The Advantages of Modern Technology in Various Fields

With the introduction of technology, there has been a great progress in the field of
science and it has brought about numerous outstanding advantages to mankind.The
enormous enhancements happed in the field of medical sciences have helped in
lengthening the lives of human beings’ expectancy and reducing the infant
mortality rate. While performing many critical major operations also, the doctors
can take advice online from experts all over the world. It has helped human beings
to establish their lives in other planets. It has also abetted them not only to revive
their life styles but also to improve their physical environment in which they live
in. It has also helped mankind to have faster transportation on land, in sea and air
by saving more time for them. Furthermore, people can reach any place with the
help of GPS using through the internet and also people can do online bank
transactions, online interviews and online shopping and many international
companies established their branches in foreign countries and know the status and
progress of the company through the internet. People can search for everything and
can get detailed information about it. Man has advanced in the field of agriculture
using the latest technology. Due to the latest discoveries and inventions of new
mechanization, novel techniques of irrigation, better seeds and pest control, has
resulted in the increase of the productivity levels on farms.The invention of
computers hasbeen a great boon for mankind and they are widely used in all fields
today in order to achieve mind-boggling achievement. People can send and receive
messages, letters, files, documents, photos, videos, audio clippings within a
fraction of seconds to people who live all around the globe. Due to the modern
technology, engineers are able to construct huge and tall buildings, long bridges
over the seas and oceans. Even the tourists can book their tickets online and
reserve hotel rooms. Moreover, people can watch the latest released movies online
and also watch news. People can also communicate online using the existing
technology internationally. They can have video conferencing to attend
international and national seminars, arrange meetings with the managements of
different companies, give training courses for the employees, attend online
interviews,communicatewell with the family members and friends and even to
clarify some doubts. People also can read newspapers, magazines, journals and
periodicals online. With the introduction of robots in large scale industries, the
burden of labour has been reduced and it has led to the saving of time and
money.Cybercrime has been under control and even the normal crime rate has
drastically come down. In the field of education also, there are tremendous changes
with the introduction of technology and the concept of teaching and learning have
taken a new dimension. The modern classrooms are well equipped with the latest
technology and they help both teachers and learners in improving their teaching as
well as learning skills. Let us examine how the modern technology is useful in the
present education system.

The Advantages of Technology in the Present Education System

Technology has resulted in remarkable changes in the field of education. Due to

the dawn of innovations of technology, there have been latest developments in the
teaching and learning styles of both teachers and learners. The traditional concept
of chalk and board has been changed and the modern classrooms are equipped with
the latest digital boards or smart boards. Also, the normal textbooks have been
replaced by e-books. Even a majority of classrooms are provided with computers,
OHPs, DVD players, scanners and so on along with Wi-Fi connection. The
teachers of the present generation have been utilizing these modern technological
devices to create new and innovative materials, design tests and examinations,
teach lessons using PowerPoint presentations and slides, download the necessary
materials useful for their teaching, send assignments to the learners, send the
progress of their learners to the management and parents, refresh their knowledge
and discuss with the teacher community all around the world to clarify their doubts
and so on. Since the concept of learning has been changed, the modern teachers
have been implementing the latest techniques and approaches in their teaching in
order to motivate the learners towards their teaching.
 The introduction of Mobile Technology in Education

With the advent of mobile technology, the entire system of education has taken
new avenues and teaching and learning has become more learner-centered and it
has led the learners to become more autonomous. Furthermore, the burden of the
teachers has been reduced since the learners use mobile technology on their own
and learn the new things on their own. According to the Horizon Report (Johnson,
Smith, Willis, Levine & Haywood: 2011), “M-learning would finally become part
of mainstream higher education”. Furthermore, Ally (2009) states, “Mobile
learning is the process of using a mobile device to access and study learning
materials to communicate with fellow students, instructors or institution”. Levy
(2005) asserts, “Archetypal examples of the devices used for mobile learning
include cell phones, smartphones, palmtops and handheld computers, tablet PCs,
laptops and personal media players. M-learning is already popular in some subjects
such as languages”. The concept of using mobile devices in the classrooms not
only enhances the learners’ learning but also leads them to be independent learners.
With the use of mobile technology, the learners can work on their won to know the
needed information and develop their learningskills both in and outside of the
classrooms whenever they want. The latest mobile technology is more useful not
only for the teachers to teach the learners in an innovative way but also for the
learners to learn some new concepts that are not taught by the teachers and to learn
some additional information that is taught in the classrooms. The learners widely
use of their mobile devices in and outside their classroom to learn new things,
perform tasks, do assignments, improve language skills, enrich vocabulary and
grammar, send and receive messages, play language games and so on. The teachers
should inform the students to make use of their mobile devices only to improve
their learning and not for some other purposes. Moreover, the learners can make
use of their mobile devices to download some useful apps related to language
games, vocabulary, general knowledge, short stories, comics, subjects they study
and so on that are useful for developing their learning skills. There are many
educational institutions that allow students their own mobile devices and they also
proved that learners’ learning skills developed enormously and attained the best
results.

The Concept of Mobile Learning

With the introduction of mobile technology in education, there have been

wonderful advantages in the field of education. With the concept of mobile
learning, the entire learning system has taken many new directions. Mobile
learning has paved a new path to mobility of technology, mobility of learning and
mobility of learner. There have been constant changes in technology and these
technological changes serve the teachers and learners greatly in their teaching and
learning. Furthermore, the concept of learning from the teachers has entirely
changed into self-learning and the learning takes place not only in the classroom
but also outside of the classroom. Similarly, mobile has also given a new direction
for the learners to learn the concepts on their own and it leads them to become
independent learners. Mobile learning also encourages the learners to learn the
desired information or topic anywhere and anytime

Pedagogical Implication

Language learning is evolving through times with the impact of advancement in

technology, political stability and other factors. This will leave certain implications
on pedagogical of ESL which this paper categorized it in three aspects; increase in
students’ engagement, promote creativity development and flexibility in teaching
and learning. Krashen (1985) came out with his theory named The Affective Filter
Hypothesis in which the affective filter, like a mental block, can control the access
of comprehensible input to the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) for
acquisition (Liu, 2015) . He argued on the affective filter of learners and how it can
affect the intake of new input. According to him, people acquire second languages
only if they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low
enough to allow the input ‘in’. Since mobile apps come in variations and with
interesting features, this will make the process of teaching and learning more
interesting and attract students’ attention. This will lower down the students’
affective filter and allow them to absorb more content of the learning. Mobile
devices which are popular among students are motivational tools to be used

in education as well as various learning activities (Hashim et al., 2017). The

students will be more focus in their learning and the inputs are more meaningful.
Hence, they will acquire more vocabularies while carrying out the tasks using
mobile apps. One example of mobile apps that has interesting features named
Talking Photos where we can edit any photos to make it talk. This can capture the
students’ interest and then lower down their affective filters. Abilene Christian
University conducted another research and found that the kids were highly
motivated to complete their lessons on mobile devices than the learning they have
done through traditional textbooks and workbooks (Rao, 2018) Other benefits of
using mobile apps and its pedagogical impact is teaching and learning become
more flexible and independent without neglecting the role of the teacher.
Vocabulary acquisition depends not only on how learners learn, but also how they
are taught (Ismail et al., 2017). Teachers are still needed for guidance purpose but
students are given more room to participate in the learning process because
students can use mobile apps outside of the classroom. For example, teacher can
demonstrate on the steps to use the mobile apps in the classroom with relevant
example. Later, students can practice the new input or repeat the same process
outside of the classroom. Education is not only restricted to classroom learning
(Rafiq et al., 2020). As in Malaysia context, most schools are still prohibited their
students to bring mobile phones to classrooms due to certain reasons. Yet, this is
not a barrier because the students can still utilize mobile apps outside of the school.
The key features of m-learning, such as personalized learning, independent on time
and place, collaboration with peers and teachers in both formal and informal
settings, ubiquity and interactivity of mobile devices, make m-learning efficient
(Kacetl & Klímová, 2019). Online training can cater the needs of each individual
and allow them to learn at their own pace (Rafiq et al., 2019). This will encourage
self-learning among the students. By doing this, students are more exposed to the
learning content and will boost their memorization of the new vocabularies.

Creativity is subjective where different people possess different level of creativity.

People with good level of creativity can think out of the box and can produce
something unusual. Some people need more stimuli to provoke their spirit of
creativity. Even so, by using mobile apps, teachers and students’ creativity can be
enhanced because mobile apps come with different preface, functions, setting,
sound / music and etc. Therefore, this will increase students’ engagement in
conducting or taking part in the lesson. The more they engage with the productive
use of a word (say or write it, and create grammatical and collocational
comparisons), the more likely that he/she is to master it (Schmitt, 2010). Students’
maximum engagement in the lesson will help them to memorize and learn the new
vocabularies better because the learning is more meaningful to them.

Behaviorism Theory

In Behavioral theory, human behaviour is the result of learning, so it can be

changed by manipulating and creating learning conditions (Budiman, 2017). This
theory argued on imitation and repetition of people toward certain habit or
condition that they have experienced before. As for the condition in the classroom,
the teacher will strategize the lesson and use mobile apps as one of the tools in
teaching vocabularies. Students will perform the task and activities in the
classroom with teacher’s guidance using the mobile apps. Through enough
practice, students can imitate the same activities using their own mobile apps
independently because the actions have become their habit. Vocabulary learning is
not just acquiring new words but also the correct pronunciation as well as how they
function in sentences. As a result, students can acquire more vocabularies by their
own by imitating the activities done in the classroom. In the first place, in terms of
the advantage, through the process of stimulus, response and reinforcement, the
right behaviour can be strengthened and the incorrect behaviour will be corrected
in time by the teacher (Xuelian, 2018). Students can always come back to their
teachers for reference and guidance to reinforce the practice.

The Effectiveness of Mobile Devices in ELL

The results of the analysis show that mobile devices, respectively the mobile
phone,have both a positive and negative effect on learners’ learning English
language (Figure 3).The themes that emerged from the survey of the previous
studies show that the use of mobile devices has more positive (66%) than negative
(34%) effects on ELT in Bangladesh. The themes that support the effectiveness of
using mobile devices in ELL in Bangladesh are facilitating learning [45,46],
feasible learning [46], affordability [54], availability [54], effective as face-face
learning [46], new environment for teaching [20], self-supporting for TPD [20],
and ubiquitous learning [49]. Among the themes that support the positive effect of
the use of mobile phones, facilitating and feasible learning are ranked highest in
these studies. The study [45] found that the use of mobile phones allowed
interaction with teachers, peers, and educational materials through SMS, which
facilitated learning environment. Thus, the use of mobile phones extends access to
quality training in a more affordable manner, which facilitates a new learning
environment [46]. Moreover, the use of mobile phones for developing learners’
language is feasible [47]. The use of mobile phones is effective for language
teaching and learning because both teachers and students have mobile phones at
their hands. They can use and handle it for their daily communication purposes
smoothly and effectively [9]. The findings indicate that the use of mobile devices
for learning and teaching language skills is as effective as face-to-face learning
[46]. Thus, the use of mobile devices in the language classroom has multiple
positive effects on the development of learners’ English language skills in
Bangladesh. On the contrary, the results of this review study show that there are
some challenges for the effective use of mobile devices in language classes. The
themes that challenge this effectiveness are affection [53], charging [51], a lack of
teachers’ confidence [20], and screen size [42]. Hossain et al. [53] identified that
students were affected by mobile phone use. In fact, students tended to
continuously use mobile devices for social networking, which had an adverse
effect on their academic performance. The other significant problem was that many
teachers struggled to charge their mobile device due to the erratic electricity supply
in Bangladesh. The findings revealed that teachers placed a higher premium on
charging their personal mobile phones while using them in the classroom [51]. The
study by Shohel et al. [20] pointed out that teachers lacked confidence because
they were using unfamiliar mobile technologies (the iPod and speakers) or
introducing the new technologies into classroom practice. Technological
challenges, i.e., screen size, was one of the barriers to effective m-learning. This
technical issue demonstrates that the quality of the software and hardware is
instrumental to the success of m-learning modalities [43]. The results show that the
use of mobile devices plays a significant role in developing learners’ English
language skills in Bangladesh. Furthermore, the results indicate that the mobile
device is very effective for creating an innovative and interactive language learning
and teaching environment in an EFL context in Bangladesh. Although there are
some challenges for the effectiveness of using mobile devices, their application in
language learning and teaching is effective.

Discussion

In response to the first research question, the results show that the main
topics/research trends include the use of the mobile phones for teachers’
professional development (TPD), the delivery of quality education facilitating
learning, increasing interactivity, learners’ readiness, mobile-assisted e-learning
frameworks, investigation of learners’ concepts, as well as ways of using a mobile
device for ELT. The maximum studies dealt with mobile phones for teacher
professional development to improve learners’ language skills. The findings
further reveal that mobile devices are introduced in order to achieve better results
in language teaching. This occurred in the project ‘English in Action.’ The purpose
of this project was to enhance technology-based language teaching and learning for
the sustainable education and economy of Bangladesh. Thus, the findings of the
majority of the detected studies report on the practical experience of teachers and
students when using mobile phones in ELT. In addition, the findings describe
learners’ perception and readiness to use mobile phones for learning language
skills. In this regard, both teachers and students reported that they had had a
positive attitude to using mobile phones. Apart from that, both teachers and
students, i.e., adults use mobile phones for their daily communication needs.
However, research studies with either a short-term or long-term intervention on the
use of mobile phones in ELT are rare. In fact, research on the use of mobile phones
in ELT in Bangladesh is static. This finding contradicts the findings of the previous
studies by Duman et al. [16] and Shadiev et al. [36]. The findings of these review
studies indicate that research in the field of using mobile devices accelerated
worldwide after the year of 2008 that reached at maximum in 2017 [16]. The
findings of this review also reveal that the most papers were published in 2017,
while the fewest were published in 2014 [36]. However, no review studies have
been conducted on the research of the use of mobile devices in an EFL context.
The evidence from this study clearly illustrates that fewer studies were performed
on the use of mobile phones. The results of this study show a scarcity of empirical
studies on the use of mobile phones in ELT in Bangladesh. The maximum number
of studies originated in 2010 when the project “English in Action” was in the
initial stage of investigating the use of mobile phones in ELT. Except for these
projects, most studies investigated university students’ perception of using this
device without any teaching intervention. Most of the studies employed a
qualitative research design using document analysis and interview data.
Theypredominantly focused on how and in what ways mobile devices were used
for the benefits of students rather than to what extent students developed their
language skills. This finding is in contrast with the findings of Duman et al. [16],
who found that the majority of the studies had applied quantitative research
methods. The results in response to the research question on the effectiveness of
mobile phones show both positive and negative effects on learning English
language skills in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the use of mobile phones appears to
have a more positive effect than a negative one. This device has a primarily
positive effect on a facilitating and feasible learning environment for promoting
English language learning. As both teachers and students can buy this device, the
ubiquitous and new learning environment prevails for learners in learning English
language skills. The results show that the use of mobile phones is effective for
facilitating and providing feasible learning environments in an EFL context. The
findings of this review study are partially aligned with the review study by
Klimova and Zamborova [29]. In their study, the findings indicate that mobile
learning is becoming a more prominent aspect of education, owing to the fact that
it provides an excellent opportunity for foreign language learning. Overall, the
research studies illustrate that the effect of mobile phones is mostly found in
developing learners’ writing, reading and vocabulary [16,41]. In spite of the
effectiveness of mobile devices in ELT, there are some challenges to using this
device, such as a charging issue, screen size, and teachers’ lack of confidence in
integrating it into the face-to-face classroom. Despite these shortcomings, mobile
devices also foster a social networking tendency among younger learners that
negatively effects learners’ academic performance. These findings are absent in the
other review studies found in the literature. Although this review study illustrates
both positive and negative effects of the use of mobile devices in ELT in
Bangladesh, its results suggest that mobile devices have more positive effects than
negative ones. In addition, challenges to the effectiveness of the use of mobile
phones in ELT can be solved. The authors of this review study believe that the
environment for implementing a mobile device in ELT, particularly due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, is much better now than any other time. This review study
points out that the use of mobile applications in English language teaching (ELT)
is not widely studied in Bangladesh. However, there is potential for developing
research on the use of mobile phones in ELT. The findings of this review study
indicate that mobile device is very effective for developing learners’ English skills,
facilitating the effective, feasible and ubiquitous learning process. This study also
suggests that both teachers and students are ready and have clear idea of how
mobile phones could be integrated into traditional, face-to-face teaching.
Nevertheless, the issue of using mobile phones in mainstream classroom activities
is still rare. Although the introduction of mobile phones in ELT through teachers’
professional development (TPD) was found in 2009, there is still little empirical
evidence in the literature. Moreover, there is a lack of evidence about which
languages skills students can learn effectively with this device.

Generally, there is potential for developing research on the use of mobile devices
in ELT, but it should be randomized and controlled, with larger populations and
more extended intervention periods. The research presented here encourages
further investigation into mobile devices for a specific language skill, i.e., reading,
writing, listening, and speaking. Moreover, there is a need to perform more
empirical research in Bangladesh to examine which mobile phone applications are
effective for which language skills. Additionally, there is no alternative way to
integrate mobile devices into language pedagogy for sustainable and practical
education. To fulfill the target of VISION 2041 of the Government of the people of
Bangladesh for sustainable education and economy, the integration of the mobile
phone into existing teaching methods in ELT classrooms is essential.
MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (MALL): ITS DEFINITION
AND PREVIOUS STUDIES
The history of MALL began with a research by Twarog and Pereszlenyi-Pinter in
the 80s which looked at telephone assisted language study. They used telephones
to provide distant language learners with assistance and feedback (Twarog &
Preszlenyi Pinter, 1988). Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) has
developed over the past decade as a field within its own right, with an increasing
number of articles that examine various mobile devices used in environments both
inside and outside of formal language learning. Kukulska- Hulme & Shield (2008),
in an overview of Mobile-assisted Language Learning, define MALL as formal or
informal learning mediated via handheld devices which are potentially available
for use anytime, anywhere. Handheld devices include mobile phones and tablet
computers with Internet capability and other devices without Internet access such
as electronic dictionaries, MP3 players and game players. There has been a
surprisingly large amount of research published over the past two decades that has
seen the field develop along with the enormous steps forward that have taken
place in MALL. Apparently, there have been trials of Mobile-assisted Language
Learning (MALL) applications since 2001 (e.g. Stanford Learning Lab, 2001).
Chinnery (2006) and Kukulska-Hulme & Shield (2008) both provide reviews of
many MALL developments since then, and although there have been some
interesting uses of multimedia on PDAs and iPods (e.g. Thornton & Houser, 2003;
Garcia Cabrere, 2002; Belanger, 2005; Kukulska-Hulme, 2005), the focus has
generally been on delivering basic features such as vocabulary learning and quiz
drills in text format over mobile phones. Valarmathi (2011) stated that Mobile-
assisted Language Learning (MALL) describes an approach to language learning
that is assisted or enhanced through the use of a handheld mobile device. MALL is
a subset of both Mobile Learning (m-learning) and Computer-assisted language
learning (CALL). MALL is language learning using mobile devices such as:

a. Cell (mobile) phones and smart phones (including the iPhone or iPad.)

b. MP3 or MP4 players (e.g. iPods)

c. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) (e.g. Palm Pilot, Blackberry, etc)

With MALL, the advantage is that students are able to access language learning
materials and to communicate with their teachers and peers at anytime, anywhere.
Thornton & Houser (2005) conducted several innovative projects involving the use
of mobile devices particularly mobile phones which one of them focused on the
teaching of the English Language specifically on vocabulary acquisition. Their
study found that the group who uses SMS learnt twice as many words as compare
to those who study using the web. The group has also improved their score twice
as much as compared to those who studied using papers. Learners attitudes were
also found to have improved in the sense that they prefer to receive the SMS
instructions and the believe teaching through SMS is a valuable method. The

findings of the study Thornton & Houser (2005) was supported by Levy and
Kennedy (2005) which then conducted a similar study with their Italian learners.
They send vocabulary words and idioms, definitions and example sentences via
sms. Another study that dwells with vocabulary learning was conducted by Chen
and Chung (2008). Their study presented a vocabulary learning system based on
Item Response Theory and learning memory cycle. This was translated into
recommending as set of vocabulary lists according to individual ability and was
delivered through a PDA. The results indicated an increase in vocabulary
acquisition and increased learning performance. Chen and Chung (2008) believed
that the success was due to the effective and flexible learning mode. Additionally,
there was also an attempt by Kiernan & Aizawa (2004) to look at the use of mobile
devices on task based learning. They believed that task based learning is the best
way to promote the acquisition of language. Similar to Thornton and Houser
(2005), they divided the students into three groups: PC email users, mobile users
and face-to-face speaking users. Their study concluded that although fewer words
were used by the mobile users, they were able to communicate effectively. Other
than that, there were also a number of attempts to use specific functions of mobile
devices in language teaching and learning environments. Gromik (2012), for
example, required Japanese learners to use the video recording function of their
mobile phones to produce short English monologues. He found that the learners
were able to make increasingly longer videos over time. In another study,
Sandberg, Maris & de Geus (2011) provided young Dutch learners with mobile
phones equipped with GPS capabilities in order to help them learn English
vocabulary. The learners negotiated their way around a zoo and completed a
number of games based on the different animals around the zoo. Rivers (2009)
required Japanese learners of English to scan Quick Response (QR) codes that
were posted around the university in order to complete several information
exchange tasks. QR codes are graphics that enable the phones to automatically link
to online information.

POTENTIAL AFFORDANCES FOR USING MOBILE-ASSISTED

LANGUAGE LEARNING (MALL)
Mobile technology has become an important tool in the teaching and learning
process. Studies have shown that technologies especially the use of mobile
devices does bring positive impacts in improving English language proficiency.
Chinnery (2006) pointed out those mobile devices such as mobile phones, PDAs
and iPods are all possible tools for enhancing language learning. There are studies
which have successfully used mobile devices for teaching pronunciations and
listening skills (e.g. Uther et al. 2005) and also for teaching English tenses to ESL
learners such as the one conducted by Bull et al. (2005) which has shown
significant positive outcomes. Chang (2005) claimed that mobile devices are
suitable for vocabulary learning and that the ubiquitous usage of mobile phones
among college students also makes it a practical choice for research on mobile
learning. Mobile phones have the prospect of supporting the subject of English
Language and would bring added value. Many innovative applications
incorporating mobile technology have also been attempted in the subject of foreign
language learning and English language learning (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler,
2005). Various studies (e.g. Ally, 2009; Dias, 2002; Dickey, 2001) have shown an
explosion of interest in using mobile devices for English language teaching and
learning. Mobile devices have some characteristics which allow them to be
suitable tools for modern education especially in terms of providing exploring and
sharing learning contents. The characteristics can be summarised as portability,
functionality, ubiquity, utility and connectivity (Pachler et al., 2010). These
characteristics have definitely a lot to offer for learners of English as Second
Language (ESL). Evidently, studies have shown that MALL allows learners to
access to the desired learning materials (e.g. Dickey, 2001). This could
accommodate to individualised learning where students are free to choose their
own learning activities according to their learning pace. As a result, when students
are provided with individualised learning, they are able to think critically and
aware of their capabilities (Sariah et al., 2014). It is also very important in ESL
learning that students perceived the learner fit criterion. Learner fit refers to the
amount of opportunity for engagement with language under appropriate conditions
given learner characteristics. Learner fit reflects the ways in which individuals
differ such as age, learning style, and stages of development (Pienemann, 1985;
cited in Chapelle et al., 2005). Wi-Fi technology in mobile devices allows learners
to access supplementary learning materials and teachers can also use mobile
devices to communicate and send learning materials to their learners at anytime
convenient to them (Ally, 2009). Yedla (2013) states that the advance of
technology could enhance self-learning and thus may encourage the students to
continue the learning process on their own in English language for their future.
Additionally, MALL applications can facilitate learners in interacting with others
collaboratively anytime and anywhere. Kloper, Squire, and Jenkins (2002)
discussed five unique educational attributes of mobile devices which could reflect
the use of Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) which are;

 Portability: the mobile devices allow movability

 Social interactivity: the mobile devices facilitate and enhance the

communication between users
 Context sensitivity: the mobile devices provide real data in learners’ location,
environment and time

 Connectivity: the devices can be connected to each other or a shared network

 Individually: the devices allow individual learning.

The unique educational attributes of mobile devices discussed by Kloper et al.

(2002) are seen as the affordances that what Mobile- assisted Language Learning
(MALL) has to offer for ESL learners. Apart from that, mobile devices are
designed to provide a lot of functionalities that can be used for supporting and
enhancing teaching and learning methods, like messaging, games, internet access
and multimedia convergence (Khaddage et al., 2009). Apart from that, due to its
portability characteristic, the use of mobile devices removes temporal and spatial
limitations of learning and allows students and teachers to organise their time
more effectively by extending access to course related information,
communication, and collaboration (Naismith et al., 2004). Continual connectivity
to information encourages more flexible access and engagement in learning and
knowledge sharing (Alexander, 2004; Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2007). This can
extend into more contextual situations for students by enabling them immediate
communication and dissemination of information (e.g., text, email, video,
discussion boards) and access to information sources (Motiwalla, 2005; Sharples,
2000). Nevertheless, the most important characteristic in the use of mobile devices
for learning ESL is mobility, which gives the students freedom to practice learning
anytime, anywhere and maintains contact between students and lecturers outside
the class (Wang & Ryu, 2009). Using their mobile devices they can extend
learning environment beyond the classroom setting. Learning through mobile
phones outside the classroom has the advantage of better exploiting the learner's
free time; even the students on the move can improve their learning skills
(Kukulska, 2009). Mobile devices provide learning materials with movable,
flexible and independently controlled environments (Juniu, 2002). Mobility adds
new options to the activities that can be enhanced regarding to the portability and
the features of mobile devices (Naismith et al., 2004). However, despite of the
potential affordances, issues have been raised continuously on the constraints
which are considered barriers in implementing the use of MALL. The following
section discusses the constraints that ESL learners could be facing in using MALL
for learning English language.

CALI Computer-Assisted Language Instruction

CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning
CELL Computer-Enhanced Language Learning
CBLT Computer-Based Language Teaching
CMC Computer-Mediated Communication
ICALL Intelligent CALL
MALL Mobile technology-Assisted Language Learning
NBLT Network-Based Language Learning
TELL Technology-Enhanced Language Learning
WELL Web-Enhanced Language Learning
 A Brief History of CALL
In a widely-cited article, Warschauer (1996) divides CALL history into the
behavioristic, communicative and integrative phases. Behavioristic CALL was
“conceived in the 1950s, and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s,” and “featured
repetitive language skills” (Warschauer & Healey, 1998, p. 57). Communicative
CALL came into being in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and integrative CALL
emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s (ibid). In his more recent work,
however, Warschauer (2000, cited in Bax; also, Warschauer, 2004) makes some
changes to this history and presents Table 2, below. Bax (2003), however, takes
issue with this still popular and oft-cited analysis, although he acknowledges its
usefulness as a reference point. Bax criticizes Warschauer’s analysis as being
inconsistent, ambiguous, and making use of unclear criteria. He argues for a
comprehensive re-evaluation of the phases, “both in their nomenclature and in
their dating” (p. 18), and offers an alternative analysis, which he divides into three
general approaches rather than historical phases.

The first approach is dubbed “Restricted CALL,” which Bax (2003) admits to be
very similar in its main features and history to Warschauer and Healey’s (1998)
“Behaviourist CALL”; however, he considers “Restricted CALL” to be a more
appropriate name, since it recognizes that while the various dimensions of CALL
in this approach (e.g. as the theories of learning, software, activity types used,
teachers’ role, feedback given to learners) were for the most part restricted, they
were not necessarily always behaviourist. Bax suggests that Restricted CALL
dominated the field from the 1960s until approximately 1980, and may still
occasionally be observed. Bax’s second approach is named “Open CALL,” which
he believes started in the 1980s and continues strong until the present times. In the
Open CALL approach, while there has been a general move toward more
flexibility as well as an increase of interaction with the computer and other
students, technology still “precedes syllabus and learner needs” (p. 21) and yet, is
not integrated into the syllabus, but is still an intriguing new “toy” (ibid) that some
exalt and others fear. Bax calls for a movement toward the third, still distant
approach, which he terms “Integrated CALL.” In Integrated CALL, technology is
no longer a toy but a tool, integrated into the syllabus, and normalized, somewhat
similar to whiteboards, books, pens, etc. Technology is ubiquitous and therefore
(somewhat ironically) “invisible,” and will no longer command either such
exaggerated respect nor such widespread inhibition. Bax believes that this
approach, which is still only very occasionally demonstrated, will allow teachers to
refocus on pedagogy, and should therefore be considered the agenda for the future
of CALL. The idea of “normalizing” CALL and making it “invisible” has been
advocated by other scholars, as well (Egbert, 2006, for example, campaigns the
“end of CALL” with similar meaning). At the same time, it has received criticism
from scholars like Hubbard and Levy (2006), who believe that such a view toward
CALL is limiting. Hubbard and Levy point out that as a discipline, CALL has
developed far beyond the mere use of technology within the language classroom,
and encompasses research, activity design, evaluation, academic discussions, and
more. They maintain that under such circumstances, “there is a benefit in having a
focus which rests on the technology itself, especially with regard to teacher
education,” (p. 9) and claim that otherwise, it is very likely “that new technologies
(both hardware and software) will be either blindly accepted or rejected without an
informed and careful critical review or evaluation” (p. 10). Similarly, Chapelle
(2003, p. 1) claims, “How does one reflect on something that is invisible? If
technology has … slipped into the background, it may be necessary to attempt to
bring it back into the foreground to explore its implications for language teachers
and researchers.”