3 The culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of

any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and symbols on
the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type, called nonmaterial culture,
includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society. The second type, called
material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing,
eating utensils, and means of transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next.

Symbols: Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often
evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication,
while other symbols are in fact material objects. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some
societies but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and
departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hands,
arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same
gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell,
1998). In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake
it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back
and forth means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger
together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity.
“Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia, it means the same
thing as extending the middle finger in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia
would be offended if they saw you.

Language: Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means
something we sit on. In Spanish, the word still means the same thing. As long as we agree on how to
interpret these words, a shared language and thus society is possible. By the same token, differences in
languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country
where you do not know the language and the country’s citizens do not know yours. Worse yet, you
forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into yours, and vice versa and your iPhone
battery have died. You become lost. How will you get help? What will you do? Is there any way to
communicate your plight? As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus to
any society’s culture. Children learn language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands,
gestures, and the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for language that
no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for language in turn helps make our complex culture
possible.

Norms: Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. We already
saw that the nature of drunken behavior depends on society’s expectations of how people should
behave when drunk. Norms of drunken behavior influence how we behave when we drink too many
Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms, and informal norms. Formal norms, also called
and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in
the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and, in a college context, student behavior codes
addressing such things as cheating and hate speech. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs,
refer to standards of behavior that are considered less important but still influence how we behave.
Table manners are a common example of informal norms, as are such everyday behaviors as how we
interact with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator.
Rituals: Different cultures also have different rituals or established procedures and ceremonies that
often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and
other elements from one generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and universities are
familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many societies, rituals help signify one’s gender identity.
For example, girls around the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark their
transition to adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a month-long initiation ceremony
called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs, dances, and secret terms that only women know
(Maybury-Lewis, 1998). In some cultures, special ceremonies also mark a girl’s first menstrual period.
Such ceremonies are largely absent in the United States, where a girl’s first period is a private matter.
But in other cultures, the first period is a cause for a celebration involving gifts, music, and food.

Changing Norms and Beliefs: Our examples show that different cultures have different norms, even if
they share other types of practices and beliefs. It is also true that norms change over time within a given
culture. Two obvious examples here are hairstyles and clothing styles. When the Beatles first became
popular in the early 1960s, their hair barely covered their ears, but parents of teenagers back then were
aghast at how they looked. If anything, clothing styles change even more often than hairstyles. Hemlines
go up, hemlines go down. Lapels become wider, lapels become narrower. This color is in, that color is
out. Hold on to your out-of-style clothes long enough, and eventually, they may well end up back in
style.

Values: Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad
and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is
group harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike
interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest they be perceived as
trying to force their will on others (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). When interpersonal disputes do arise,
the Japanese do their best to minimize conflict by trying to resolve the disputes amicably. Lawsuits are
thus uncommon; in one case involving disease and death from a mercury-polluted river, some Japanese
who dared to sue the company responsible for the mercury poisoning were considered bad citizens.

The Work Ethic: Another important value in the American culture is work ethic. By the 19th century,
Americans had come to view hard work not just as something that had to be done but as something that
was morally good to do (Gini, 2000). The commitment to the work ethic remains strong today: in the
2008 General Social Survey, 72% of respondents said they would continue to work even if they got
enough money to live as comfortably as they would like for the rest of their lives.

4 An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy.

Although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship, it may also be a non-sexual
relationship involving family, friends, or acquaintances. Emotional intimacy involves feelings of liking or
loving one or more people, and may result in physical intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by
romantic love, sexual activity, or other passionate attachment. These relationships play a central role in
the overall human experience. Humans have a general desire to belong and to love, which is usually
satisfied within an intimate relationship. Such relationships allow a social network for people to form
strong emotional attachments. Intimate behavior joins family members and close friends, as well as
those in love. It evolves through reciprocal self-disclosure and candor. Poor skills in developing intimacy
can lead to getting too close too quickly; struggling to find the boundary and to sustain connection;
being poorly skilled as a friend, rejecting self-disclosure, or even rejecting friendships and those who
have them. Psychological consequences of intimacy problems are found in adults who have difficulty in
forming and maintaining intimate relationships. Individuals often experience the human limitations of
their partners and develop a fear of adverse consequences of disrupted intimate relationships. Studies
show that fear of intimacy is negatively related to comfort with emotional closeness and with
relationship satisfaction, and positively related to loneliness and trait anxiety. The interdependence
model of Levinger and snoek divides the development of intimate relationship into four stages: the first
one is the zero contact stage, which is no contact between the two parties in the relationship; The
second stage is awareness, which means people don't have any superficial or deep contact with each
other, but just know each other; The third stage is surface contact, in which both parties know each
other and have had superficial contact; The fourth stage of coexistence phase (mutuality), refers to the
mutual dependence has greatly increased, there are also deep contact existing, Scholars distinguish
between different forms of intimacy, including physical, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual intimacy.
Physical intimacy may include being inside someone's personal space, holding hands, hugging, kissing,
heavy petting, or other sexual activity. Emotional intimacy, particularly in sexual relationships, typically
develops after a certain level of trust has been reached and personal bonds have been established. The
emotional connection of "falling in love", however, has both a biochemical dimension driven through
reactions in the body stimulated by sexual attraction and a social dimension driven by "talk" that follows
from regular physical closeness or sexual union. Love is an important factor in emotional intimacy. It is
qualitatively and quantitatively different from liking, and the difference is not merely in the presence or
absence of sexual attraction. There are three types of love in a relationship: passionate love,
companionate love, and sacrificial love. Sacrificial love reflects the subsumption of the individual self will
within a union. Companionate love involves diminished potent feelings of attachment, an authentic and
enduring bond, a sense of mutual commitment, the profound feeling of mutual caring, feeling proud of a
mate's accomplishments, and the satisfaction that comes from sharing goals and perspectives. In
contrast, passionate love is marked by infatuation, intense preoccupation with the partner, throes of
ecstasy, and feelings of exhilaration that come from being reunited with the partner. Cognitive or
intellectual intimacy takes place when two people exchange thoughts, share ideas, and enjoy similarities
and differences between their opinions. Spiritual intimacy involves bonding over spirituality.

5 Yes, I think globalization is, in reality, it's not a talk it's in reality. Globalization has become a familiar
enough word, the meaning of which has been discussed by others before me during this conference. Let
me nonetheless outline briefly what I understand by the term. I shall then go on to consider what has
caused it. The bulk of my paper is devoted to discussing what we know, and what we do not know,
about its consequences. I will conclude by considering what policy reactions seem to be called for. It is
the world economy that we think of as being globalized. We mean that the whole of the world is
increasingly behaving as though it were a part of a single market, with interdependent production,
consuming similar goods, and responding to the same impulses. Globalization is manifested in the
growth of world trade as a proportion of output (the ratio of world imports to gross world product,
GWP, has grown from some 7% in 1938 to about 10% in 1970 to over 18% in 1996). It is reflected in the
explosion of foreign direct investment (FDI): FDI in developing countries has increased from $2.2 billion
in 1970 to $154 billion in 1997. It has resulted also in national capital markets becoming increasingly
integrated, to the point where some $1.3 trillion per day crosses the foreign exchange markets of the
world, of which less than 2% is directly attributable to trade transactions. While they cannot be
measured with the same ease, some other features of globalization are perhaps even more interesting.
An increasing share of consumption consists of goods that are available from the same companies
almost anywhere in the world. The technology that is used to produce these goods is increasingly
standardized and invariant to the location of production. Above all, ideas have increasingly become the
common property of the whole of humanity. It is the world economy that we think of as being
globalized. We mean that the whole of the world is increasingly behaving as though it were a part of a
single market, with interdependent production, consuming similar goods, and responding to the same
impulses. Globalization is manifested in the growth of world trade as a proportion of output (the ratio of
world imports to gross world product, GWP, has grown from some 7% in 1938 to about 10% in 1970 to
over 18% in 1996). It is reflected in the explosion of foreign direct investment (FDI): FDI in developing
countries has increased from $2.2 billion in 1970 to $154 billion in 1997. It has resulted also in national
capital markets becoming increasingly integrated, to the point where some $1.3 trillion per day crosses
the foreign exchange markets of the world, of which less than 2% is directly attributable to trade
transactions.

While they cannot be measured with the same ease, some other features of globalization are perhaps
even more interesting. An increasing share of consumption consists of goods that are available from the
same companies almost anywhere in the world. The technology that is used to produce these goods is
increasingly standardized and invariant to the location of production. Above all, ideas have increasingly
become the common property of the whole of humanity.

Globalization certainly permits an increase in the level of global output. Whether as a result of the old
Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the basis of comparative advantage as lying in different factor abundance in
different countries or as a result of the new trade theories that explain trade by increasing returns to
scale, the trade will increase world output. Likewise, FDI brings the best technology, and other forms of
intellectual capital, to countries that would otherwise have to make do without it, or else invest
substantial resources in reinventing the wheel for themselves. It may also bring products that would
otherwise be unavailable to the countries where the investment occurs, which presumably increases the
quality, and therefore the value, of world output. And international capital flows can transfer savings
from countries where the marginal product of capital is low to those where it is high, which again
increases world output. Globalization certainly permits an increase in the level of global output.
Whether as a result of the old Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the basis of comparative advantage as lying in
different factor abundance in different countries or as a result of the new trade theories that explain
trade by increasing returns to scale, the trade will increase world output. Likewise, FDI brings the best
technology, and other forms of intellectual capital, to countries that would otherwise have to make do
without it, or else invest substantial resources in reinventing the wheel for themselves. It may also bring
products that would otherwise be unavailable to the countries where the investment occurs, which
presumably increases the quality, and therefore the value, of world output. And international capital
flows can transfer savings from countries where the marginal product of capital is low to those where it
is high, which again increases world output. Globalization certainly permits an increase in the level of
global output. Whether as a result of the old Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the basis of comparative
advantage as lying in different factor abundance in different countries or as a result of the new trade
theories that explain trade by increasing returns to scale, the trade will increase world output. Likewise,
FDI brings the best technology, and other forms of intellectual capital, to countries that would otherwise
have to make do without it, or else invest substantial resources in reinventing the wheel for themselves.
It may also bring products that would otherwise be unavailable to the countries where the investment
occurs, which presumably increases the quality, and therefore the value, of world output. And
international capital flows can transfer savings from countries where the marginal product of capital is
low to those where it is high, which again increases world output.