
∆Tm = 34500 x 0.000167 = 6°C
Tm = 286 + 23 + 6 = 315°C from Eq.(29)

Date ENGINEERING
PROBLEM 4 - STUDDED TUBE

Find: Acceptable stud height
Solution:

Assume Stud Length
Assume stud height hs, mm = 50.8 19.1
Temperatures for calculations:
Tg1 = Tg2 in Problem 3 = 704°C
Tb1 = Tb2 in Problem 3 = 274°C
430°C Same
∆T1 =
Local Extended Surface Coefficient he′
Rb = 41.2 m2 see Problem 1
 hs 
Rs, m2 = 41.2 +  x 12 x 19  =
 12.5 x 10 3 
 
41.2 + 0.182 hs 50.3 44.7 from Eq. (4c)M
Af, m2 = Lc W c – Rs = 72.2 – Rs 21.8 27.5 see Problem 1
52.7 2.43 1.92 from Eq. (1)
G c , kg/s m 2 =
Af
0.55 1.63 1.43
Gc =
0.45 10.0 Same
Do = 168.3 mm ; Do =
0.48 3.96 Same
 Tg1 + 273 
 
 55.6 
46.0 40.4 from Eq. (28a)M
0.55
Gc 0.55
he = 71.3 x x 3.96 = 28.3 x G c
10.0
h′e, W/m2 °C = 6 he 274.8 241.9 from Eq. (38)
Studded Tube Areas
ns = 22 studs/row
see Page 6
A e , m2 / m = 2.51 x 10 −3 x hs x 22
14444244443
0.055 hs
2.96 1.227 from Eq. (16)M
+ 7.98 x 10 −3 x 22
144424443
0.176
Ab, m2/m = 0.528 – 0.176 = 0.352 0.352 from Eq. (17)M
Ao, m2/m = Ae + Ab = 3.34 1.579 from Eq. (15)
Assume Sch 40 tubes: ta = 7.11 mm see Problem 3

Ai, = 0.484 m2/m; Am = 0.506 m2/m

ENGINEERING Date

Local Overall Coefficient U'
E′ = 0.42 0.83 see Figure 7A
 E ′ x A e + A b  ′  0.42 x 2.96 + 0.352  from Eq. (37)

′
ho W / m 2 o C =   he =   274.8 131.7
 Ao   3.34 
 0.83 x 1.227 + 0.352 

 1.579  241.9
= 131.7 209.9
Assume Tm = 425°C; 5% Cr tubes
km = 27.4 W/m °C see Section VIII-B
1 1 0.00505 0.00318 from Eq. (36)M
= =
U′ 1.5 x h ′
o
Ao 1 A 0.00406 0.00192
+ x = o =
0.484 1700 823
Ao 7.1 x 10 −3 Ao
+ x = = 0.00171 0.00081
0.506 27.4 1953
1 0.0108 0.0059
=
U′
U′, W/m2 °C = 92.4 169.5
Stud and Tube Metal Temperatures
Ao 1 161 139 from Eq. (34)
∆Tf , o C = U′ x 430 x x =
0.484 1700
71 62 from Eq. (35)M
7.1 x 10 −
3
Ao
∆Tm , o C = U′ x 430 x x =
0.506 27.4
Tb1, °C = 274 274
Tm, °C = Tb1 + ∆Tf + ∆Tm 507 493 from Eq. (29)
(km should be revised based on actual Tm, but the change is negligible for 5% Cr)
′′
E = 0.24 0.75 see Figure 7B
Tt, °C = 754 – E′′ (754 – Tm) 657 533 from Eq. (39)
(too high, try (OK)
shorter stud)

Date ENGINEERING
PROBLEM 5 - STUDDED TUBE SECTION DUTY

Stud Length = 19.1 mm as calculated in Problem 4
Find: Studded tube section duty qc
Solution:
Assume Solution
Assume 19.1 mm studded section will have 2 rows of tubes.
(Flue gas temperature after 2 rows will probably be low enough
to permit use of maximum stud length)
Assume qc, MW = 10.55 12.63 see Problems
Shield and Bare Tube qc, MW = 16.88 16.88 2&3
Σ Qc, MW = 27.43 29.51
Tg1 = 704°C (Problem 4) From T-Q Curve: Tg2 = 538°C 504°C
Tb1 = 274 Tb2 = 256 252
∆T1 = 430°C ∆T2 = 282°C 253°C
LMTD, °C = 351 333
Ao = 1.579 m2 /m; Ae = 1.227 m2/m; see Problem 4
Ab = 0.352 m2/m
A, m2 = 2 rows x 12 tubes/row x 19 m/tube
x 1.579 m2 /m = 720 Same
o 704 + Tg2 621 604

Tg , C =
2
0.48 3.80 3.76
 Tg + 273 
  =
 55.6 
Gc 0.55 = 1.43 ; Do 0.45 = 10.0 see Problem 4
0.48 43.3 42.8 from Eq. (28a)M
1.43  Tg + 273 
he = 71.3 x  
10.0  55.6 
E = 0.96 0.96 see Figure 7A
 E x 1.227 + 0.352  41.9 41.5 from Eq. (27)
ho =   x he
 1.579 
Overall Coefficient U
Tube properties and film coefficient obtained from Problem 4
1 1 1 1 from Eq. (13)M
= + 0.00192 + 0.00081 = 0.0159 = 0.0161
U 1.5 x h o 1442443 1.5 x 41.9 1.5 x 41.5
+ 0.00273 0.00273 0.00273 see Problem 4

= 0.01863 0.01883
U, W/m2 • °C = 53.7 53.2

ENGINEERING Date

Studded Tube Section Duty qc
qc, MW = U A (LMTD) = 13.5 12.69 from Eq. (11)
vs. assumed = 10.55 12.63
Σ Qc, MW = 16.9 + qc = 29.6
Tg2 = 504°C
Tb2 = 252°C
PROBLEM 6 - STACK DESIGN

Convection Section Design per Problems 1-5
Remainder of Convection Section Consists of 5 tube rows with 47.6 mm Studs
Summer Design Air Temperature = 32°C
Find: Furnace Mounted Stack Height Required for Draft
Solution:
For 19 m long convection section, assume 2 internally insulated stacks
Stack Diameter Ds
Wf = 52.7 kg/s see Problem 1
Ts = 315°C see Problem 2
351  28.84  3
from Eq. (42)M
ρ =   = 0.597 kg / m
315 + 273  28.84 
52.7 kg / s
Flow = = 88.27 m3/s
0.597 kg / m 3
Assume stack velocity Vs = 7.6 m/s
88.27 m 3 / s
Required Area per Stack = = 5.81 m 2
7 .6 m / s x 2
1/ 2
4 
Stack Diameter Ds =  A  = 2.72 m
π 
Estimate Temperature Loss in Stack
Ts – Ta = 315 – 32 = 283°C see Figure 14
∆Tu = 36°/100 m
Cvs = 1.0; Assume Cvw = 1.0 ;
Assume Hs = 30 m
∆T = 11°C
Stack exit temp. = 315 – 11 = 304°C
Avg. stack temp. = 310°C
Pressure Losses
2 from Eq. (43)M
0.176 (7.6)
∆P1 = = 0.0176 kPa
304 + 273

Date ENGINEERING

Stack Pressure Drop ∆P2
From Section XIV-B, Fluid Flow, Figure 1
Ds = 2.7 m
Roughness = 0.055
Equiv. D = 2.7 x 0.055 = 149 mm for determining f
V = 7.6 m/s
µ = 2.83 x 10-5 Pa•s @ Tg = 310°C see Figure M-13
351 from Eq. (42)M
ρ = = 0.602 kg /m 3
310 + 273
W = 0.602 x 7.6 x (π/4) x 2.72 = 26.2 kg/sec
ρ V D 0.602 x 7.6 x 2.7
Re = = = 4.4 x 105
µ 2.83 x 10 −5
f (@ equiv. diameter = 149 mm) = 0.004
For Hs = L = 30 m:
 f L W2  see Section XIV-B
∆P = 3.24x1012  
 ρ D5 
 
 0.004 x 30 x 26.22 
∆P = 3.24 x 1012   = 0.0031 kPa
 0.602 x 27005 
 
Damper Loss ∆P3
∆P3 = 0.025 kPa from Eq. (45)
∆P4 = 0 (for this case)
Stack Entrance Loss ∆P5
from Eq. (48)M
0.176 (7.6) 2
∆P 5 = = 0.0173 kPa
315 + 273
Convection Section Pressure Drop ∆P6
19.1 mm 47.6 mm
Shield Bare Studs Studs
Tg1, °C 885 816 704 504
Tg2, °C 816 704 504 315
Avg. Tg, °C 851 760 604 410
351  28.84  0.312 0.340 0.400 0.514 from Eq. (42)M
ρ, kg / m 3 =  =
Tg + 273  28.84 
µ, Pa•s 4.39 x 10-5 4.23 x 10-5 3.93 x 10-5 3.3 x 10-5 Figure M-13
Dcp, mm = Do + 2hs = 168.3 168.3 206.5 263.5
C, mm = 0 152.4 152.4 152.4
Nt, tubes/row = 12 12 12 12
 Dcp x 12 + 152.4  (Same as in (Same as in 22.4 9.4
A f , m2 = 19  3.81 − =

Problem 2) Problem 3)
 10 3 
52.7 1.55 1.70 2.35 5.61 from Eq. (1)
G cp , kg / s • m 2 = =
Af
2 2.40 2.89 5.52 31.47
G cp =
D cp G cp 5942 6764 12348 44795
10 −3 x =
µ

ENGINEERING Date

19.1 mm 47.6 mm
Shield Bare Source
Studs Studs
SL ST 304.8 1.81 1.81 1.48 1.16
= =
D cp D cp D cp
Fc 0.109 0.107 0.112 0.120 see Figure 13A
Nc = 2 2 2 5
2 0.00338 0.00376 0.006221 0.0739 from Eq. (50)M
Nc Gcp fc
∆P 6 , kPa = 0.002 =
ρ
Σ∆P6 = 0.0873 kPa
Draft at Top of Radiant Section ∆P7
∆P7 = 0.025 kPa
Pressure Gain in Convection Section ∆Pc
885 + 315
Tg = = 600 °C
2
Stack Effect SE = 0.00755 kPa/m
Hc = 3.4 m (approximate)
∆Pc = 0.00755 x 3.4 0.0257 kPa
Stack Height Hs
[ ]
∆P s = 0.0176 + 0.0031 + 0.025 + 0 + 0.0173 + 0.0873 + 0.025 − 0.0257 = 0.1496 kPa
from Eq. (52)
Stack Effect SE @ 310°C = 0.0054 kPa/m see Figure 16
0.1496 from Eq. (53)

Hm = = 27.7 m
0.0054
from Eq. (54)
Hs = 1.05 X 27.7 = 29.1
Use Hs = 29.1 m above convection section
PROBLEM 7 - GROUND SUPPORTED STACK DESIGN

Find: Ground Supported Stack Height required for Draft
Solution: Assume the following arrangement:
3
2
1
DP8CFb

Date ENGINEERING

Source
88.27 m 3 / s
Stack Area = = 11.6 m 2
7 .6 m / s
1/ 2
4 
Stack Diameter D s =  A  = 3.84 m
π 
Estimate Stack Exit Temperature = 238°C see Figure 15
Pressure Drops ∆P3, ∆P5, ∆P6, ∆P7 will be the same as in Problem 6
from Eq. (43)M
0.176 x 7.6 2
∆P1 = = 0.0199 kPa
238 + 273
Friction Loss ∆P2 is very small. Assume this is doubled to account for ducting and extra stack height
∆P2 = 2 x 0.0031 0.0062 kPa
At Location 1: Assume miter bend with turning vanes see Figure 11
∆P = 0.75 VH
At Location 2: Assume miter bend with turning vanes and baffle plate see Figure 12c
∆Pa = 0
∆P = 0.75 VH see Figure 11
At Location 3: Assume miter bend with no turning vanes see Figure 12e
V'1 = 0 (no other furnace using stack)
∆Pa = 0 see Figure 11
∆P = 1.5 VH
Σ∆P4 = (0.75 + 0.75 + 1.5) VH = 3.0 VH
7. 6 2
= 3 x 0.176 = 0.05187
315 + 273
∆P s = [0.0199 + 0.0062 + 0.0250 + 0.0518 + 0.0173 + 0.0873 + 0.025] − 0.0257 = 0.2068 kPa from Eq. (52)
315 + 238
Average T s = = 277o C
2
Stack Effect SE = 0.0051 kPa/m see Figure 16
0.2068 from Eq. (53)
Hm = = 40.5 m
0.0051
Hs = 1.05 x 40.5 = 42.5 m from Eq. (54)
Use Hs = 42.5 m above convection section
(vs Hs = 29.1 m for furnace mounted stacks)

ENGINEERING Date
NOMENCLATURE
A = Total outside surface area for section being designed, ft2 (m2)
Ab = Area of exposed bare tube surface, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ac = Area at mean diameter of coke layer, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ae = Area of extended surface on tube, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Af = Free cross-sectional area for flue gas flow, ft2 (m2)
Ai = Inside tube surface area, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ai′ = Area at inside diameter of coke layer, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Am = Area at mean tube diameter, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Ao = Total outside surface area, ft2/ft (m2/m)
A1 = Upstream cross-sectional flow area, ft2 (m2)
A2 = Downstream cross-sectional flow area, ft2 (m2)
C = Corbelling width, in. (mm)
C1 = Peripheral maldistribution of heat transfer around radiant tube
Cvs = Stack flue gas velocity correction factor
Cvw = Stack wind velocity correction factor
Dcp = Tube diameter for convection section pressure drop calculations, in. (mm)
Df = Fin outside diameter, in. (mm)
Di = Inside tube diameter, based on average wall thickness, in. (mm)
Di′ = Inside diameter of coke layer, in. (mm)
Ds = Stack diameter, ft (m)
d = Duct diameter ft (m)
dc = Equivalent diameter of a rectangular duct (for a circular duct with the same friction loss), ft (m)
ds = Stud diameter, in. (mm)
E = Extended surface efficiency factor
E′ = Local extended surface efficiency factor
E′′ = Local extended surface temperature factor
e = Turning vane spacing, ft (m)
fe = External fouling factor, hr ft2 °F/Btu (m2 °C/W)
fm = External surface maldistribution factor
FBL = Mean beam length correction factor
Fg = Gross fuel required, Ib/hr (kg/s)
Fn = Net fuel required, lb/hr (kg/s)
F1 = Temperature factor for determining hr
F2 = Convection section characteristic factor for determining hr
FG = Lb flue gas/lb fuel (kg flue gas/kg fuel)
fc = Friction factor for flue gas pressure drop, dimensionless
G = Fluid mass velocity through the coil, Ib/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)
Gc = Flue gas mass velocity through convection section (for heat transfer calculations), lb/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)
Gcp = Flue gas mass velocity through convection section (for pressure drop calculations), lb/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)
Hm = Calculated minimum stack height, ft (m)
Hs = Design stack height, ft (m)
HA = Heat Available from fuel, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)

Date ENGINEERING
NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
HAbw = Heat Available at bridgewall temperature, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
HAs = Heat available at stack temperature, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hc = Heat transfer coefficient due to convection, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
he = Extended surface film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
he′ = Local extended surface film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hf = Fin height (or length), in. (mm)
hi = Inside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hl = Liquid inside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
ho = Outside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
ho′ = Local extended surface coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hr = Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hs = Stud height (or length), in. (mm)
htp = Two phase inside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hv = Vapor inside film coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
K = Pressure loss coefficient
Btu / hr ft 2
kc = Thermal conductivity of coke, (W/m °C)
°F / in.
Btu / hr ft 2
km = Thermal conductivity of tube wall, (W/m °C)
°
F / in.
Lb = Mean beam length for radiation in convection bank, ft (m)
Lc = Convection section inside length, ft (m)
LMTD = Logarithmic mean temperature difference between flue gas and process fluid, °F (°C)
lv = Length of turning vane straight section, ft (m)
Ma = Molecular weight of air = 28.84, lb/lb mol (kg/kg mol)
Mg = Molecular weight of flue gas, lb/lb mol (kg/kg mol)
Nc = Number of tube rows in convection section (in direction of flue gas flow)
Nt = Number of tubes per convection section row
nf = Number of fins per in. (fin spacing, mm)
ns = Number of studs per circular row
nv = Number of turning vanes
Pa = Air pressure, psia (kPa absolute)
Pg = Flue gas pressure, psia (kPa absolute)
pCO2 +H2O = Partial pressure of CO2 plus H2O in the flue gas, atmospheres (kPa)
∆P = Flue gas pressure drop, in. of water (kPa)
∆PC = Stack effect caused by the convection section, in. of water (kPa)
∆PR = Stack effect caused by the radiant section, in. of water (kPa)
∆PS = Stack effect in the stack, in. of water (kPa)
∆Pc = Flue gas pressure drop due to sudden contraction, in. of water (kPa)
∆Pe = Flue gas pressure drop due to sudden expansion, in. of water (kPa)
Qa = Total fired heater heat duty, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qc = Total heat absorbed in convection section, excluding shield section radiant duty, MBtu/hr (MW)

ENGINEERING Date
NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
Qf = Heat fired, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qr = Heat absorbed by radiant section surface, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qs = Total shield section heat duty, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qsc = Heat transferred in shield detection by convection, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qsr = Shield section radiant heat duty, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qtc = Total convection section heat duty, MBtu/hr (MW)
Qtr = Total fired heater radiant heat duty, MBtu/hr (MW)
qc = Heat absorbed in section being designed, MBtu/hr (MW)
R = Restriction to flow of flue gas through convection section, ft2 (m2)
Rb = Restriction from bare tube section, ft2 (m2)
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
Rf = Restriction from finned tube section, ft2 (m2)
Rs = Restriction from studded tube section, ft2 (m2)
Rsh = Restriction from shield section tubes, ft2 (m2)
Rt = Radius of ducting turns, ft (m)
rv = Radius of turning vanes, ft (m)
SL = Distance between tube centers in adjacent rows of convection section, in. (mm)
SR = Distance between centers of convection section tube rows, in. (mm)
ST = Distance between tube centers in horizontal row of convection section, in. (mm)
SE = Stack effect, in. of water per ft of height (kPa per m of height)
Ta = Ambient temperature, °F (°C)
Tb = Bulk fluid temperature, °F (°C)
Tb1 = Process fluid temperature leaving the section, °F (°C)
Tb2 = Process fluid temperature entering the section, °F (°C)
Tbw = Bridgewall temperature, °F (°C)
Tg1 = Flue gas temperature entering the section, °F (°C)
Tg2 = Flue gas temperature leaving the section, °F (°C)
Tm = Maximum tube metal temperature, °F (°C)
Tma = Length average radiant tube metal temperature, °F (°C)
Tmas = Length average shield tube metal temperature (on front 180° of all shield tubes), °F (°C)
Tms = Maximum shield tube metal temperature, °F (°C)
Ts = Stack temperature, °F (°C)
Tt = Maximum stud or fin tip temperature, °F (°C)
ta = Average thickness of tube wall, in. (mm)
tc = Design coke thickness, in. (mm)
∆Tc = Temperature rise across coke layer, °F (°C)
∆Tf = Temperature rise across inside oil film, °F (°C)
∆Tm = Temperature rise across tube wall, °F (°C)
∆Ts = Estimated temperature loss in stack, °F (°C)
∆Tu = Uncorrected temperature loss in stack, °F (°C)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
U′ = Local overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
Uc = Overall heat transfer coefficient in coked condition, Btu/hr ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)

Date ENGINEERING
NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
V = Velocity, ft/sec (m/s)
V1 = Upstream velocity, ft/sec (m/s)
V2 = Downstream velocity, ft/sec (m/s)
VH = Velocity head, in. of water (kPa)
Wc = Convection section inside width, ft (m)
Wf = Flue gas rate, Ib/sec (kg/s)
X = Weight fraction of vapor in the fluid
x = Depth of duct, ft (m)
y = Width of duct, ft (m)
α = Angle of bend in ducting, degrees
ε = Emissivity of tube surface, dimensionless
µ = Absolute viscosity, centipoises (Pa•s)
ρ = Density, Ib/cu ft (kg/m3)
φla = Radiant section front face length average heat density, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
φr = Radiant section average heat density, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
φs = Radiant heat density on front face of shield tubes, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)
φ1-side = Average radiant section heat density for tubes fired from one side only, Btu/hr ft2 (W/m2)

ENGINEERING Date
COMPUTER PROGRAMS
GUIDANCE AND CONSULTING
For up-to-date information on available programs and how to use them, affiliate personnel should get in touch with their Affiliate
Library Contact. Florham Park personnel should consult the Heat Transfer Equipment Section of ER&E.
LITERATURE
The following references are available:
• Fired Heater Simulation Program 03558 Manual Published by ER&E.
• Application Technology Set (ATS) Catalog No. CPEE126 Published by ER&E.
AVAILABLE PROGRAMS
The applicable programs available at the time of this writing are listed below:
PROGRAM TITLE AND DESCRIPTION
3558 Fired Heater Simulation Program
➧ This program has been incorporated into the Pegasys System and includes a new graphical user interface as well
as updated correlations. This program can be used for several design and trouble-shooting purposes:
• Fired Heater Simulation
Heat transfer calculations are performed for individual geometries in the convection section, thereby allowing
determination of process, flue gas and material temperatures. The program provides several options, giving
the user flexibility in choosing calculated variables. If desired, these options permit simulation of the entire fired
heater operation, including the radiant section. The following are determined for each geometry: (1) Flue gas
temperature in and out, (2) process temperature in and out, (3) heat duty, and (4) material temperature. The
heater geometry, number of tubes, tube materials, and extended surface type can be modified iteratively to
arrive at an acceptable design.
• Heat Available Curve
By defining the fuel gas or liquid composition, without the need to enter a furnace geometry, the program will
develop the heat available curve and lower heating value for that fuel.
• Stack Calculations
Once the fired heater geometry and process conditions have been established, the program can also be used
to design a stack or check the design of an existing one. The program can handle any ductwork or convection
section geometry in its calculations. The output is an itemized listing of the pressure losses and gains, as well
as the computed stack size if requested.
➧ CFX-4.2c Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software available from AEA Technology
This program can be used to simulate fluid flow, heat transfer, and reactive chemistry in a fired heater, heat
exchanger, piping network, ducting, or other process equipment. CFX consists of intensive numerical solution
algorithms, which solve the conservation equations (mass, momentum, and energy). The user needs to specify the
geometry, fluid, boundary conditions, and the physics being modeled. A "picture" of the flowfield is obtained as well
as velocity, temperature, pressure, species concentration, etc. Changes to the existing design can be simulated
and tested prior to implementation in the field.
• Applications of this program have included the following:
Optimization of injector locations in a Thermal DeNOx application to reduce NOx emissions
Simulation of flame impingement in a POWERFORMER furnace
Simulation of fuel and air mixing patterns in a SATCON lift pipe

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 1A
CYLINDRICAL STUD EXTENDED SURFACE
DP8CF1A
FIGURE 1B
HELICAL FIN EXTENDED SURFACE
DP8CF1B

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 2
ARRANGEMENT OF CONVECTION SECTION TUBES
Tg2
Tb2
L
S
L
S
ST Tb1 ST
Tg1
(a) Equilateral Pattern (b) Isosceles Pattern (c) Alternate Arrangement

(SL = ST) (SL ≠ ST)
a Notes
b
a = 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) min.
Extended b,d = 1 1/2 in. (38.1 mm) min.
Surface Tubes d
a is approxiamtely equal to 1/2 b
a is approxiamtely equal to c
a' is approximately equal to 1/2 b'

a' is approximately equal to c'
c
Bare Tubes a'

C
Corbelling
c' b'
Convection
Section
Side Wall
WC
(d) Layout of Convection Section DP8CF02

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 3
TEMPERATURE FACTOR F1
Flue Gas Temperature Tg, °C

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
)
3.0 71° C
° F (8
1600
)
Tube Metal 60° C
400° F (7
Temperature 1
)
9° C
2.0 (64
0° F
120
)
8° C
(53
° F
00
10
C)
27°
(4
F
0°
1.0 80
Temperature Factor, F
0.9
0.8
)
°C
15
(3
0.7
F
0°
60
0.6
)
°C
04
(2
0.5
F
0°
40
C)
3°
(9
F
0.4
0°
20
0.3
0.2
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Flue Gas Temperature Tg, °F DP8CF03

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 4
PARTIAL PRESSURE OF CO2 + H2O IN FLUE GAS
0.35
0.30
, Atmospheres (10 –2 kPa)
0.25
+ H2O) 2
P (CO
Fuel %H H
0.20 (wt)
Comp. In Fuel C
H2 100
CH9 90 .750
0.15 CH4 80 .333
CH2.33 70 .194 Typical

CH1.5 60 .125 Liquid
CH 50 .083 Fuel
C 0 0
0.10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Excess Air
Note: Fuel is assumed to contain only carbon and hydrogen.

DP8CF04

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 5
CONVECTION SECTION CHARACTERISTIC FACTOR, F2
F2
1 1.5 2 3 4
1.0 30
.9
.8
.7 20
.6
.5
.4
10
.3
]
.2
+ H2O)
] + H2O)
2
5
Lb[P (CO
2
.15 Lb[P (CO
.10 3
.09
.08
.07
2
.06
.05
1.0
5 10 20 30
Metric [F2] DP8CF05

EXXON
he ( or he')
hs kmds
ENGINEERING
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
1.0
E = Efficiency Factor
E' = Local Efficiency Factor
.9 E" = Stud Tip Temperature Factor
hs = Stud Length, in. [mm]
ds = Stud Diameter, in. [mm]
.8 2
km= Stud Thermal Conductivity, Btu/Hr ft [W/m °C]
°F/in.
he = Stud Heat Transfer Coefficient,
.7 Btu/Hr Sq Ft °F [W/m2 °C]
he' = Local Stud Heat Transfer Coefficient,
Btu/Hr Sq Ft °F [W/m2 °C]
.6 Efficiency Factor E or E',
Based on he or he'
FIRED HEATERS
.5
FIGURE 6
SECTION AND STACKS
Factors E, E', E"

DESIGN OF CONVECTION
.4
STUD EFFICIENCY FACTORS E, E′, E′′
.3
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only
.2
Date

Stud Tip Temperature Factor E"
Section
.1 Based on he'
VIII-C
.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Page
December, 1999
he ( or he')
hs (Metric)
67 of 79
kmds
DP8CF06
DESIGN PRACTICES
Date
W (metric)
Section
he or he',
m2°C
VIII-C
0 28 57 85 113 142 170 227 283 340 397 453 510 567
1.0
Page
December, 1999
0.9
68 of 79
DESIGN PRACTICES
Stud Height, hs
0.8 hs in. (mm)
5/8 (16)
0.7
3/4 (19)
0.6
1 (25)
0.5
1-1/4 (32)
0.4 1-1/2 (38)

FIGURE 7A
Stud Efficiency Factor, E or E'

1-3/4 (44)
0.3 2 (51)
FIRED HEATERS
STUD EFFICIENCY FACTORS E, E′
0.2 3 (76)
SECTION AND STACKS
FOR 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) DIAMETER CARBON STEEL STUDS
0.1
Scale

Change
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Btu/hr
Note: Assumed Stud Temperature = 800°F (425°C) he or he',
ft2°F
Btu/hr ft2
km = 280 (40 W/m°C)
°F/in.
DP8CF7A
EXXON
No significant change for other stud temperatures in range of 400 - 1200°F (200 - 650°C)
ENGINEERING
W
he', (metric)
m2°C
EXXON
0 28 57 85 113 142 170 227 283 340 397 453 510 567
1.0
ENGINEERING
0.9
0.8
Stud Height, hs
0.7
in. (mm)
5/8 (16)
0.6
3/4 (19)
0.5
FIRED HEATERS
FIGURE 7B
0.4
SECTION AND STACKS
1 (25)
Stud Tip Temperature Factor E"

0.3
1-1/4 (32)
STUD TIP TEMPERATURES FACTORS E′′
0.2
1-1/2 (38)
FOR 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) DIAMETER CARBON STEEL STUDS
1-3/4 (44)
0.1
2 (51)
Date
Scale

Change
Section
3 (76)
VIII-C
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Btu/hr DP8CF7B
Note: Assumed Stud Temperature = 800°F (425°C) he',
ft2°F
2
Page
Btu/hr ft
December, 1999
km = 280 (40 W/m°C)

°F/in.
69 of 79
No significant change for other stud temperatures in range of 400 - 1200°F (200 - 650°C)
DESIGN PRACTICES
Date
Section
VIII-C
he ( or he')
hf kmtf (metric)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1.0
Page
December, 1999
E =Efficiency Factor
70 of 79
0.9 E' =Local Efficiency Factor

DESIGN PRACTICES
hf =Fin Height, in. (mm)

Do =Tube Diameter, in. [mm]
Df =Diameter Across Fins, in. [mm]
0.8
=Do + 2hf
Df tf =Fin Thickness, in. (mm)
Do = 1.0 km =Fin Thermal Conductivity,
0.7 Btu/Hr ft2
(W/m °C)
°F/in.
he = Fin Heat Transfer Coefficient,
1.4
0.6 Btu/Hr ft2 °F (W/m2 • °C)
he' = Local Fin Heat Transfer Coefficient,
2.0
Btu/Hr ft2 °F (W/m2 • °C)
3.0
0.5
4.0
FIGURE 8
0.4
Efficiency Factors, E, E'

FIRED HEATERS
FIN EFFICIENCY FACTORS E, E′
0.3
SECTION AND STACKS
0.2
0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
he ( or he')
hf kmtf DP8CF08
EXXON
ENGINEERING
he'
(metric)
EXXON
hf kmtf
0
ENGINEERING
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1.0
0.9
E" =Fin-Tip Temperature Factor
hf =Fin Height, in. (mm)
0.8 Do =Tube Diameter, in. (mm)
Df =Diameter Across Fins, in. [mm]
=Do + 2hf
tf =Fin Thickness, in. (mm)
0.7
km =Fin Thermal Conductivity,
Df Btu/Hr ft2
(W/m • °C)
Do = 1.0 °F/In.
0.6 he' = Local Fin Heat Transfer Coefficient,
Btu/Hr ft2 °F (W/m2 • °C)
1.4
0.5
FIRED HEATERS
Factor E"
2.0
FIGURE 9
SECTION AND STACKS
0.4
3.0
0.3
FIN TIP TEMPERATURE FACTOR E′′
0.2
Date

0.1
Section
VIII-C
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
he'
Page
hf DP8CF09
December, 1999
kmtf
71 of 79
DESIGN PRACTICES
Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 10
FLUE GAS PRESSURE GAINS AND LOSSES
Pressure Pressure Losses

Gains and Allowances
Stack Exit Loss
S
2
Stack Effect
in Stack Stack Friction in Stack and Ducts
HS
Pressure Drop Across Damper
3
Additional Losses Based on Arrangement
4
20° Min.
5
Stack Entrance Losses
C Convection 40 ft Max.
Section
HC 6 (12.2 m Max.)
Stack Effect
in Convection Convection Section Pressure Drop For Each Take-Off
Section
Side View
Draft Required at Top

of Radiant Section
R Radiant
Section
Stack Effect HR
in Radiant
Section
8
Burner Pressure Drop
DP8CF10

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 11
PRESSURE LOSSES IN BENDS
α +
Rt
y d
Miter Rt / x > 0.5 Rt / x > 0.5
α V2 α V2
∆P = K ( 90°) (0.1186) ( Tg + 460 ) Or Metric [ ∆P = K ( 90° ) (0.176 ) ( Tg + 273 )]
Where: ∆P = Flue Gas Pressure Drop in Bend, Inches Water (kPa)

V = Velocity, ft/s (m/s)
Tg = Flue Gas Temperature, °F (°C)
K = Loss Coefficient From the Following Table:
K Factors
Duct Type Rt / x
Miter 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5
Rectangular Ducts, No Turning Vanes 1.5 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.2 Valid for y/x ≥ 0.4
Rectangular Ducts, With Turning Vanes 0.75 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 }
For y/x < 0.4 multiply by 1.2
Circular Ducts 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.35 0.25
Turning Vanes
lv
+ rv x
e lv
e
Note 1
+
Miter Rounded Bend
NV = Number of vanes = 3 (min.)

x
e = rV = (0.6 m max., spacing)
NV + 1
lV = 0.75 e
Note 1: Inside and outside corners of miter bend should be rounded to the same radius as that of the vanes.
DP8CF11

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 12
DUCTING ARRANGEMENTS
Typical Stack Arrangement

Over Long Convection Section
20° Min.
Typical Breeching Arrangement

2 ft (0.6 m) For All Furnaces
40 ft Max.
(12.2 m Max.)
For Each
Take-Off
(a) Typical Breeching Arrangement
Baffle Plate
V1 V1
α
∆ Pa = Approx. 6VH ∆ Pa = 0 V1
45° ∆ Pa = 3 VH (α = 45°)
AVOID Max.
∆ Pa = 0.7 VH (α = 22°)
(b) (c) (d)
Baffle Plate
V1 ∆Pa = Approx. ( ) 4 VH (If V

α
90 1 = V1')
V1
∆Pa = 0 (If V1' = 0, such as entrance to
α ground supported stack) ∆ Pa = 0
V1'
(f)
(e) Typical Ducting Arrangements
Notes:
(1) Losses listed above (∆Pa) are due to intersection of flue gas streams, and are IN
ADDITION yo normal bend and expansion or contraction losses.
(2) VH = Velocity Head
(3) Losses listed are typical and should be used for design. See the following references if more
details of bend and arrangement losses are required:
ASHRAE, Guide and Data Book, 1969
General Electric Co., Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, 1970 DP8CF12

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 13
CONVECTION SECTION FRICTION FACTOR
Dcp Gcp Dcp Gcp

= 16.1 = 64.4
0.30 2.0, 3.0 µ 0.30 µ
1.5 or Metric 2.0, 3.0 or Metric
0.25 0.25
Dcp Gcp Dcp Gcp
0.20
1.0
[ µ x 10-3 = 2000 ] 0.20
1.5 [ µ x 10-3 = 8000 ]
SL/Dcp 1.0
0.15 1.0 0.15
fc fc SL/Dcp
1.5
0.10 0.10 1.0
0.09 2.0 0.09
1.5
0.08 3.0 0.08
2.0
0.07 0.07 3.0
0.06 0.06
0.05 0.05
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
ST ST
Dcp Dcp
Dcp Gcp Dcp Gcp

0.30 = 161 0.30 = 322
µ µ
0.25 or Metric 0.25 or Metric
3.0 Dcp Gcp Dcp Gcp
0.20 2.0 [ µ x 10-3 = 20,000 ] 0.20
3.0
2.0
[ µ x 10-3 = 40,000 ]
1.5 1.5
0.15 0.15
1.0 1.0
fc fc
0.10 0.10
0.09 SL/Dcp 0.09
0.08 0.08
1.0
0.07 0.07 SL/Dcp
1.5
0.06 2.0 0.06 1.0
3.0 1.5
0.05 0.05 2.0
3.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
ST ST
Dcp Dcp
Note:
For nomenclature and explanatory sketch, see Figure 13A.
Source: E.D. Grimison - Trons - ASME Pro - 59 - 8, 1937 DP8CF13

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 13A
CONVECTION SECTION FRICTION FACTOR
(EQUILATERAL PITCH)
Dcp Gcp x 10-3

Metric [ µ ]
1500 2000 5000 10,000 50,000
0.30
SL ST
=
Dcp Dcp
0.20 1.2
1.3
0.15 1.5
1.8
2.0
fc
0.10
3.0
0.04
15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 500
Dcp Gcp
µ
Nt = Number of tubes per row
fc = Friction factor
Wc
Dcp = Outside diam. of tubes and extended surface, in. (mm)
Gcp = Mass velocity = Wf/Af = lb/sec ft2 (kg/s m2)
ST
Dcp Wf = Flue gas rate, lb/sec (kg/s)
DcpNt + C DcpNt + C
+ + + Af = Free flow area = Lc Wc – (
12 , ft ) [
2
; = Lc(Wc –
1000 ) ], m 2
SL µ = Flue gas viscosity, centiposes

+ + +
ST,SL = Center to center tube spacing, in. (mm)
Lc = Convection section length, ft (m)
Wc = Convection section width, ft (m)
Flue Gas Flow C C = Corbelling width, in. (mm)
∆P6 = Pressure drop through the convection section, inches of water (kPa)
Nc = Number of tube rows in direction of flow
ρ = Flue gas density at conditions, lb/ft3 (kg/m)
Nc G2cp fc Eq. (50)

∆P6 = 0.01195 ρ
Nc G2cp fc
DP8CF13a
or Metric [ ∆P 6 = 0.002
ρ ]

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 14
APPROXIMATE STACK TEMPERATURE LOSSES FOR STEEL STACKS
∆ Tu, °C/100 m ∆ Tu, °C/100 m
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360

1400 1400
700 700
1200 1200
.0 m)
m)
600 600
10 ft (3
(1.2
m)
1000 1000
m)
(3.0
4 ft
)
m
)
(Ts - Ta), °C
(Ts - Ta), °C
(Ts - Ta), °F
(Ts - Ta), °F
m
500 500
1.8
.6
.2
(0
t
t (
10 f
(1
ft
800 800
6f
ft
2
4
.=
400 400
m
ia
D
m)
k
ac
600 0.6 600
St
t ( 300 300
2f
.=
iam
400 kD 400
ac 200 200
St
200 200
0 100 200 0 100 200
∆ Tu, °F/100 ft ∆ Tu, °F/100 ft
Uninsulated Stack Insulated Stack
Ts = Stack Entrance Temperature, °F (°C)

Ta = Ambient Temperature, °F (°C)
∆Ts = Approximate Temperature Loss in Stack,
= ∆Tu (Cvs) (Cvw)
∆Tu = Uncorrected Temperature Loss (from Curves), °F/100 ft (°C/100 m)
Cvs = Stack Flue Gas Velocity Correction Factor (see below)
Cvw = Stack Wind Velocity Correction Factor (see below)
Correction Factors
Velocity Type Uninsulated Insulated
Stack Stack
Stack Gas Velocity
ft/sec (m/s) Cvs Cvs
15 4.6 1.2 1.4

25 7.6 1.0 1.0
45 13.7 0.75 0.65
Wind Velocity
miles/hr (km/h) Cvw Cvw
0 0 0.85 0.9
10 16 1.0 1.0
20 32 1.1 1.05 DP8CF14

Date ENGINEERING
FIGURE 15
APPROXIMATE STACK EXIT TEMPERATURES FOR CONCRETE STACKS
300 90
3.6)
.4)
.6)
.3)
.0)
5.0)
.5)
)
28 (8.5
8 (2
4 (0
2 (0
20 (6
24 (7
12 (
16 (
200 60
Stack Height, ft
Stack Height, m
)
(m
,. ft
100 iam 30
ckD
a
St
0 0
800 425
St
90 ac
0 kI
(4 nle
80 tT
) em
700 80 p. 370
0( ° F(
42 °C
5) )
70
0(
37
0)
600 315
Stack Exit Gas Temp., °C

Stack Exit Gas Temp., °F
600
(31
5)
500 260
500
(26
0)
400 205
400 (
205)
300 300 (15 150

0)
200 95
Note: Chart includes infiltration of cold air through concrete stack.
Reference: B & W, Steam.
DP8CF15

ENGINEERING Date
FIGURE 16
STACK EFFECT
Stack Effect, kPa/meter of height

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
2000 1100
Fundamental Equation
1900
Ma Pa Mg Pg
SE = 0.01796 [T - ] 1000
1800 a+ 460 Tg + 460
or Metric
]]
Ma Pa Mg Pg
1700 [ SE = 0.001181 [T
a + 273
-
Tg + 273
900
1600 SE = Stack effect, in. of water per foot of height
(kPa per meter of height)
Ma = Mol. wt. of air = 28.84
1500
Mg = MW of flue gas. Varies from 28.00 to 28.84
800
(assumed to be 28.84 for this chart)
1400 Pa = Air pressure, psia (kPa, abs)
Pg = Flue gas pressure,psia (kPa, abs)
Pa = 14.7 psi for this chart (101 kPa)
1300 Ta = Air temperature, °F (°C)
700
Flue Gas Temperature Tg, °C

Flue Gas Temperature Tg, °F
1200
1100 600
1000
500
900
800
400
700
600
Air Temperature, ºF (ºC) 300
60 (°C)
500
70 (°C)
80 (°C)
400 90 (°C)
200
100 (°C)
110 (°C)
300 120 (°C)
200 100
100
0 .002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012
DP8CF16 Stack Effect, Inches of Water/Foot of Height

Design of Convection Section and Stacks: Exxon Engineering

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Design of Convection Section and Stacks: Exxon Engineering

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FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES

DESIGN OF CONVECTION Section Page

CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE ............................................................................................................. 5

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT ................................................................................................................ 7

CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN ............................................................................................................... 11

STACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................................... 23

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

STACK DESIGN PROCEDURE.................................................................................................................... 25

SAMPLE PROBLEMS - CUSTOMARY UNITS............................................................................................. 30

SAMPLE PROBLEMS - METRIC UNITS...................................................................................................... 44

COMPUTER PROGRAMS ............................................................................................................................ 61

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE

BARE TUBE SECTION

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION SURFACE (Cont)

OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF PIPE

MAXIMUM FIN TIP TEMPERATURE

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT

STANDARD SPACING MINIMUM SPACING

STANDARD SPACING MINIMUM SPACING

(O.D.) in. (O.D.) (mm) in. mm in. mm

3 76.2 6 152 5 127

4 101.6 8 203 6 152

5 127.0 10 254 7.5 191

6 152.4 12 305 9 229

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT (Cont)

PIPE SIZE MAXIMUM UNSUPPORTED LENGTH

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT (Cont)

FLUE GAS MASS VELOCITY Gc

Wf = Fg FG (Metric) Eq. (2)M

where: Fg = Gross fuel required, Ib/hr (kg/s)

where: Lc = Convection section length, ft (m)

where: Rsh = Restriction in shield section, ft2 (m2)

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT (Cont)

where: Rs = Restriction in studded section, ft2 (m2)

where: ds = Stud diameter, in. (mm)

4. Finned Section Restriction Rf

where: Rf = Restriction in finned section, ft2 (m2)

Design Flue Gas Mass Velocity

RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FLUE GAS MASS VELOCITIES, Gc

Low Metals Fuel Oil and 0.4 to 0.5 2.0 to 2.5

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION LAYOUT (Cont)

CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN

CONVECTION SECTION DUTY

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN (Cont)

HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS

Fired Heater Equations

Qa = Qr + Qsr + Qc Eq. (5)

where: Qa = Total fired heater heat duty, Btu/hr (W)

Q tr = Qr + Qsr Eq. (6)

Q tc = Qc + Qsr Eq. (7)

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

CONVECTION SECTION DESIGN (Cont)

Shield Section (Bottom Two Rows of Convection Section)