GAS PIPELINE

HYDRAULICS
E. Shashi Menon

Boca Raton London New York Singapore

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 2785_C002.fm Page 40 Friday, April 1, 2005 3:23 PM

40 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS

Similarly, the gas velocity at section 2 is given by

Q P Z T 
u2 = 0.002122  b2   b   2 2  (USCS units) (2.27)
 D   Tb   P2 

In general, the gas velocity at any point in a pipeline is given by

 Q   P   ZT 
u = 0.002122  b2   b   (2.28)
 D   Tb   P 

In SI units, the gas velocity at any point in a gas pipeline is given by

 Q   P   ZT 
u = 14.7349  b2   b   (SI units) (2.29)
 D   Tb   P 

where
u = gas velocity, m/s
Qb = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, m3/day
D = pipe inside diameter, mm
Pb = base pressure, kPa
Tb = base temperature, K(273 + °C)
P = pressure, kPa
T = average gas flowing temperature, K(273 + °C)
Z = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless

Since the right-hand side of Equation 2.29 contains ratios of pressures, any
consistent unit can be used, such as kPa, MPa, or Bar.

2.7 EROSIONAL VELOCITY

We have seen from the preceding section that the gas velocity is directly related to
the flow rate. As flow rate increases, so does the gas velocity. How high can the gas
velocity be in a pipeline? As the velocity increases, vibration and noise are evident.
In addition, higher velocities will cause erosion of the pipe interior over a long
period of time. The upper limit of the gas velocity is usually calculated approximately
from the following equation:

100
umax = (2.30)
ρ

where
umax = maximum or erosional velocity, ft/s
r = gas density at flowing temperature, lb/ft3

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 2785_C002.fm Page 41 Friday, April 1, 2005 3:23 PM

PRESSURE DROP DUE TO FRICTION 41

Since the gas density r may be expressed in terms of pressure and temperature,
using the gas law Equation 1.8, the maximum velocity Equation 2.30 can be rewritten as

ZRT
umax = 100 (USCS units) (2.31)
29GP
where
Z = compressibility factor of gas, dimensionless
R = gas constant = 10.73 ft3 psia/lb-moleR
T = gas temperature, °R
G= gas gravity (air = 1.00)
P = gas pressure, psia

Usually, an acceptable operational velocity is 50% of the above.

Example 1

A gas pipeline, NPS 20 with 0.500 in. wall thickness, transports natural gas (specific
gravity = 0.6) at a flow rate of 250 MMSCFD at an inlet temperature of 60°F. Assuming
isothermal flow, calculate the velocity of gas at the inlet and outlet of the pipe if the
inlet pressure is 1000 psig and the outlet pressure is 850 psig. The base pressure and
base temperature are 14.7 psia and 60°F, respectively. Assume compressibility factor
Z = 1.00. What is the erosional velocity for this pipeline based on the above data and
a compressibility factor Z = 0.90?

Solution

If we assume compressibility factor Z = 1.00, then using Equation 2.26, the velocity
of gas at the inlet pressure of 1000 psig is

 250 × 10 6   14.7   60 + 460 

u1 = 0.002122     = 21.29 ft/s
 19.0 2   60 + 460   1014.7 

and the gas velocity at the outlet is by proportions

1014.7
u2 = 21.29 × = 24.98 ft/s
864.7

The erosional velocity is found for Z = 0.90, using Equation 2.31,

0.9 × 10.73 × 520

umax = 100 = 53.33 ft/s
29 × 0.6 × 1014.7

Example 2

A gas pipeline, DN 500 with 12 mm wall thickness, transports natural gas (specific
gravity = 0.6) at a flow rate of 7.5 Mm3/day at an inlet temperature of 15°C. Assuming

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 ASME B31.12-2014
(Revision of ASME B31.12-2011)

Hydrogen Piping
and Pipelines
ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31

--```,``,`,`,,,``,```,,`,,,,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A N A M E R I C A N N AT I O N A L STA N DA R D

Copyright ASME International

Provided by IHS under license with ASME Licensee=Bogazici University/5964815002, User=ahmadi, rozita
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 04/02/2015 11:04:40 MDT
 ASME B31.12-2014
I-3.2 Metering Facilities
Particular consideration and attention shall be given
to sizing meter run blowdowns and/or flow restricting
plates for turbine and positive displacement meters.
Rapid depressurization of meter runs can damage or
destroy meters due to meter overspin and high differen-
tials and can endanger personnel.
I-3.3 Other (Nonmandatory) Considerations for
Metering Facilities
I-3.3.1 Meter proving reduces measurement uncer-
tainty. Where meter design, size, and flow rate allow,
consider installing meter proving taps.
I-3.3.2 Upstream dry hydrogen gas filter(s) should
be considered when installing rotary or turbine meters.
Particulates and pipeline dust can contaminate meter
lubricating oil and damage bearings and other internal
meter components.
I-3.4 Pressure/Flow Control Facilities
I-3.4.1 Overpressure protection shall be provided
by the use of
(a) a monitor regulator in series with a controlling
regulator (each regulator run)
(b) adequately sized relief valve(s) downstream of the
controlling regulator(s)
(c) overpressure shutoff valve(s) upstream or down-
stream of the controlling regulator(s)
Installation of alarm devices which indicate primary
(controlling) regulator failure are useful and should be
considered for monitor regulator systems.
I-3.4.2 Each regulator supply, control, and sensing
line shall have a separate isolation valve for isolation
purposes during regulator setup and maintenance, and
to prevent a safety device (i.e., monitor, regulator) from
becoming unintentionally inoperable due to plugging
or freezing of instrument lines.
I-3.4.3 Steps shall be taken to prevent the freezing-
up (internal and external) of regulators, control valves,
instrumentation, pilot controls, and valve actuation
equipment caused by moisture saturated instrument air
or hydrogen gas, or external ambient conditions.
I-3.4.4 Sound pressure levels of 110 dbA and
greater shall be avoided to prevent damage to control
equipment and piping.
I-3.4.5 Hydrogen gas velocities in piping should
not exceed the erosional velocity at peak conditions.
Lower velocities are recommended. The erosional veloc-
ity, ue, is calculated by:1
100
ue p
冪 ZRT
29GP
1 gas measurements is API Manual of Petroleum
Mohitpour, M., H. Golshan, and A. Murray. Chapter 3 in Pipeline
Design & Construction: A Practical Approach, 3d ed. New York: ASME
Press, 2007.
158
Copyright ASME International
Provided by IHS under license with ASME
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
where
G p gas gravity (0.0695)
P p minimum pipeline pressure, psia
R p universal gas constant
p 10.73 ft3Wpsia/(lb-molW°R)
T p flowing gas temperature, °R
ue p erosional velocity, ft/sec
Z p compressibility factor at specified temperature
and pressure, dimensionless
High hydrogen gas velocities in piping increase turbu-
lence and pressure drop, contribute to excessive sound
pressure levels (aerodynamic noise), and can cause inter-
nal piping erosion. Acoustically induced vibration in the
piping shall be avoided at all times.
I-3.5 Other (Nonmandatory) Considerations for
Pressure/Flow Control Facilities
Installation of conical reducers immediately down-
stream of a regulator or control valve will allow a more
gradual expansion of hydrogen gas to larger piping, and
reduce turbulence and pressure drop during hydrogen
gas expansion.
--```,``,`,`,,,``,```,,`,,,,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I-3.6 Electrical Facilities and Electronic Equipment
for Pressure/Flow Control and Metering
Facilities
I-3.6.1 All electrical equipment and wiring
installed in pressure/flow control facilities and metering
facilities shall conform to the requirements of NFPA 70
or other applicable electrical codes. Additional API and
AGA references are listed in Mandatory Appendix II.
I-3.6.2 Electronic control, monitoring, and hydro-
gen gas measurement equipment shall be properly
grounded and isolated from piping to help prevent over-
pressure/accidental shutoff situations caused by equip-
ment failure due to lightning strikes and electrical
transients and to prevent safety hazards caused by fault
currents. Electrical isolation equipment for corrosion
control purposes should not be installed in buildings
unless specifically designed to be used in combustible
atmospheres.
I-3.6.3 Uninterruptible power sources or redun-
dant backup systems shall be considered to help prevent
overpressure/unintentional shutoff situations caused by
power outages.
I-3.6.4 A useful reference for electronic hydrogen
Measurement Standards, Chapter 21, Section 1 —
Electronic Gas Measurement.
Licensee=Bogazici University/5964815002, User=ahmadi, rozita
Not for Resale, 04/02/2015 11:04:40 MDT
HYDROGEN PIPELINE SYSTEMS
AIGA 033/14
(Re-affirmed AIGA 033/06)

Asia Industrial Gases Association

3 HarbourFront Place, #09-04 HarbourFront Tower 2, Singapore 099254

Tel : +65 62760160 Fax : +65 62749379
Internet : http://www.asiaiga.org
 AIGA 033/14

Siting and safety distances should follow established practices and applicable regulations. Typical
arrangements for siting of hydrogen stations in relation to other areas and equipment can be found in
the table of Appendix E.

5 Piping, valves and equipment

5.1 General criteria

This chapter describes how the design philosophy presented in Chapter 4 can be applied in practice
to piping, valves, specific piping components and equipment configurations.

5.2 Material selection criteria

Selection of material for pipes, valves, equipment, etc. shall be in accordance with Sections 5.4, 5.5
and 5.6.

Due to the hazardous nature of the gas, above ground pressure containing parts such as piping, valve
bodies, strainer and filter housings, etc. shall be made of metallic materials only. The use of non-
metallic materials shall be limited to services such as valve internals (inserts only), external coatings,
etc. which do not provide primary mechanical strength.

One of the most important criteria is resistance to stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen
embrittlement. The risk of these occurring is increased at higher temperatures and pressures and is
mitigated by low stress levels. Therefore, material selection, fabrication processes, and material
thicknesses should be chosen with a view towards achieving low residual stresses. Typical methods
of lowering stresses once the operating temperature and pressure have been decided are closer pipe
support spacing, thicker pipe walls, thermal relieving residual welding stresses.

There are no special velocity restrictions for piping in hydrogen service other than the underlying
economics. However, the sonic velocity of hydrogen is approximately four times that of most
flammable gases. Therefore, close attention should be paid to possible erosion and abrasion at such
items as control valves and relief valves which usually will have sonic or near sonic velocities.
Because of the high sonic velocity, it is quite possible that problems will arise at differential pressures
which would not have caused a problem with most other gases.

5.3 Electrical hazardous area requirements

As hydrogen systems may pose a fire or explosion risk, electrical systems shall be in accordance with
the applicable codes. These provide requirements and suggestions for determining the level of hazard
(classification) and mitigating the risks involved. Typically used codes are:

• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70

• IEC 79
• NFPA 496, 497
• American Petroleum Institute RP 500 A,B,C
• European directive ATEX 94/9

It is recommended that as a minimum either NFPA 70 or IEC 79 be used.

The type of electrical equipment which may be installed and the installation methods depend upon the
level of hazard classification and are described in the prescriptive sections of the codes.

It is worth noting that the equipment and piping should be carefully bonded and grounded to drain
static electricity and to carry electrical fault currents to earth ground, to prevent the release of electric
sparks which could ignite hydrogen leaks in the area.

21
HYDROGEN TRANSPORTATION
PIPELINES
IGC Doc 121/04/E
GLOBALLY HARMONISED DOCUMENT

EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL GASES ASSOCIATION

AVENUE DES ARTS 3-5 • B – 1210 BRUSSELS

Tel : +32 2 217 70 98 • Fax : +32 2 219 85 14
E-mail : info@eiga.org • Internet : http://www.eiga.org
IGC DOC 121/04

Due to the hazardous nature of the gas, above ground pressure containing parts such as piping, valve
bodies, strainer and filter housings, etc. shall be made of metallic materials only. The use of non-
metallic materials shall be limited to services such as valve internals (inserts only), external coatings,
etc. which do not provide primary mechanical strength.

One of the most important criteria is resistance to stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen
embrittlement. The risk of these occurring is increased at higher temperatures and pressures and is
mitigated by low stress levels. Therefore, material selection, fabrication processes, and material
thicknesses should be chosen with a view towards achieving low residual stresses. Typical methods
of lowering stresses once the operating temperature and pressure have been decided are closer pipe
support spacing, thicker pipe walls, thermal relieving residual welding stresses.

There are no special velocity restrictions for piping in hydrogen service other than the underlying
economics. However, the sonic velocity of hydrogen is approximately four times that of most
flammable gases. Therefore, close attention should be paid to possible erosion and abrasion at such
items as control valves and relief valves which usually will have sonic or near sonic velocities.
Because of the high sonic velocity, it is quite possible that problems will arise at differential pressures
which would not have caused a problem with most other gases.

5.3 Electrical hazardous area requirements

As hydrogen systems may pose a fire or explosion risk, electrical systems must be in accordance with
the applicable codes. These provide requirements and suggestions for determining the level of hazard
(classification) and mitigating the risks involved. Typically used codes are:
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70
• IEC 79
• NFPA 496, 497
• American Petroleum Institute RP 500 A,B,C
• European directive ATEX 94/9

It is recommended that as a minimum either NFPA 70 or IEC 79 be used.

The type of electrical equipment which may be installed and the installation methods depend upon the
level of hazard classification and are described in the prescriptive sections of the codes.

It is worth noting that the equipment and piping should be carefully bonded and grounded to drain
static electricity and to carry electrical fault currents to earth ground, to prevent the release of electric
sparks which could ignite hydrogen leaks in the area.

5.4 Piping

Welded connections are preferred and should be used wherever practical to minimize potential leak
sources. Threaded connections which are seal welded are considered as welded connections for this
purpose. Either seamless or longitudinally welded pipe and wrought or machined fittings shall be used
except in exceptional circumstances e.g. absolute unavailability.

5.4.1 Venting

The flammability and auto ignition potential of hydrogen gas is a significant potential risk factor.
Therefore, care must be taken when venting. The discharge piping from all vent sources such as vent
valves, safety relief valves, compressor packing vents, etc. must be piped to a properly designed and
sited disposal system which may be as simple as a single pipe or as complex as a manifolded
collection header connected to a flare. The back pressure this creates must be properly accounted for
in the design, especially on safety relief valve discharges (API RP 520, 521 are often used reference
documents for this). There are two types of systems which may be used – venting to atmosphere and
destruction in a flare. The same materials as are used elsewhere in the pipe line should also be used
for vent collection and disposal piping with one exception which is discussed below under venting to
atmosphere.

19
NORSOK STANDARD

PROCESS DESIGN

P-001
Rev. 3, November 1997
Process Design P-001
Rev. 3, November 1997

5.3.7 Oily water systems

The lines for oily water to water treatment facilities, shall be sized in order to retain the size of oil
droplets in the water. This can be achieved by providing low flow velocities. Typically the velocity
should not exceed 3 m/s. This should also be considered in selection of fittings and instruments in
these lines to avoid shearing of oil droplets.

5.3.8 Drilling fluid systems

The minimum flowing velocity of drilling fluid shall not be lower than 0.8 m/s in order to avoid
sand settling in pipes.

The maximum velocity in carbon steel should not exceed 4 m/s to avoid problems such as
cavitation/erosion on bends and damage to inline equipment/vessels internals.

Line sizing criteria for drilling fluids are summarised in Table 6.

Table 6 - Allowable pressure drop and velocity in drilling fluid systems.

Line Service Max pressure drop Velocity limits [m/s]

[bar/100 m] Min Max
Pump Suction (and Gravity) flow
(Carbon Steel pipes) 0.3 0.8 4.0

5.4 Sizing of Gas Lines

5.4.1 General
Gas lines shall generally be sized in order to not exceed the acceptable noise level at the platform.

Piping with gas at the dewpoint and/or with some droplets shall be designed as gas lines.

5.4.2 Maximum velocities

In lines where pressure drop does not have a cost penalty, gas velocity shall not exceed limits
which may create noise or vibrations problems. As a rule of thumb the velocity should be
kept below :

0.43
 1
V = 175  ρ  or 60 m/s, whichever is lowest

where : V = max. velocity of gas to avoid noise (m/s)

ρ = density of gas (kg/m3)

The requirement set by this formula can be omitted by doing more detailed noise calculations
of individual pipes. Where high noise levels are not considered as a problem, the maximum
velocity can be calculated as for gas relief lines.

NORSOK Standard Page 14 of 27

Process Design P-001
Rev. 3, November 1997

For sizing and arrangement connected to and adjacent to pressure control valves in order to
avoid excessive dispersion of noise, the valve manufacturer shall be considered.

For antisurge lines the constant 175 in the formula may be replaced with 200 during process upsets,
if the noise level is acceptable. However, during normal recycle, the velocity shall be limited to the
velocity as given by the equation above.

If solid particles exist, special attention shall be given to particle erosion.

5.4.3 Recommended pressure drops

Sizing of piping shall be based on LCC. Where this becomes impractical due to small size or low
cost, the guidelines in Table 7 should be used. The pressure drop should be prorated between the
operating pressures given.

Table 7 - Pressure drop for single phase gas process lines

Operating pressure (Barg) Pressure drop (Bar/100 m)

0 - 35 0.001 - 0.11
35 - 138 0.11 - 0.27
Over 138 P/500 1)
Note 1: P is operating pressure in bara.
Sizing of Gas/Liquid Two-or Multi-Phase Lines
Wellhead flowlines, production manifolds, process headers and other lines made of steel and
transporting untreated two-phase or multiphase flow, has a velocity limitation. When determining
the maximum allowable velocity, factors such as piping geometry, wellstream composition, sand
particle (or proppant) contamination and the material choice for the line must be considered.
As a guideline, the maximum allowable velocity shall not exceed the lowest of
1/2
V=183/(ρmix) and maximum velocity for single gas flow

(ρmix = mixture density in kg/m3).

When sizing two- or multiphase lines slugging must also be considered.

The number and length of multiphase lines should be reduced where possible.

Non corrosive service

For non corrosive wellstream and for corrosion resistant pipe materials the velocity shall be limited
to maximum 25 m/s if the wellstream includes only small amounts of sand or proppants (typical
less than 30 mg sand/liter in the mixed flow).

Corrosive service
For carbon steel piping systems the corrosion rate often limits the life time. With increased flow
velocity the corrosion rate tend to increase due to increased shear forces and increased mass
transfer.
The flow velocity shall be restricted to maximum 10 m/s to limit the erosion of the protective layer
of corrosion products and reduce the risk for a corrosion inhibitor film break down.

Particle erosion in non corrosive service

NORSOK Standard Page 15 of 27

Process Design P-001
Rev. 3, November 1997

Nevertheless, the actual back pressure at the PSV outlet and in the block valve shall be checked to
be consistent with back pressure limitations.

5.5.4 Controlled flaring lines

Flaring lines downstream of control valves shall be designed for a maximum velocity of 0.5 Mach.

5.5.5 Depressurisation lines

In the lines, upstream or downstream of the blowdown valve, the value of ρV2 should not exceed
200 000 kg/ms2. The maximum flowing velocity in the lines downstream the reducer shall be 0.7
Mach.

The pressure loss shall be so as to not impose any restrictions on the depressurisation objectives.

5.5.6 Two/multiphase relief lines

Two/multi phase relief lines shall be sized based on the following criteria:

Potential slug/plug flow:V < 50 m/s (branch lines only)

Homogenous flow: ρV2 < 200 000 kg/ms2

5.5.7 Vent lines

Maximum backpressure shall be 0.07 barg .

5.6 Maximum allowable velocities due to reaction forces

2
If ρV > 200 000 the piping discipline shall be consulted in order to consider reaction forces. (ρ is
fluid density in kg/m3 and V is velocity in m/s)

This applies to all fluid services (gas, liquid, two-phase).

6 SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT ISOLATION

6.1 System and Equipment Isolation

6.1.1 General
It shall be possible to isolate equipment or process sections during maintenance work to obtain safe
working conditions for the maintenance personnel. Process sections will also be isolated for leak
testing before commissioning, after a maintenance operation, and for pressure testing.

In general single block and bleed shall be used on all systems.

Double block and bleed should only be used on hydrocarbon systems after considering the
following:
• special safety considerations
• the system is critical for the overall regularity
• the equipment is maintained when the rest of the process system is in operation

NORSOK Standard Page 17 of 27