2 Course - GW Occurence

Mining Engineering Department
Mulawarman University Faculty of Engineering
Hidrogeologi
Shalaho Dina Devy

Groundwater Occurence
(Keterdapatan Airtanah)
(Course-2)
1
Comparative Features of Groundwater and Surface Water

(Fitur perbandingan antara airtanah dan air permukaan)
Source: GW-MATE (2005)

Groundwater used for Drinking Water

(Pemanfaatan airtanah untuk air minum)
2
AQUIFERS

Aquifers
• :Aquifers are geologic units that can store and transmit
significant quantities of water (Akuifer adalah unit geologi yang dapat
menyimpan dan mengalirkan air dalam jumlah yang signifikan):
• Continental Deposits (endapan di benua)

• Marine Deposits (endapan di laut)
• Volcanics (gunung berapi)
• Aquifer characteristics derive from both primary
depositional features and secondary modification by
geologic processes (karakteristik akuifer berasal dari dua kondisi pengendapan
primer dan modifikasi sekunder akibat proses geologi):
• Burial & Diagenesis (penimbunan dan perubahan)

• Uplift & Erosion (pengankata dan erosi)
• Tectonism & Fracturing (tektonik dan patahan) 6
3
Principal Groundwater Occurrence

according to the Material Types
(keterdapatan airtanah secara prinsip tergantung pada tipe-tipe material)
Unconsolidated Semi-consolidated
(lepas)
Sandstone Carbonate
Volcanic Plutonic
Consolidated 7
(kompak)

Unconsolidated Aquifers
• Aquifers that are mapped as

unconsolidated sand and gravel can
be grouped into four broad
categories (Akuifer yang dipetakan sebagai pasir lepas
dan kerikil dapat dikelompokkan menjadi empat kategori
besar) :
1. basin-fill or valley-fill aquifers
(cekungan/lembah yang terisi akuifer)
• All four types have 2. blanket sand and gravel aquifers (lapisan
intergranular porosity, and pasir dan kerikil akuifer)
all contain water primarily 3. glacial-deposit aquifers (akuifer deposit
glasial/es)
under unconfined or water-
table conditions (Semua empat jenis 4. stream-valley aquifers (akuifer aliran-lembah)
memiliki porositas antar butiran, dan semua
mengandung air terutama dalam kondisi
terkekang atau pada air permukaa).
4
Unconsolidated Aquifer Properties

• The hydraulic conductivity of unconsolidated aquifers is
variable, depending on the sorting of aquifer materials
and the amount of silt and clay present, but generally it is
high (Konduktivitas hidrolik akuifer lepas sangat bervariasi, tergantung pada penyortiran bahan
akuifer dan kondisi sekarang dari jumlah lanau dan lempung, tetapi pada umumnya tinggi) .
• Aquifer thickness ranges from a few meters or tens of

meters in the blanket sands to several hundred meters in
the basin-fill aquifers.
• Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers are susceptible
to contamination because of their generally high
hydraulic conductivity (akuifer Pasir dan kerikil lepas rentan terhadap kontaminasi
karena konduktivitas hidroliknya tinggi).

Unconsolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

• Ground water in unconsolidated aquifers flows along
relatively short flow paths typical of local flow systems
(Airtanah dalam akuifer lepas mengalir sepanjang jalur aliran yang relatif singkat pada sistem
aliran lokal)
• Basin-fill aquifers typically have intermediate flow

systems (akuifer yan mengisi cekungan biasanya memiliki sistem aliran menengah)
• Thick basin-fill aquifers may support regional flow system
(Tebal akuifer yang mengisi cekungan dapat mendukung sistem aliran regional) .
• Likewise, the thick blanket sands aquifers and alluvial

aquifers can represent regional flow systems.
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10
5
Semi-consolidated Aquifers
• The varied depositional environments of
these sediments have caused complex
interbedding of fine and coarse-grained
materials (Lingkungan pengendapan yang bervariasi
dari sedimen tersebut telah menyebabkan lapisan antara
yang kompleks dari material halus-kasar).
• Accordingly, some aquifers are thin and

local whereas others are thick and may
extend over hundreds of square
• Semi-consolidated aquifers consist kilometres (Dengan demikian, beberapa akuifer tipis
of sand interbedded with silt, clay, dan lokal sedangkan yang lain tebal yang kadang lebih dari
and minor carbonate. ratusan kilometer persegi).
• The aquifers are typically of fluvial,

deltaic, and shallow marine origin
(Akuifer biasanya dari lingkungan sungai, delta, dan
laut dangkal alami).
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11

Semi-consolidated Aquifer Properties

• Porosity is intergranular, and the hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifers is moderate to high.
• The aquifers form thick extensive wedges of sediment
(Akuifer membentuk irisan sedimen luas dan tebal).
• Wedges tend to dip away from topographically high

erosional source areas (Potongan cenderung miring tajam dari topografi daerah
sumber erosi yang tinggi).
• Aquifer thicknesses can reach several hundred metres.
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6
Semi-consolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

• Numerous local aquifers can be grouped into a few
regional aquifer systems that contain groundwater flow
systems of local, intermediate, and regional scale (Banyak
akuifer setempat dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam sistem akuifer daerah beberapa yang
.
mengandung sistem aliran air tanah dari skala lokal, menengah, dan regional)
• In topographically high recharge areas aquifers are

unconfined but become confined in the downdip
direction (Di daerah imbuhan/resapan topografi tinggi akuifer menjadi kedap/terbatasi
tetapi menjadi bebas/terbatas dalam arah downdip) .
• Discharge is by upward leakage to shallower aquifers or

to saltwater bodies in coastal areas (luahan adalah dengan kebocoran ke
atas untuk akuifer dangkal atau badan air asin di wilayah pesisir) .
13
13

Consolidated Rocks – Sandstone aquifers

• Sandstone retains only a small part of
the intergranular pore space that was
present before the rock was
consolidated.
• Compaction and cementation greatly
reduce the primary pore space.
• Secondary openings, such as joints

and fractures, along with bedding
planes, typically transmit most of
the groundwater in bedrock
sandstone aquifers.
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7
Sandstone Aquifer Properties

• The hydraulic conductivity of cemented sandstone aquifers is low
to moderate.
• Transmission is primarily through fractures although primary
porosity may continue to contribute to storage.
• Because bedrock sandstones extend over large areas, these
aquifers can often provide large amounts of water.
15
15

Consolidated Rocks - Carbonate Aquifers

• Most of the carbonate-rock aquifers
consist of limestone, but dolomite and
marble locally yield water.
• Carbonate rocks originate as
sedimentary deposits in marine
environments.
• Compaction, cementation, and
dolomitization processes act on the
• The ultimate properties of carbonate deposits as they undergo lithification
rocks vary widely; some are and greatly change their porosity and
considered to be confining units, permeability.
whereas others are among the most
productive aquifers known.
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8
Carbonate Aquifer Flow Systems

• Where carbonate rocks are exposed at
land surface, solution creates karst
topography, characterized by little
surface drainage, sinkholes, blind
valleys, sinking streams, and karst
towers (mogotes).
• Because water enters the carbonate rocks rapidly through

sinkholes and other large openings, any contaminants in the
water can spread rapidly through the aquifers.
• Regional, intermediate, and local groundwater flow systems are
present in carbonate aquifers but most near-surface carbonates
tend to provide only local and intermediate systems.
17
17

Occurrence of groundwater
•River valley area → Water Course Area

•Abandoned/Buried Valley
•Extensive Plain
•Intermountain Valley
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9
Example: Water Course Area
19
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Example: Buried Valley
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10
Example: Extensive Plain
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Example: Intermountain Valley

•
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11
Groundwater Occurrence in the World
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Groundwater Occurrence in Indonesia
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12
Groundwater Occurrence in Yogyakarta Province
25
25

Groundwater Fluctuation
There are several causes of groundwater fluctuation:
(1). Groundwater abstraction/pumping
(2). Variation of the groundwater flow
(3). Evaporation – Transpiration
(4). External load
(5). Tide level
Type of groundwater fluctuation:

• Secular Fluctuation
• Seasonal Fluctuation
• Journal Fluctuation
• Temporer Fluctuation
26
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13
Residence time
Dellur, 1997 27
27

Ground-Water Levels, September 2004

Altitude of water-level in feet
28
(revised after Campbell, 2005)
28
14
Relation between groundwater and surface water
29
(Source: Winter et al., 1980)
29

Gaining Stream vs Losing Stream

Gaining Stream
Recharge to alluvial aquifers
Losing stream
30
30
15
SPRING
• A spring is concentrated discharge of groundwater appearing at
ground surface as current of flowing water
• To be distinguished from springs are seepage areas, which

indicate a slower movement of groundwater to the ground
surface.
• Spring can be divided into :

(1) those resulting from non-gravitational forces
(2) those resulting from gravitational forces
31
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Non-gravitional Springs
• Example: Geysers – hot water springs
32
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16
Type of Gravitional Springs

Depression Spring
Contact Spring
Fracture Artesian Spring
Solution Tubular Spring
33
33

Gravitional Springs
• Gravity springs result from water flowing under

hydrostatic pressure;
• the following general types are recognized :
➢ depression springs – formed where the
ground surface intersects the water table.
➢ contact springs – created by a permeable water-
bearing formation overlying a less permeable
formation that intersects the ground surface.
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17
SPRING
➢ artesian springs – resulting from releases of water under
pressure from confined aquifers either at an outcrop of the
aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed.
➢ impervious rock spring – occurring in tubular channels or
fractures of impervious rock.
➢ tubular or fracture springs – issuing from rounded channels,
such as lava tubes or solution channels, or fractures in
impermeable rock connecting with groundwater.
35
35

Relation between gravitional spring discharge, recharge and

spring catchment area
100 km2 700 mm/a

750 mm/a
2563 lt/sec 3733 lt/sec
(Source of diagram: Todd, 1980) 36
36
18
Springs Classification
Magnitude Mean Discharge
1 > 10 m3/det
2 1 – 10 m3/det
3 0.1 – 1 m3/det
4 10 - 100 l/det
5 1 – 10 l/det
6 0.1 – 1 l/det
7 10 -100 ml/det
8 < 10 ml/det
(Source: Meinzer in Todd, 1980)
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Terima kasih kepada Dr. Rer. Nat. Doni P.E.P utk

masukan data-data pendukung
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2 Course - GW Occurence

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Mining Engineering Department

Mulawarman University Faculty of Engineering

Shalaho Dina Devy

Mining Engineering Department

Comparative Features of Groundwater and Surface Water

Source: GW-MATE (2005)

Mining Engineering Department

Groundwater used for Drinking Water

Mining Engineering Department

• Continental Deposits (endapan di benua)

• Burial & Diagenesis (penimbunan dan perubahan)

Principal Groundwater Occurrence

Mining Engineering Department

• Aquifers that are mapped as

Unconsolidated Aquifer Properties

• Aquifer thickness ranges from a few meters or tens of

Mining Engineering Department

Unconsolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

• Basin-fill aquifers typically have intermediate flow

• Likewise, the thick blanket sands aquifers and alluvial

• Accordingly, some aquifers are thin and

• The aquifers are typically of fluvial,

Mining Engineering Department

Semi-consolidated Aquifer Properties

• Wedges tend to dip away from topographically high

• Aquifer thicknesses can reach several hundred metres.

Semi-consolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

• In topographically high recharge areas aquifers are

• Discharge is by upward leakage to shallower aquifers or

Mining Engineering Department

Consolidated Rocks – Sandstone aquifers

• Secondary openings, such as joints

Sandstone Aquifer Properties

Mining Engineering Department

Consolidated Rocks - Carbonate Aquifers

Carbonate Aquifer Flow Systems

• Because water enters the carbonate rocks rapidly through

Mining Engineering Department

•River valley area → Water Course Area

Example: Water Course Area

Mining Engineering Department

Example: Buried Valley

Example: Extensive Plain

Mining Engineering Department

Example: Intermountain Valley

Groundwater Occurrence in the World

Mining Engineering Department

Groundwater Occurrence in Indonesia

Groundwater Occurrence in Yogyakarta Province

Mining Engineering Department

Type of groundwater fluctuation:

Mining Engineering Department

Ground-Water Levels, September 2004

Relation between groundwater and surface water

Mining Engineering Department

Gaining Stream vs Losing Stream

• To be distinguished from springs are seepage areas, which

• Spring can be divided into :

Mining Engineering Department

Type of Gravitional Springs

Fracture Artesian Spring

Solution Tubular Spring

Mining Engineering Department