LATHE MACHINE

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine

tools all over the world.
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to
give it the required shape and size. The job is securely and
rigidly held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe
machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool
which will remove metal from the job in the form of chips.
 An engine lathe is the most basic and simplest form of the
lathe. It derives its name from the early lathes, which
obtained their power from engines.
Besides the simple turning operation as described above,
lathe can be used to carry out other operations also, such as
drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning, knurling, screw
thread cutting.
 1. Bed
 The lathe bed is the foundation of the complete machine. It is
made from cast iron, designed with thick sections to ensure
complete rigidity and freedom from vibration.
 On the top surface, two sets of guide ways are provided, each
set consisting of an inverted vee and a flat.
 The arrangement shown may vary on different machines. The
outer guide ways guide the saddle, and the inner guide ways
guide the tailstock and keep it in line with the machine
spindle.
 The guide ways are hardened and accurately ground. Two styles
of bed are available: a straight bed, where the guide ways are
continuous over the length of the bed, and a gap bed, where
a section of the guide ways under the spindle nose can be
removed.
 Removal of this section increases the swing of the lathe, but
only for a short distance, for example, the 330 mm swing lathe
with a gap bed increases its swing to 480 mm for a length of
115 mm.
 2. Headstock
The complete headstock consists of a box-shaped casting
rigidly clamped to the guide ways of the bed and
contains the spindle, gears to provide a range of 12
spindle speeds, and levers for speed selection.
The drive is obtained from the main motor through vee belts
and pulleys and a series of gears to the spindle. The speed
range is from 40 to 2500 rev/min.
The spindle is supported at each end by precision taper-roller
bearings and is bored through to accept bar material.
The inside of the spindle nose has a Morse taper to accept
centers.
The outside of the spindle nose is equipped with means of
locating and securing the chuck, faceplate or other work
holding device. The method shown in Fig. 9.4, known as a
cam-lock, provides a quick, easy and safe means of securing
work-holding equipment to the spindle nose.
The spindle nose has a taper which accurately locates the
work holding device, and on the outside diameter of the
spindle nose are three cams which coincide with three holes
in the face.
The work holding device has three studs containing cut-
outs into which the cams lock, Fig. 9.4(a) and (c).
To mount a work holding device, ensure that the
locating surfaces of both parts are clean.
Check that the index line on each cam lines up with the
corresponding line on the spindle nose, Fig. 9.4(a).
Mount the work holding device on the spindle nose,
ensuring that the scribed reference lines A and B on the
spindle nose and the work holding device line up.
These lines assist subsequent remounting. Lock each cam
by turning clockwise, using the key provided. For correct
locking conditions, each cam must tighten with its index
line between the two vee marks on the spindle nose,
Fig. 9.4(b); if this does not happen, do not continue but
inform your supervisor or instructor who can then carry
out the necessary adjustment.
Since each work holding device is adjusted to suit a
particular spindle, it is not advisable to interchange
spindle-mounted equipment between lathes.
 Removal of equipment is carried out by rotating each
cam anticlockwise until the index lines coincide and
then pulling the equipment away from the spindle
nose.
 The gearbox, fitted on the lower side of the
headstock, provides the range of feeds to the saddle
and cross-slide through the feed shaft, and the screw-
cutting range through the lead screw.
 By selecting the appropriate combination of lever
positions in accordance with a table on the machine,
a wide range of feed rates and thread pitches can be
obtained.
 3. Tailstock
The function of the tailstock is to hold a centre when
turning between centres, or to act as a support at the end
of long work pieces.
Alternatively, the tailstock is used to hold drills and
reamers when producing holes.
The tailstock can be moved on its guide ways along the
length of the bed and locked in any position.
The quill contains a Morse-taper bore to accommodate
centres, chucks, drills and reamers and is graduated on its
outer top surface for use when drilling to depth. It can be
fed in or out by means of the hand wheel at the rear.
Positive locking of the quill is carried out by means of a handle
operating an eccentric pin.
 4. Saddle
The saddle rests on top of the bed and is guided by two
guide ways which, for stability, are the two furthest apart.
Accurate movement is thus maintained relative to the
centre line of the spindle and tailstock for the complete
length of the bed.
The top surface contains the dovetail slide way into which
the cross-slide is located and the cross-slide lead screw,
complete with hand wheel and graduated dial, Fig. 9.5.
 5. Cross-slide
 Mounted in the dovetail slide way on the top surface of the
saddle, the cross-slide moves at right angles to the centre
line of the machine spindle.
 Adjustment for wear is provided by a tapered gib strip,
which can be pushed further into the slide and slide way by
the screw as wear takes place. Attached to the underside of
the cross-slide is the lead screw nut through which movement
is transmitted from the lead screw.
 Power feed is available to the cross-slide. The top surface
contains a radial tee slot into which two tee bolts are fitted.
 The central spigot locates the slide way for the top slide,
which can be rotated and clamped at any angle by means of
the tee bolts.
Graduations are provided for this purpose, Fig.
9.6.
On the lathe shown, external dovetails are
provided along each side of the cross-slide, for
quick accurate attachment of rear-mounting
accessories.
 6. Top slide
The top slide shown in Fig. 9.6, often referred to as the
compound slide, fits on its slide way and can be
adjusted for wear by means of a gib strip and adjusting
screws.
Movement is transmitted by the lead screw through a
nut on the slide way.
A tool post, usually four-way hand-indexing, is located on
the top surface and can be locked in the desired
position by the locking handle.
Movement of this slide is usually quite short, 92 mm on
the machine illustrated, and only hand feed is available.
Used in conjunction with the swivel base, it is used to
turn short tapers.
 7. Apron
 The apron is attached to the underside of the saddle at the
front of the machine and contains the gears for transmission
of movement from the lead screw and feed shaft.
 Sixteen feed rates from 0.03 to 1 mm per revolution are
provided.
 On the front are the handles to engage and disengage the
lead screw and feed shaft.
 Also mounted on the front is the hand wheel for longitudinal
traverse of the carriage along the bed, this movement being
transmitted through gears to a rack fixed on the underside of
the bed.
 The complete assembly of apron, saddle and slides is known
as the carriage. The spindle control on the apron is operated
by lifting for spindle reverse, lowering for spindle forward and
mid-position for stop.
 Centre-lathe controls
The various controls of a typical centre lathe are shown
in Fig. 9.7.
Before starting the machine, ensure that the feed-engage
lever (20) and the thread-cutting lever (17) are in the
disengaged position.
Select the feed axis required, i.e. longitudinal travel of
carriage or cross-slide, by means of the apron push-pull
knob (19).
Select the direction of feed by means of selector handle
(7).
Select the feed rate required by referring to the charts
on the headstock and selecting the appropriate position
of selector dial (3) and handles (4), (5) and (6).
Select the spindle speed by means of selector handles
(10) and (11).
Switch on the main electrical supply at the mains
isolator (2).
Start the spindle by lifting the spindle-control lever (18)
for reverse or lowering it for forward. The mid-position
is ‘stop’.
Start and stop the feed motion as required by means of
the feed engage lever (20). Do not attempt to change
speeds and feeds when the spindle is running – always
stop the machine first.
Stopping the machine
The machine can be stopped by returning the
spindle-control lever (18) to its central stop
position.
Alternatively, press the emergency-stop push
button (8) or depress the full-length foot brake
pedal (22).
Guards
Guards are physical barriers which prevent access
to the danger zone. The Provision and Use of
Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER)
require employers to take effective measures to
prevent access to dangerous parts of machinery.
These regulations also apply to contact with a
rotating bar which projects beyond the headstock
of a lathe.
 Work holding
Work pieces can be held in a centre lathe by a variety
of methods depending on the shape and the operation
being carried out.
The most common method of holding work is in a
chuck mounted on the end of the spindle.
Several types of chuck are available, the most common
being the three-jaw self-centring chuck, the four-jaw
independent chuck and the collet chuck.
 Three-jaw self-centering
scroll chuck
 This chuck, Fig. 9.10, is used to hold circular or hexagonal
work pieces and is available in sizes from 100 mm to 600
mm. It operates by means of a pinion engaging in a gear on
the front of which is a scroll, all encased in the chuck body.
 The chuck jaws, which are numbered and must be inserted in
the correct order, have teeth which engage in the scroll and
are guided in a slot in the face of the chuck body.
 As the pinion is rotated by a chuck key, the scroll rotates,
causing all three jaws to move simultaneously and
automatically centre the work.
 Two sets of jaws are usually supplied: those which grip
externally while turning, facing, and boring, Fig. 9.11(a), and
those which grip internally while the outside diameter or face
is machined, Fig. 9.11(b).
 Four-jaw independent chuck
The four-jaw independent chuck, Fig. 9.12, is used to
hold square, rectangular and irregular shaped work
which cannot be held in the three-jaw self-centring type.
It is available in sizes from 150 mm to 1060 mm. As the name
implies, each jaw is operated independently by means of a
screw – the jaws do not move simultaneously.
Although the jaws are numbered and must be replaced in the
appropriate slot, they are reversible, due to the single-screw
operation.
Concentric rings are machined in the front face to aid setting
up the work, and tee slots are sometimes provided on the
front face for additional clamping or packing of awkward work
pieces.
 Centre-lathe operations
1. Turning

 Accurate turning of plain diameters and faces can be simply

carried out on a centre lathe. Wherever possible, diameters
should be turned using the carriage movement, as the
straightness of the bed guide ways ensures parallelism of the
work piece and power feed can be used.
 Avoid using the top slide for parallel diameters, since it is
adjustable for angle and difficult to replace exactly on zero
without the use of a dial indicator.
 It has also to be hand fed. When a number of diameters are
to be turned on a work piece, they should be produced at
one setting without removing the work piece from the chuck,
in order to maintain concentricity between them. Accuracy is
lost each time the work piece is removed and put back in the
chuck.
Accurate sizes can be produced by measuring the work
piece when the final size is almost reached, then using
the graduated dial on the hand wheel to remove the
required amount.
Where only diameters are being turned and a square
shoulder is required, a knife tool is used, Fig. 9.23A,
which cuts in the direction shown.
Where facing and turning are being carried out in the
same operation, a turning and facing tool is used, Fig.
9.23B.
The slight radius on the nose produces a better surface
finish, but the radius will be reproduced at the shoulder.
Where a relief or undercut at the shoulder is required,
e.g. where a thread cannot be cut right up to the
shoulder, an undercut tool is used.
This tool is ground to the correct width, the face parallel
to the work axis, and is fed in the direction shown, Fig.
9.23C.
Work produced from bar can be cut to length in the
lathe, an operation known as ‘parting off ’ .
The face of the parting-off tool is ground at a slight
angle, so that the work piece is severed cleanly from the
bar, Fig. 9.23D.
It is essential that all cutting tools used on a lathe be
set on the centre of the work piece.
A tool set too high reduces the clearance and will rub,
while one set too low reduces the rake angle, Fig. 9.24.
Cutting tools can be set relative to a centre inserted in
the tailstock and then be raised or lowered using suitable
thicknesses of packing, Fig. 9.25.
A good stock of varying thickness of packing should be
available which, when finished with, should always be
returned for future use.
2. Drilling

 Drilling is carried out on a lathe by holding the drill in a

chuck or mounting it directly in the quill of the tailstock,
which contains a Morse taper for this purpose.
 As with all drilling operations, some guide is required to
enable the drill to start central, and a centre drill, Fig. 9.26,
is commonly used.
 Centre drills are available in various sizes, and their purpose
is to produce centres in a work piece for turning between
centres. Due to its rigid design, a centre drill is convenient in
providing a suitable guide to start the drill in the centre of
the bar.
 When using a centre drill, great care must be taken to
prevent breakage of the small point which, because of its
size, does not have deep flutes to accommodate swarf.
Feed in gently a short distance at a time, using the
tailstock hand wheel, winding the drill out frequently to
remove swarf before it packs the flute and snaps off the
point.
Use high spindle speeds for the small point diameter.
The centre drill should be fed in just deep enough to
give the drill a start.
Drilling is then carried out to the required depth, which
can be measured by means of the graduations on the
quill.
Relieve the drill frequently, to prevent swarf packing the
flutes.
3. Boring

 As already stated, boring can be used to correct errors in

concentricity and alignment of a previously drilled hole.
 The hole can be finished to size by boring without the use of
a reamer, as would be the case when producing non-standard
diameters for which a reamer was not available.
 Boring is also used to produce a recess which may not be
practical by drilling and reaming, Fig. 9.27.
 A boring tool must be smaller than the bore it is producing,
and this invariably results in a thin flexible tool. For this
reason it is not usually possible to take deep cuts, and care
must be taken to avoid vibration.
 In selecting a boring tool, choose the thickest one which will
enter the hole, to ensure maximum rigidity.
 Ensure also that adequate secondary clearance is provided in
relation to the size of bore being produced.
 CUTTING TOOLS
Clearance
All cutting tools whether held by hand or in a machine,
must possess certain angles in order to cut efficiently.
The first essential is a clearance angle, which is the
angle between the cutting edge and the surface of the
material being cut.
This prevents any part of the cutting tool other than the
cutting edge from coming in contact with the work, and so
eliminates rubbing.
If the end of a cutting tool is ground parallel to the work piece
as shown in Fig. 7.3(a), the tool will skid along the work
surface.
If the back of the tool, or heel, is ground below the
level of the cutting edge, it will rub on the work
surface as shown in Fig. 7.3(b).
The correct angle is shown in Fig. 7.3(c), where the
heel of the tool is above the level of the cutting edge,
thus leaving only the cutting edge in contact with the
work.
The clearance angle should be kept at an absolute
minimum, 8° being quite adequate for most purposes.
Grinding an excessive clearance angle should be
avoided – it is a waste of expensive cutting-tool
material, a waste of time and money in grinding it in
the first place, and, finally and most important, it
weakens the cutting edge.
In some cases, however, a greater clearance angle
may be required, e.g. where holes are being
machined using a boring tool, Fig. 7.4(a). If this
additional clearance is provided up to the cutting
edge, Fig. 7.4(b), serious weakening will result, so it
is customary in these instances to provide the usual
clearance angle for a short distance behind the
cutting edge, known as primary clearance, followed
by a second angle known as a secondary clearance
angle, Fig. 7.4(c).
Rake
For effective cutting, a second angle known as the rake
angle is required. This is the angle between the tool
face and a line at right angles to the surface of the
material being cut.
The face upon which this angle is ground is the face
along which the
chip slides as it is being removed from the work. This
angle therefore
varies with the material being cut, since some materials
slide more easily than others, while some break up into
small pieces. Brass, for instance, breaks up into small
pieces, and a rake angle of 0° is used.
Aluminium, on the other hand, has a tendency to stick to
the face of the tool and requires a steep rake angle,
usually in the region of 30°.
For the majority of purposes, the rake angle used is
positive, as shown
in Fig. 7.5(a). When machining tough materials using the
cemented carbide cutting tools, it is necessary, due to the
brittle nature of the carbide, to give maximum support to
the tip.
To achieve this, a negative rake is used so that the tip is
supported under the cutting edge, Fig. 7.5(b).
Figure 7.6 identifies the rake and clearance angles on
various cutting tools. The cutting angles of many cutting
tools are established during their manufacture and cannot
be changed by the user.
Such tools include reamers, milling cutters, taps and dies.
These cutting tools can of course be sharpened, but a
specialized tool-and-cutter grinding machine is required.
The basic cutting tools used on centre lathes and those
used on the shaping machine are ground by hand, to
give a variety of angles and shapes to suit different
materials and applications.
Twist drills, although their helix angle is established
during manufacture, are sharpened by grinding the point,
the angle of which can be varied to suit different
materials.
Turning and shaping tools
Cutting tools for use in turning may be required to cut in
two directions. Such tools must therefore be provided
with a rake and clearance angle for each direction of feed
movement.
This is illustrated in Fig. 7.7 which shows a turning tool
for facing and turning.
Facing will require the back rake and front clearance,
since cutting takes place when the tool is feeding in the
direction shown in Fig. 7.8(a).
Turning will require side rake and side clearance, since
cutting takes place when the tool is feeding in the
direction shown in Fig. 7.8(b).
Having the back and side rake on the same surface
results in a true rake angle some-where between the two,
which is the angle along which the chip will flow when cutting
in either direction.
The trail angle is required to prevent the rear or trailing edge
of the tool from dragging on the work piece surface.
Cutting tools which are used to cut in only one feed direction
require only one rake angle, although a number of clearance
angles may be required to prevent rubbing.
The knife tool shown in Fig. 7.9(a) acts in the direction
shown, and a rake and a clearance angle are required in the
same direction.
Front clearance is also required to clear the work piece
surface.
A tool used to part-off or form undercuts requires rake and
clearance in the direction of feed but also requires side
clearance to prevent rubbing in the groove produced, Fig.
7.9(b).
A lathe tool is considered to be right hand when it cuts from the
right and left hand when it cuts from the left, Fig. 7.10.
Cutting tools used in shaping are the same as those used in
turning, except that the shanks are larger to withstand the
shock at the start of each stroke.
Cutting tools used across the face have rake angles as shown in
Fig. 7.11(a), while those used to cut down a face are as shown
in Fig. 7.11(b).
It is difficult to give precise values of rake angles, due to the
number of variables encountered during machining. The values
in Table 7.1 are offered as a guide for high-speed-steel cutting
tools.