DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY –TRICHY

ME8501
METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT
III MECHANICAL
SESSION-1

D.PIO CASMIR
AP/MECH
DEFINITION OF METROLOGY
 The metrology is the science of measurement
 Metrology is the science of measures the weight
length and angle
 The word metrology is derived from two Greek
words
Metro=measurement
Logy=science
 units
Units 1 :BASICS OF METROLOGY
Unit 2:LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
Unit 3:ADVANCE IN METROLOGY
UNIT 4:FORM MEASUREMENT
UNIT 5:MEASUREMENT OF POWER,FLOW AND
TEMPERATURE
List of measurement device
 Unit-1
BASIC OF METROLOGY
• Methods of measurements
• Accuracy vs precision
• Genralised measurement system
• Errors and types of error
• Standards of measurements
GENERALISED MEASUREMENTS
SYSTEM IN NORMAL LIFE
Generalised measurement system
The many number of measurement system
used in practice:
 Primary sensing element
 Variable conversion element
Variable manipulation element
 Data Transmission element
Data processing element
Data presentation element
Block diagram of generalized measurement
system
Thermal measurement system
 Elements of measurement
Standards
Workpiece
Instrument
Person
Enviroment
The acronym of five element is swipe
Precision and accuracy of
measurement
• PRECISION
The precision defined as degree
of Exactness for which an measurement is
designed or intend to perform.
It refers to repetability.
The measurement carried out same interval
of time
precision
• Accuracy:
The accuracy may be defined as
ability of instrument to respond to true value
Of measure variable under reference condition.
It refer how closely measured value agree
with True value.
It is aslo known as degrees of measurement
accuracy
ACCURACY VS PRECISE
DIFFERENCE B/W ACCURACY AND PRECISE
 NEEDS OF MEASUREMENTS

 To ensure the material, parts and components conform

to the established standards
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacture
 To provide the means of finding the problem area for
meeting the established standards
 To produce the parts having acceptable quality levels
with reduced scrap and wastage
 To purchase good quality of raw materials, tools and
equipment that govern the quality of finished products
To take necessary efforts to measure and reduce the
rejection percentage
 To judge the possibility of rework of defective parts
 Errors in Measurement
 An error may be defined as the difference
between the measured value and the actual
value
 True value may be defined as the average value of
an infinite number of measured values
 Measured value can be defined as the estimated
value of true value that can be found by taking
several values during an experiment. •
 Error in measurement=Measured value-True
value
Absolute Error
 True absolute error
 Apparent Absolute error
Absolute error=True value-Measured Value=300-
280=20 units
Relative Error:
• Relative error=Absolute error/Measured
value=20/300=0.06=6%
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
• GROSS ERROR
Gross error is called parastic error.
Gross errors are caused by mistakes in using
instruments, calculating measurements and
recording data results.
Eg: The operator or person reads the pressure gauge
reading as 1.10 N/m2 instead of 1.01 N/m2
This may be the reason for gross errors in the
reported data and such error may end up in
calculation of the final results, thus producing
deviated results.
 Systamtic error
• The errors that occur due to fault in the
measuring device are known as systematic errors.
static error
Dynamic error
• These errors can be detached by correcting the
measurement device.
• These errors may be classified into different
categories.
• Instrumental Errors • Environmental Errors •
Observational Errors •
 Instrument error
 Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction
of the measuring instruments
 . These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction.
 In order to reduce these errors in measurement,
different correction factors must be applied and in the
extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated
carefully
 Enviroment error
 The environmental errors occur due to some external
conditions of the instrument.
 • External conditions mainly include pressure, temperature,
humidity or due to magnetic fields
To reduce the environmental errors •
 Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the
laboratory by making some arrangements.
 • Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or
magnetic field around the instrument
 Observational Errors
• • As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs
due to wrong observations or reading in the
instruments particularly in case of energy meter
reading.
• The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX.
• In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly
accurate meters are needed: meters provided with
mirror scales
 Random Errors
These are errors due to unknown causes and
they occur even when all systematic errors
have been accounted
. These are caused by any factors that
randomly affect the measurement of the
variable across the sample.
 Such errors are normally small and follows
the laws of probability
• Blunders
Blunders are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong
value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or
forgetting a digit while reading a scale.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
 Methods of Measurement
Direct method
 In this method, the quantity to be measured is
directly compared with the primary or
secondary standard. This method is widely
employed in production field.
In this method, a very slight difference exists
between the actual and the measured values
because of the limitation of the human being
performing the measurement.
 Indirect method
In this method, the value of quantity is
obtained by measuring other quantities that
are functionally related to the required value.
 Measurement of the quantity is carried out
directly and then the value is determined by
using a mathematical relationship.
• Eg: angle measurement using sine bar
• Deflection method
• This method involves the indication of the value of the
quantity to be measured by deflection of a pointer on a
calibrated scale.
• Eg. Pressure measurement
• Null measurement method
• In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity
to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with
which comparison is to be made is brought to be zero.
• Substitution method
• This method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity
to be measured with a known value of the same quantity, so
selected that the effects produced in the indicating device by
these two values are the same.
• Contact method
• In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument.
• Eg. Micrometer, Vernier calliper and dial indicator
• Contactless method
• As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the
surface to be measured
• Eg. Tool makers microscope, profile projector
• Composite method
• The actual contour of a component to be checked is
compared with its maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
• Cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component which are
controlled through a combined tolerance can be checked by this method.
• This method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and is effected
through the use of composite GO gauges.
 General characteristics in metrology
Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the magnitude
of input signal. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.
Sensitivity=(Infinitesimal change of output signal)/(Infinitesimal change of
input signal)

If the input-output relation is linear, the sensitivity will be constant for all
values of input.
If the instrument is having non-linear static characteristics, the sensitivity of
the instrument depends on the value of the input quantity.
 Effectsof elements of metrologyon Precisionand Accuracy

• Factors affecting the standard of measurement

• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Elastic properties of a material
• Stability with time
• Calibration interval
• Geometric compatibility
• Factors affecting the workpiece to be measured
• Coefficient of thermal expansion of material
• Elastic properties of a material
• Cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects such as scratches,
waviness etc.,
• Adequate datum on the workpiece
• Thermal equalization
• Factors affecting the characteristics of an instrument
Scale error
Repeatability and readability
Calibration errors
Effect of friction, zero drift, backlash etc.,
Inadequate amplification
Deformation when heavy workpieces are measured
Constant geometry for both workpiece and standard.
• Factors affecting person
Training/skill
Ability to select the measuring instruments and standard
attitude towards accuracy
Planning measurement techniques for minimum cost,
consistent with precision requirements etc.
• Factors affecting environment
Temperature, humidity, atmosphere, pressure etc.,
Clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision
Temperature equalization between standard, workpiece and
instrument.
Thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights,
heating elements, sunlight and people.
Manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
 Elements of Metrology
Standard
The most basic element of measurement is standard without which no
measurement is possible.
Standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement.
Different standards have been developed for various units
including fundamental units as well as derived units.
Workpiece
Workpiece is the object to be measured/measured part
Variations in geometry and surface finish of the measured part
directly affect measuring system’s repeatability
Compressible materials like plastic or nylons pose a different type of
problem that any gauge pressure will distort the material. This can be
avoided by fixing of gauging pressure as suggested by the industry so
that everyone will get uniform results
• Instruments
Instrument is a device with the help of which the measurement can be
done
The instrument must be selected based on the tolerance of the
parts to be measured, the type of environment and the skill
level of operators
It should be remembered that what type of instruments the customer
prefer to measure.
Person
There must be some person or mechanism to carryout the
measurement
Modern gauges are increasingly easy to use but the failure to
adequately train the operating personnel will lead a poor performance
• Instruments
• Instrument is a device with the help of which the measurement
can be done
• The instrument must be selected based on the tolerance of
the parts to be measured, the type of environment and
the skill level of operators
• It should be remembered that what type of instruments the
customer prefer to measure.
• Person
• There must be some person or mechanism to carryout the
measurement
• Modern gauges are increasingly easy to use but the failure to
adequately train the operating personnel will lead a poor
performance
• Standard
• The measurement should be performed under standard environment
• Temperature, dirt, humidity and vibration are the four
environmental factors that influence measurement.
• Vernier scale division of vernier caliper always changes when the
measurement process is carried for ‘n’ number of times for the same
dimension. The environment is indirectly related to temperature,
humidity, conditioning etc.,

Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,

Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology
 Characterstics of metrology
• Range
• Redability
• Reproducebility
• Calibiration
• sensitivity
 General characteristics in metrology
Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the magnitude
of input signal. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.
Sensitivity=(Infinitesimal change of output signal)/(Infinitesimal change of
input signal)

If the input-output relation is linear, the sensitivity will be constant for all
values of input.
If the instrument is having non-linear static characteristics, the sensitivity of
the instrument depends on the value of the input quantity.
 Hysteresis: All the energy put into the stressed component when
loaded is not recovered upon unloading. Hence, the output of a
measurement system will partly depend on its previous input signals and
this is called as hysteresis.
Range: It is the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
for which an instrument is designed to measure/ The region between
which the instrument is to operate is called range.

Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to give the same value every time
the measurement of a given quantity is repeated

It is the closeness between successive measurements of the same quantity with

the same instrument by the same operator over a short span of time, with same value of
input undersameoperating conditions.
Resolution: Minimum value of input signal required to cause an
appreciable change or an increment in the output is called
resolution/ Minimum value that can be measured when the
instrument is gradually increased from non-zero value.
Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value is
called error.
Drift: The variation of change in output for a given input over a
period of time is known as drift.
Threshold: Minimum value of input below which no output can be
appeared is known as threshold.
Reliability: Reliability may be explicitly defined as the probability
that a system will perform satisfactory for at least a given period of
time when used under stated conditions. The reliability function is
thus same probability expressed as a function of the time period.

Prepared by, S.David Blessley AP/MECH,

Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology
 Standards
Types of standards
Line standard
• Standard yard
• Standard metre
End standard
• End bar
• Slip gauges
Wavelength standard
 UNIT-2
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

• Measurement systems are mainly used in industries for

quality control.
Often widely using measurements are :
Linear Measurement
 Vernier caliper
 Micrometer
 Slip gauge or gauge blocks
 Optical flats
 Interferometer
 Comparators
Angular measurement
Sine bar, optical bevel protractor ,Taper measurements
 CLASSIFICATION OF LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Low resolutio,(upto 0.25mm

 Steel rule
 Steel rule with assistance of Calipers
 Dividers
 Surface gauges
Thickness gauges
High resolution(microns level)
Gauge blocks ,Gauge block with assistance of
Mechanical comparator Electronic comparator
◦ Pneumatic comparator Optical flats
Medium resolution devices(up to 0.0025mm)
 Micrometer
Micrometer with assistance of
Telescoping
Extendable ball gauges
 Vernier calipers
Dial indicators
Microscope
Vernier calipers
• Components of vernier calipers are :
• Main scale
• ◦ Vernier scale
• ◦ Fixed jaw
• Depth measurement blade
• Movable jaw
Types of vernier calipers ◦
 Type A vernier caliper
 ◦ Type B vernier caliper
 ◦ Type C vernier caliper
 VERNIER CALIPER
 Ve rni e r calipers are available in size of 150 mm,
225 mm, 900 mm and 1200 mm.

 The selection of the size depends on the

measurements to be taken.

 Vernier calipers are precision instruments,and extreme care should be

taken while handing them.
Type A Vernier Caliper
Type A Vernier Caliper
Type B Vernier Caliper
Type C Vernier Caliper
 Vernier caliper
VERIER CALIPER WITH 0.02MM LEAST COUNT IS GENERLY USED
IM WORK SHOP.
In this Vernier caliper main scale division (49mm) are divided in to 50
equal part in the Vernier scale.
i.e. 1 main scale division =1 mm
(MSD)
Total Vernier scale =50 mm
division (VSD)
Least count =1MSD/TVSD =1\50 mm
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 1.MSD and 1. VSD=0.02MM
 Exampl
e
Main scale reading =35mm
The vernier division coinciding with the main scale is the 20th division.
Value=20 multiplied by 0.02=0.40mm.
Total reading is 35mm+0.40= 35.40mm

35.40 mm
 Errors in vernier calipers
• Errors may be rise in manipulation of Vernier calipers
• Jaw movement should be Perpendicular to the scale
reading.Otherwise measurement will nor wrong
• During internal measurement ,the jaws may became
bowlegged.it should be frequently checked
• The contact person of Measuring jaws should be in good
condition.So the wear and tear and wrapping of vernier
calipers
Vernier Depth Gauge

A vernier depth is very commonly used

precision instrument for measuring depth of
holes recesses, slot and step.

Its construction and method of reading

are similar to those of a vernier caliper.
 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

B a s e
Graduated beam
Clamping screw
F i n e adjustment
mechanism
Vernier scale
• A vernier depth gauge is one type of vernier.
• The graduated scale directly slides throught
the base but vernier calipers remain same.
• This instrument used for measuring the depth
of hole,recess and distance from plane.
• PRECAUTION
The jaws should not be used as wrench or
hammer
Error in depth gauage:
The range of trueness and squareness of vernier depth
guage should be correct.
 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

The main parts of a vernier height

gauge and their function are given.
1. base
2.beam
3.vernier slide
4. fine setting device
5. vernier plate
6. locking screws
7. scriber
MICRO METER

• A micro meter is a precision instrument

used to measure a job, generally within an
accuracy of 0.01mm.Micrometer used to take
the outside measurements are know as outside
micrometer.
 PARTS OF MICROMETER

Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle
Graduated sleeve or barrel
Ratchet or friction stop
Spindle clamp
SLIPGUAGE
SLIP GAUGE
S l i p gauges are rectangular blocks of steel
having a cross-section of about 30 by 10
mm
Normal set
Range Step Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 to 1.9 0.1 9
1 to 9 1 9
10 to 90 10 9
Total 45
Special Set
Range Step Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
1.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
Total 86
Classification

A A slipgauges
A slip gauges and
B slip gauges
 A A slip gauges
◦ Master slip gauges
◦ Accurate to plus or minus two microns per
meter
A slip gauges
◦ Reference purpose
◦ Type A is guaranteed accurate up to plus or
minus four microns per meter
 B slip gauges
◦ Working slip gauges
◦ Type 'B' for plus or minus eight microns per
meter
Classes

Grade 2
Grade 1
Grade 0
Grade 00
Calibration grade
Grade 2
T h i s is the workshop grade
Typical uses include setting up machine
tools, positioning milling cutters and
checking mechanical width.
Grade 1
 Used for more precise work, -tool
room.

Typical uses include setting up

Sine bars and sine tables
Checking gap gauges and
Setting dial test indicators to zero
Grade 0

 This is more commonly known as the

Inspection grade
Inspection Department only who have
access to this grade of slips
Grade 00
 This grade would be kept in the
Standard Room and would be kept for
work of the highest precision only.
Determination of any errors
present inthe workshop or Grade 2
slips.
COMPARATOR