No 1

70-4

b
asic
e
lectron
ics
by VAN VALKENBURGH
,
NOOGER & NEV
ILLE
, I
NC.

VOL. 4

T
RANSM
ITTE
' 3
T
RANSM
ISS
ION LI
NES &
A
NTENNA
S
CW TRAN
SM ISS
ION &
AMP
LITUD
E M ODULAT
ION

a R
I DE R pub
lice
ntion
 $
2.25

I
s
as ic
e
lectron
ics
b
y VAN VALKENBURGH
,
NOOGER & NEV
ILLE
, I
NC.

VOL
.4

JO H N F
. R
I DE R PU BLIS HE R, IN C.
1
16 West 1
4th S
treet • Ne w York 1
1, N
. Y
.
 F
i
rst E
dit
ion

C
opyr
igh
t 1
955 b
y

VAN VALKENBURGH
, NOOGER AND NEV
ILLE
, I
NC.

A
ll R
igh
ts R
eserved u
nder I
nterna
tiona
l a
nd P
an
Amer
ican Convent
ions. Th
is b
ook o
r p
art
s t
hereof
may no
t he reproduced in a
ny f
orm or i
n a ny
l
anguage w
ithou
t p
erm
iss
ion o
f t
he c
opyr
igh
t owner
.

L
ibrary o
f C
ongre
ss C
ata
log C
ard No
. 5
5-6984

P
rin
ted i
n t
he Un
ited S
tate
s o
f Amer
ica
 P
REF ACE

The texts o f the entire B a

sic E lectric
ity a nd B as
ic Electron ics
c
ourses
, asc ur
ren tly taught at Navy s pecial
ty schoo l
s, have now b een
r
e
leased b y the Navy f or ci
vilian u se. Th is educa t
ional prog ram
h
as been an u nqua lif
ied success
. Since Ap r
il, 1953, when itw as f i
rs
t
i
ns
talled, over 25,000 Navy t r
ainee s have b enefited by thi
s instruc-
t
i
on a nd the results have been o ut
stand ing.

The u
nique s
imp
lif
ica
tion o
f a
n o
rdinar
ily c
omp
lex s
ubjec
t, t
he
e
xceptional cl
arity of i
lust
rat
ion s and te
xt, and t h
e plan o
f pre-
s
ent
ing o ne basic c
oncep
t at atime, without invo
lving compl
icated
mathematics
, al
l combine in making th
is c
ourse abetter a
nd qu
icker
way t
o teach and l
earn b
asic e
lec
tric
ity and el
ectronics
.

I
nreleasing t
h
is mater
ial tothe g
eneral public
, t
he Navy h opesto
p
rovide t he mean s f
or creating a na
tion -wide poolo f p
re-
trained
t
e
chn icians, upon whom t he Armed F orces could ca
ll in time of
n
ational emergency, w
ithoutt he n
eed f
orp reciousw eeksa nd months
o
f schooling.

Perhap s of grea
ter importance isthe Navy'
s h ope that through
t
he release of t
his cour
se, adirec
t con
tribut
ion w i
ll b e made toward
i
ncreasing the technical knowledge o
f men a nd women t hroughout
t
he coun try, a
s as tep in making and keep
ing Amer ica st
rong.

V
an V
alkenburgh
, N
ooger a
nd N
evi
lle
,Inc
.

N
ew Y
ork
,N. Y
.
F
ebruar
y, 1
955

i
i
,
-

\
 TABLE OF CO NTE NTS

VO
L. 4— BA
S
IC EL
ECTRON
ICS

Wha
t a Transm
itter I
s 4
-
1

C
las
s C Amp
lif
ier
s 4
-8

A Three S
tage T
ran
smi
tter 4
-
16

F
requency Mu
ltip
lier
s 4
-34

T
ran
smis
sion L
ine
s 4
-39

An
tenna
s 4
-63

C W Tran
smi
ssion 4
-
80

Amp
litude Modu
lat
ion 4
-85

V
 WHAT A TRANS MITTER I
S

Wha
t Y
ou K
now Abou
t T
ransm
itters

Probab
ly very f
ew of you h
ave had any d
irect experience with t
ransmit
ters.
To many o
f you, t
he word i
tsel
f may be unfamiliar. H owever, you h
ave re-
f
erred many times t
o one t
ype of t
rans m
itter —a radio s
tation.

When y
ou li
sten t
o arad
io, t
he sounds you h
ear travel tothe rad
io receiver
t
hrough t
he air
. Ifsomeone were to a
sk you how those "sounds" happened
t
o be i
n t
he air
, y
ou wou
ld probably s
ay, "A rad
io station broadcasts t
hem ."

D
ifferent t
ransmi
tters
o
pera te o
n d
if
ferent
FREQUENCIES
s
'-̀ •
There a re o
ther things you a
lready know a bout t
ransm i
tters from y our ex-
p
er ience with rad
io s e
ts. You k now that "changing s
tations" is a
lso cal
led
"
tun ing
." F rom this, you real
ize that different t
rans mitters operate a
t
d
ifferent frequencies. Y ou s
elect t
he stat
ion y ou wan
t tolisten t
o by tun
ing
y
our r adio to t
he frequency o
f that s
tation
.

You have also n oticed t

hat some stat
ions co me i
n stronger than others. If
d
ifferent t
ransm i
tters a
t e qua
l dis
tances away have different power ou
tputs,
t
he station w hose t rans m
itter has the l
argest power o u
tput wil
l be heard
t
he loudest. A lso , if t
here a re two s
tat
ions whose trans mitters have t
he
s
ame p ower o utput, you will h
ear more loud
ly the sta
tion that i
s closer t
o
y
our r adio set.

You see t
hat you rea
lly knew s
ome t
hings a
bou
t t
ransm
itters e
ven i
fyou
never h
eard t
he word be
fore.

4
-1
 WHAT A TRANSM
ITTER I
S

AS
i mp
le T
ransm
itter

The simp lest trans mi

tter consists of a
n osc il
lator w h
ich generates a h
igh
f
requency s ignal. T he o
scilla
tor —and t he type of osci
llator d
oesn't matter
—cou ld be c onnected to an antenna to make u p ac omplete t
ransmitter.
The a n
tenna i n th
is case w ou
ld r ad
iate a signa l w
hich is cons
tant in am-
p
litude and of the same frequency as the oscillator
.

Asi mple t
rans m
itter
c
onsists o
f • A
ntenna
•
•/—/ Z • •• 1
1
111
)!I
i
11
112
1
11
11
1
11
11
11
1
11
11
11i! i
l
•
•
•
•
• ••
•
O
sci
llator

I
fyour home rad io set picked up t
he c onstant-amp l
itude signal f
rom s uch a
t
ransmitter, you wou ld h ear no
thing at al
l. I f aspecial type o
f radio received
t
his s
ignal, ac onstan t audio t
one w ou
ld b e heard
. I n e
ither o
f these cases,
no message could be " read" from the incom ing signal —such a s
igna l i
s said
t
o conta
in "no intell
igence ." T o a
dd intelligence to t
he signal
, the oscilla
tor
would b
e turned o n and off w
ith a key to produce dots and dashes
.

P
utt
ing t
he t
ransm
itter t
o w
ork •—• •—
•

,!1 1
11
11
1 P
11
1
11
11
1 1
1
1
11
a
h t
"

Asigna
l o
f th
is type c
ontains in
tell
igence s
ince a message c
an be ob
tained
f
rom it
. T he r
adio would produce a s
ound s
omewha t l
ike ”
dit-dah-d
it"
wh
ich a r
adio o
perator understands a
s the l
e
tter "R."

4
-2
 WHAT A TRANS M
ITTER I
S

AS
i mp
le T
rans m
itter (
con
tinued
)

A
lmos t every transm i
tter c ontains more t han just an oscillator. T here
a
re two ma in drawbacks t o connec ting the osci
llator direc t
ly to the
a
ntenna. T he firs
t is t
hat the p ower o utpu
t w ould be l
im ited because
t
here are no stages of RF amp li
fica tion b
etween t he oscillator and the
a
ntenna to bui
ld u p t
he s
treng th o f the RF signal. P ower o utput i
s i mp-
o
rtant because i tde
term ines t he distance over wh ich the transm itted
s
ignal can be picked up by the rece iver.

T
he other consideration is f
requency stabili
ty. An oscilla
tor f
rom w hich
alarge amount of power is drawn h
as a tendency to d
rif
t in f
requency. A
d
rif
t in t
he frequency o f the t
ransmit
ted b ignal w
ould mean tha
t ap ort
ion
o
f t
he message w ou
ld b e l
ost by t
he o
pera tor try
ing t
o receive i
t
.

F
or these r
easons —poor f
requency stab
ili
ty a nd l
ow p
ower o
utpu
t—
o
sci
lla
tors a
re n
ot c
onnected d
irec
tly t
o an a
ntenna.

r
esul
t i
n p
oor r
ecept
ion..
..

4
-3
 WHAT A TRANS MITTER I
S

A S
i mp
le Trans m
itter (
con
tinued
)

To overco me the limita

tions o
f connecting an o
sc i
llator direct
ly to the
t
rans mi
tting antenna, one or more stages o
f amplification a
re connected
b
etween t he o
sc il
lator and t
he antenna. The stage wh ich i
s connected t
o
t
he a
ntenna i
s u
sually ca
lled t
he "
fina
l power amp
lifier." The other s
tages
o
f ampli
fica
tion a
re k nown by several n
ames. S o meti mes t
hey are re-
f
erred t
o a
s t
he "
firs
t a
nd s
econd p
ower amp
lif
iers
," a
nd s
o met
i mes a
s
"
inter med
iate p
ower amp
lif
iers
." I
n a
ddit
ion
, t
he f
irst p
ower amp
lif
ier
,
s
ince it serves t
o isolate the o
sci
lla
tor f
ro m v
aria
tions o
f l
oad
, i
s a
lso
c
alled a "
buffer" ampli
fier.

Oscil
lator
S
ignal
Ampli
fied
1
1
1
11
11
11
11
11 E
7 > S
igna l

The RF s
ignal i
s g
enerated i
n the o
scil
lator c
ircuit and i
s amp
lif
ied by t
he
f
irs
t and second power ampli
fiers which drive the f
inal p
ower amp
lifier
.
The powerful s
ignal f
ro m the f
ina
l power amp
lif
ier i
s f
ed t
o t
he a
ntenna
which r
adiates t
he s
ignal i
nto s
pace.

As h
as b
een s
aid
, t
he RF s
igna
l b
y i
tsel
f d
oes n
ot c
onta
in a
ny i
nte
lligence
.
However, several t
hings may be done to i
ts o t
hat itw i
ll conta
in or carry
a message. Because o f t
his
, the RF s ignal i
s co m monly re
ferred to as
"
the carrier wave" —it i
s not, o
f it
self
, t he message , bu
t itc an c
arry a
message to s
o me d
istant p
oin
t.

4
-4
 WHAT A TRANS MITTER I
S

Keyed T
rans m
ission

Atrans mit
ted s
ignal may con
tain a message i
n severa l f
or ms s
uch as code
o
r voice. The process by wh
ich the c
arrier wave is changed so t
hat i
tc an
c
arry a message is ca
lled "modulat
ion." Every c o m mun
ication t
rans m
it-
t
er needs modula
tion because t
he carr
ier by i
tsel
f (un modulated
) cannot be
i
nterpre
ted a
s h
aving a
ny mean
ing
.

I
n most t
rans mitters the message is t
rans m
itted either in code or by v
oice.
The most com mon types of c
ode trans m
ission are c on
tinuous wave ( CW) and
modula
ted cont
inuous wave ( MC W
). I n CW trans m
iss ion the RF to the a
ntenna
i
s in
terrupted or turned on a
nd off w
ith a h
and key s o tha
t the carrier i
s
r
adiated a
s dots a
nd d
ashes. CW is u
sed p
rimar
ily f
or long d
istance
c
o m mun
ication. Aspecia
l rece
iver i
s n
eeded t
o r
eceive CW.

K
eyed
RF

I
n MC W trans m ission a cons
tant amplitude audio frequency is superim-
p
osed on the c arrier. The c arr
ier is then t
urned o n and of
f w ith a k
ey
j
ust as i
n CW t rans miss
ion. Any r eceiver with t
he p roper frequency
range c
an r eceive MC W . MC W t rans m
ission is used mostly for emer-
g
ency co m munication.

Keyed
Modu
lated RF
T
RANSM
ISS
ION A

1
1- 1
1

RF
K
ey
0I Trans m
itter
Audio
Oscil
lator

4
-5
 WHAT A TRANS M
ITTER I
S

Vo
ice Trans m
iss
ion

Vo
ice transmission i
s also of two types. In the mos t com mon t
ype o
f voice
t
rans m
ission used t
he amp li
tude o f t
he carrier is varied i
n the s
ame manner
a
s the ampl
itude of t
he voice signal. Th is i
s cal
led " a mp
litude modu
lation"
(
AM ) a
nd is t
he type o
f trans mission used i
n the standard radio b
roadcast.

AM Unmodulated
Vo
ice modu
lated RF RF Carr
ier
A. N ( -.
... .

Phones

Voice
waves
RF

) 0:3 Trans m
itter
I
\ Ampl
itude
modu
lator

Microphone 1

T
he other t
ype o
f vo
ice trans miss
ion, wh
ich is b
eing u
sed more and more
,
i
s c
alled "
frequency modulat
ion" ( FM
). H ere t
he f
requency o
f t
he carr
ier
i
s s
hifted back a
nd f
orth a
t ar a
te equal to the f
requency o f t
he voice s
ignal
.
FM trans m
ission i
s c
o mpara t
ive ly f
ree from " s
tatic" interference, i
s used
i
n p
lace of AM when the l
atter may b e d
if
f icul
t to receive.

FM Un modu
lated
Vo
ice modu
lated RF RF Carrier
A

I
1
11
1
111
1
1
11
1 11
1
1
111
1
1
Voice
waves
/

)
))

Microphone

4
-6
 WHAT A TRANSMITTER I
S

Wha
t Y
ou W
ill L
earn A
bou
t T
ransm
itters

At t
his p
oint i
n y our s
tudy of e
lectronics
, y ou c
ould n
ot g
o up t
o atrans-
mi
tter f
ront panel and use ite
fficien
tly. H owever, a
fter y
ou have gone
t
hrough t
his section t
he terminology and also t
he f
unct
ion o
f t
he various
c
ontrols a
nd indicators wil
l be clear t
o you.

I
n order to understand t he var ious transm itters found in equipment , whe ther
i
n sonar , r
adar , com mun ications equipmen t, e
tc
. ,y ou fi
rs t wil
l n eed t
o
understand how bas ic t
ransm itter circuits o perate
. T he three-s tage RF
t
ransm itter you will l
earn a bou t i
n this section is the key to unders tand
ing
o
ther transm itter circuits you w il
l w ork with. When y ou k now w hat each
c
ircuit in t
his basic transm i
tter d oes and h ow its hou
ld o perate c orrect
ly,
you wil
l have the founda t
ion t o work w i
th n early any type transm itter in
whatever equipmen t it may b e found.

•
%
wad i I

)
1
s y
ak-4
"-r
idr

0
0'
,
11 c
_

The type of amp lifier most c ommon ly used in t

ransmitter circui
ts is the
t
uned C lass " C" p ower amp lif
ier. Y ou will s
tudy t
he o peration of t
h
is
c
ircuit first. T hen you will see h
ow Class " C" amplif
iers a re used in a
t
ypical three-s tage transm itter. F rom h ere you w
ill go i
nto a study o
f
t
ransm iss ion lines, antennas a nd c
oupling circui
ts which together help to
g
et the signa l i
nto the air
.

4
-7
 CLASS C AMPL
IFIERS

R
eview o
f C
lasses o
f O
pera
tion

You r
eme mber f
rom your s
tudy o
f ampl
ifiers tha
t there a
re t
hree ma
in
t
ypes o
f v
acuum tube o
perat
ion —Class A, Class B, and C
lass C
.

I
n Class A operation, the g rid i
s biased n ear the midpoint of the l
inear
p
ortion of t
he plate curren t -grid voltage c urve. T he AC s ignal on t
he
g
rid causes the grid voltage to vary a bove a nd b
elow the bias v a
lue. T he
c
urrent variations are p roportional to the grid vo
ltage since the grid vol
t-
a
ge s w
ing does n ot g
o b eyond the linear p or
t ion o
f t
he curve . P late cur-
r
ent f
lows throughou t the e n
tire AC c ycle since the gr
id v ol
tage d oes not
b
ring the t
ube into cut-off.

I
n Class B operation, the g
rid is biased at o
r near its cu
t-off v
alue. T he
AC signal d
rives the t
ube into cut-off f
or approxi ma
tely h a
lf o
f t
he cycle.
Thus the t
ube conducts for about 180 degrees o
f the cycle and i
s cu
t of
f
d
uring the o
ther 1 80 d
egrees o f t
he cycle.

I
n C
lass C opera tion —the type of operat
ion with which you wi
ll be most
c
oncerned in your study of trans mi
tters —the gr
id i s b
iased cons
iderably
b
eyond cut-o
ff. T he tube r
ema ins cut o
ff f
or most of each AC cycle a
nd
c
urrent f
lows in the tube on
ly when t he AC signal increases t
he grid v
olt-
a
ge above cu
t-o f
f. T he p
late c urrent t
herefore fl
ows i n p
ulses as s
hown .

O
P
ERA
TION O
F 1
0 -

C
L
ASS A
,B,C

Curren
t flowing
a
ll t
he time

N
o pla
te Curren
t f
lows
c
urrent f
l
owing h
alf t
he t
ime

Current f
lows
l
ess t
han
h
alf the t
ime

u
rren
t
f
l
ows

Twice
Cu
t-off

4
-8
 CLASS C AMPLIF
IERS

Tuned C
lass C Amp
lif
iers

Tuned
C
ircui
t

T
- -Ba
ttery
B.

Tne operation o
f aClass C amp li
fier wil
l b eco me clear when you analyze
wha
t h appens in at
uned amp lif
ier s uch as the one shown in the sche mat
ic
d
iagra m. A n AC s
ignal i
s deve loped across the tuned circuit i
n the pla
te
o
f t
he p revious s
tage. Th is voltage also appears across t he RF choke
(
RFC ) in t
he grid c
ircuit o
f the tuned Class C amp lifier s
tage . The DC
b
ias provided by t
he bias ba
ttery c auses the tube to operate Class C.

The p u
lses o f t ube c urren t
which flow a s ar esult of this
t
ype o f opera tion d eliver a Cut-
Grid
"kick" to t he t uned c ircuit in - —o
ff
Vo
ltage
t
he p la
te. Th is " kick" makes Bias
t
he t uned c ircu it o scil
late ,
and it fi
lls i n t he p art of the
cycle during wh ich pla te cur-
r
en t has s topped . F or a r e- 1
11
11
1
111
1
111
1
1
v
iew o f h ow o scillations a re
k
ep t going i n at uned circu it
, Pla
te
r
e fer t
o t he sec tion o n oscil- Curren
t
l
ators, Vo lume 3 . 0

The plate v oltage i s the differ- 1

0
1
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
ence b etween t he B+ v oltage
Voltage
and the AC v ol
tage a cross t he
a
cross
t
uned c ircuit. When t he pulse
t
uned
o
f p late c urren t flows , t he
c
ircuit
voltage at t he plate e nd of t he
t
uned c ircuit g oes n ega t
ive a nd
subtracts fro m t he B+ v ol
tage .
When t he v oltage a cross t he 1
1
111
11
10
11
11
1
t
uned c ircuit r everses a nd
Total
goes p osit
ive a t the p late e nd,
Plate
i
t a dds to the B+ v o
ltage . As
V
o ltage
a r esult, the p late v o
ltage
wave f or m v aries a bove a nd
below t he B+ v o
ltage l eve l
as shown .
4
-9
 CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

Tuned C
lass C Amp
lif
iers (
con
tinued
)

P
LATE V
OLTAGE
The reason why t uned C
lass C amp li-
f
iers are u niversally used i n high
p
owered t rans mi
tters is because o f
t
heir h
igh eff
iciency ofoperation which
r
esults i
n a max i mum o
f radiated power.

The p
ower we s
upp
ly t
o a
n amp
lif
ier i
s 0
a
lways g rea
ter t han t
he p ower we g
et
o
ut o
f it
. S o me power is used u
p by the
t
ube and the r es
t appears a s usefu
l
o
utput i
n the load
. The p ower used up
b
y the tube e qua
ls its plate vo
ltage
t
imes it
s plate current
.
T
UBE C
URRENT
S
ince t
he plate c
urrento f aClass C am-
p
lif
ier fl
ows d uring l
ess than h a
lf the
c
ycle, t
he average pla
te current is less
t
han i
n Class A or Bo peration. There-
-
1
7.
P- 0
I 1 1 2c
__ __ 0
f
ore l
ess power is used up by the tube
a
nd more p ower c an ge
t to t
he o utput
.
This makes t
he Class C ampl
ifier more
efic
ient and t
herefore more des
irable
f
or use i
n atrans mit
ter.

I
f t
he tuned circui
t in the plate i
s not t
uned to the f
requency o
f the i
nput
s
igna
l, then t
he voltage across itwi
ll be lower —in proport
ion t
o h ow much
i
tis mistuned
. The f ur
ther off it i
s tuned, the less power wil
l a ppear
a
cross itand the more power w il
l b
e dissipated by t
he tube i
tsel
f. Then
t
he e
fficiency of t
he amp lif
ier is lower, the tube hea
ts up more, and the
p
ower output i
s lower.

V
ARIAT
ION O
F P
LATE V
OLTAGE
A
S T
UNING V
AR
IES •••

B+

it
l
Wel
l b e
low Approaching S
light
ly less At s
ignalj
s
ignal s
ignal than signa
l f
requency
f
requency f
requency f
requency
V

4
-10
 CLASS C AMPLIF
IERS

F
ixed B
ias

The t
erm "f
ixed bias" describes any method o
f obta
ining b
ias i
n w
hich t
he
b
ias rema
ins fixed as t
he strength o
f t
he inpu
t signal v
aries
.

F
ixed b ias may b e obta
ined from a n ega
t ive power supply, from a motor-
g
enerator s et
, w i
th a negative DC output
, o r f
rom a b a
ttery. Each o f t
hese
methods will keep t
he grid at aconstant negat
ive DC v oltage which wi
ll no
t
v
ary r egardless of the strength of the signal inpu
t. The f ixed n
egative
b
ias is cal
led " C-" j
ust as the p
osit
ive s upply vo
ltage is cal
led " B+
."

F
i
x
ed B
i
as m
a
y b
eob
ta
ine
d f
r
om
...

"
C" Ba
ttery
C
- °- 1

101 11
11- 1

One o
f t
he a
dvan
tages o
f f
ixed b
ias i
s t
hat t
he t
ube r
e ma
ins c
ut o
f
f u
nder
n
o s
igna
l c
ond
itions
.

The d
isadvantage of fixed bias i s t
ha t t
he g a
in of t
he amplifier remains
c
onstant so t
hat i
fthe grid signal varies in ampli
tude, the o
utpu t w
ill s
imi-
l
arly vary. This is n o
t d esirable in at ransmitter because t he o
utpu
t to
t
he antenna must rema in c onstant in amp li
tude if t
he r ad
ia ted signa
l
s
trength is t
o re main c onstant
. I f the bias could be made t o vary a
sthe
s
ignal input t
o the amp lif
ier v aries
, t he amplif
ier output could be ma
in-
t
a
ined p
rac
tica
lly c
ons
tan
t.

4
-11
 CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

S
elf-b
ias

The t
er m "
self-b
ias" d escribes a
ny g r
id b
ias which resu
lts fro m t
he cur-
r
ent f
low in t
he vacuu m tube t
hat i
s being b
iased. You are already fam
i l
iar
w
ith t
he two methods that are c
o m monly u
sed to p
rovide sel
f-bias.

A resistor placed in the c

athode c
ircuit makes the cathode more p
osit
ive
t
han g round a nd t
herefore makes t
he grid more n egat
ive than t
he c
athode
.
The bias voltage d eve
loped across th
is r esistor is equal t
o t
he a
verage
c
urrent t
imes the size o
f the r
esistor. If alarge ca
thode r
esistor is used
,
t
he b
ias voltage w
ill be l
arge. Th is resistor c
an be made l
arge enough to
c
ause t
he bias t
o approach cut-off when there i
s n
o signa
l on t
he grid.

When t
here i
s a s
igna
l a
ppl
ied t
o t
he g
rid
, t
he c
athode c
urren
t w
ill i
n-
c
rease o n t
he posit
ive h
alf-cyc
les, a
nd beco me z
ero (cut-o
ff) o
n t
he n
ega-
t
ive hal
f-cycles
. The a verage c
urrent wi
ll be increased and the b
ias
w
ill i
ncrease.

I
f a l
arger s
ignal i
s app
lied to t
he g
rid, the curren
t will be l
arger d
uring
t
he p
osit
ive hal
f-cycles of v
oltage but w
ill r
e main zero during t
he n
ega-
t
ive ha
lves
. Thus, t
he average t
ube c
urrent i
ncreases a
s t
he grid s
igna
l
b
eco mes l
arger
, r
esu
lting i
n i
ncreased b
ias f
or l
arger s
igna
ls.

Th
is e
ffec
t o
f b
ias v
ary
ing w
ith s
igna
l s
treng
th t
ends t
o s
tab
ilize t
he am-
p
litude of that portion of the gr
id signa l above the cut-off l
evel. As a re-
s
ult the amp litude of the current p u
lses in the plate wil
l not vary as much
a
s their correspond ing grid signals v ary
. Because o f the above mentioned
e
ffect, self-bias tends to p roduce amp l
itude s tab
ility of t
he plate s
ignal
a
nd, t here
fore , is so met
i mes c al
led " auto matic b
ias." Ca thode bias i
s not
c
o m mon in high-powered t rans mitter circuits.

4
-12
 CLASS C AMPL
IFIERS

S
ell-b
ias (
con
tinued
)

Avery c
om mon type o
f se
ll-b
ias a
rrange ment f
ound i
n trans m
itters makes
u
se o
f t
he current t
hat f
lows f
rom t
he ca
thode to t
he grid at the pos
itive
p
eaks o
f t
he signa
l inpu
t. This i
s ca
lled "gr
id-leak b
ias."

C
lass C Amp
lif
ier w
ith

,
erid
-leak B
ias

Whenever t
he s ignal drives the gr
id posi
tive, t
he g
rid draws c
urrent and
c
harges up capacitor C-1 to make the g
rid n
egat
ive. Resistor R
-I prov
ides
apath f
or C-1 to discharge s
light
ly between t
he pu
lses o
f grid c
urrent f
low.

The main a dvan tage of this type of bias is tha

t itd eve lops a vo
ltage whose
amplitude d epends u pon t he streng th of t
he input signa l. Ifthe inpu t s
ig-
nal i
ncreases , the g rid w il
l d raw more c urren t and the bias will become
more n egative. A fter t he n ew v a
lue o f bias has b ecome e stablished, t he
peaks of t
his l arger signa l will not drive the grid very much more p ositive
t
han a w eaker s ignal w ould. Thus , the peaks of the larger signal w i
ll cause
about the same amoun t of plate curren t t
o flow a s the peaks of a sma l
ler
s
ignal. I n this way , g r
id- leak bias p rovides for amp l
itude stability
.

The main disadvan tage of g rid-leak bias i

s that itd epends e n
tirely upon
t
he presence of asignal i
n o rder t o d
evelop any bias v oltage, and t
here fore
d
oesn't protect the tube w hen t here is n
o signal on the g r
id. I fthe oscil-
l
ator of at ransm i
tter stopped o scil
lating for any r eason, the grid-leak
a
rrangemen t i n t
he amp lif
iers w ou
ld n o
t develop a ny bias since the grid
would no
t, u nder these cond itions, be driven positive. The t ransm i
tting
t
ube w ou
ld d raw a very large c urren t w
ith zero bias a nd w ou
ld burn o ut i
n
ashort t
ime .

4
-13
 CLASS C AMPLIF
IERS

C
omb
ina
tion B
ias

The most co mmon b ias a rrange ment in t

ransm it
ters i s acomb ination of
f
ixed b
ias a nd grid-leak bias. T he fixed bias is s uf
ficien
t t o limit the
c
urrent to alow value or even to cu
t-off in t
he absence o f asignal. When
alarge enough signal is present t
o drive the g
rid p osi
tive, grid-leak bias
i
s developed which stabil
izes the amp li
tude of the output. T hus comb ina-
t
i
on bias pro
tects the tube and stabi
lizes the ou
tpu t.

e
oo
tg
e
:aa
ti
eu
t B
ias

T
o p
late o
f
p
revious s
tage G
rid
-leak
b
ias
+

4
-14
 CLASS C AMPL
IFIERS

R
eview o
f C
lass C Amp
lif
iers

CLASS C OPERAT ION —The grid o

f
t
he v
acuum tube i
s biased wel
l below 0
8 -
6 4 -
2
c
ut-o
ff s
o tha
t pla
te current f
lows
o
nly i
n p
ulses.

N
c
o p
l
.tte
urren
t f
l
owIng
4
1
131
13
tN
• 4
:=13

TUNED CLASS C AMPL IFIERS —

Used i
n t
rans m
itters b
ecause t
hey Tuned
a
re very e
ff
icient when t
uned t
o t
he C
ircui
t

f
requency o
f t
he i
npu
t s
igna
l.

GRID-LEAK B IAS —Depends o

n grid
c
urrent and v
aries a
s t
he s
trength o
f
i
nput s
ignal c
hanges.

COMBINAT ION BIAS —A c ombination

o
f f
ixed and g
rid-leak bias mos t
,
0
0

c
ommon ly u
sed i
n trans mi
tters. .
10
9
0
1
f
1
0

4
-15
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

T
he T
hree B
asic C
ircu
its

Ablock d
iagram o f abas ic t
hree s
tage t
ransm i
tter is s
hown be
low. A ll
t
hree s
tages are operated Class C f
or h
igh ef
ficiency. T he ECO master
o
scil
lator (MO) generates the RF s
ignal wh
ich c an b
e varied
, f
or example,
f
rom 2 to 4 megacycles.

The i
nter mediate power amp lif
ier ( IPA) amp l
ifies the RF s ignal and iso-
l
ates t
he mas ter oscillator f
rom t he final power amp lif
ier t o improve fre-
q
uency stabil
ity. T he IPA is t
here fore called a "bu
f fer amp li
fier." T he
E
PA may a lso act as af requency doub ler to d
ouble the o scil
lator frequency.
The o
peration of afrequency d oubler w il
l b e exp
lained l ater. T he output
f
requency of the I
PA c an t
herefore v ary from 2 to 4o r 4t o 8 megacyc les.

The f
ina
l p ower ampli
fier (
PA ) g
enera
tes a l
arge amoun
t of power o
ut-
p
ut and delivers i
t t
o the a
ntenna
, usual
ly a
t the s
ame frequency a
s
i
t
s grid signal.

B
asi
c

'i
- w
..
..
.-

•
-. C.
,----

r M
O
V
=
-
__

(
E CO
)
2t
o 4 mc I
P
A ‘
.
.
..
..
..*
*--
h- r (
Class C)
Generates 2to 4 mc
RF Signal 4to 8 mc P
A
(
Class C) —
I
ntermediate P
ower
Ampli
fier 2to 4 mc
4to 8 mc
Bu
ffer Amp
lif
ier
F
requency Doub
ler
F
ina
l P ower
Ampl
ifier

4
-16
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANS M
ITTER

T
he O
sci
lla
tor

The p
urpose o
f the e
lec
tron-coupled master o
scil
lator is t
o g
enera
te a
s
table RF s
igna
l which can b
e varied o
ver a g
iven range
.

The ECO o pera tes a s folows : T he osc illator s ection o f the ECO i s c o m-
p
osed o f t
he g rid a nd s creen c ircu its a nd i s aC o
lp i
t ts osc i
llator. T he
o
scillator frequency i s deter mined b y the g rid-screen t ank circuit con-
s
isting of L -1, C -1, C -2 a nd C -3. T he s creen , wh ich a cts a s t
he plate of
t
he oscillator s ection, i s c oupled t o the t ank c ircuit through t he RF b y-
p
ass c apacitor ,C-5 . G rid-leak b ias i s deve loped a cross R -1 by t
he d is-
c
harge o f C -4. T he RF c hoke i n the c athode c ircu it prov ides a low r e-
s
istance DC p a
th t o ground f or t he c athode . However , t he high reactance
o
f the choke t o RF d oes n ot al
low RF t o flow t hrough i t
. T he RF mus t
f
low through C -3 ( the feedback c apac itor ) to the c athode . T he screen
d
ropp ing resis tor , R -2, d rops t he s creen v oltage t o the c orrect value.
The RF o sc il
la tions g enera ted i n the o scillator s ect ion of the ECO a re
e
lectron-coup led t o the pla te through t he f l
ow o f pla te curren t. T he RF
choke in t
he p la te lead a cts as ah igh i mpedance f or t he RF s ignal and
serves the s ame p urpose a s the p late l oad r esistor i n an a udio amplifier.
The RF c oup ling c apac itor,C-6 ,passes t he signa l to the g rid of t
he I PA.

M
ast
erO
sc
ill
ato
r(E
CO)
.. Genera
tes RF S
igna
l

C
-6
1
-6
-IPA

RFC

B
+

4
-17
 A THREE STAGE TRANS M
ITTER

T
he I
nter med
iate Power Amp
lif
ier

The purpose of the in

ter mediate p ower amp l
ifier is t
o isolate the osc
illa-
t
or f
or i mproved frequency s tabil
ity a nd t
o amp li
fy the RF s ignal i
n order
t
o dr
ive t he power amp lif
ier effic
ien t
ly . The I PA also serves t o i
ncrease
t
he t
un ing range, ifd es
ired, b y doubling o
r t r
ipling the generated fre-
q
uency i n i
ts p
late tank circuit
.

The o pera t
ion o f the I PA is e ssential
ly a s f o
llows : A c o mbination o f grid-
l
eak a nd cathode bias i s provided b y R-3 , C -6 a nd R -4, C -7 r espec tively .
Res is
tor R-5 d rops t he screen v oltage t o t
he c orrec t value. T he screen
by-pass c apac i
tor, C -8, is r eturned direct ly to the c athode r ather t han t o
ground . Th is prov ides a more d irect p ath b ack to the cathode f or any RF
variations o n t
he s creen. The RF c oil in the plate lead a cts a s ah igh i m-
p
edance f or the RF s igna l and serves t he s a me p urpose a s the p late load
r
es istor in a n audio amp lifier. C -9 is ac oup ling capac itor wh ich p asses
t
he RF t o the t
ank c ircuit a nd at t
he s a me time b locks t he DC . T he p late
t
ank c ircuit,C-10 a nd L -2,can b e tuned t o the I PA grid signa l
, i n which
c
ase t he I PA is said t o opera te "straigh t t
hrough ," o r the tank c ircuit c an
b
e tuned to twice t
he grid signal f
requency , a nd in t
his c ase the IPA is
ca
lled a "doubler." When t he I
PA d oub les, the isolation b etween the grid
a
nd plate circuits i
s improved a nd as ar esult there is less chance of the
I
PA b reaking into o
sci
llation. Doub l
ing h as another a dvantage in that i
t
r
aises the carrier f
requency wh ile per m itting the oscillator to o
pera te at
alower frequency where i tw i
ll be more s table. C apac itor C-11 c ouples
t
he RF to the grid o
f t
he p ower amp lifier.

I
n
termed
iat
ePow
erA
mpl
if
te
r1P
4)
..Inter media
te Power Ampli
fier
.. Buffer Ampli
fier
.. Frequency Doub
ler
C
-9 C
-11
I
-4- PA

IPA C
-6
(
Class C)
2to 8 mc

4
-18
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANS M
ITTER

T
he Power Amp
lif
ier

The purpose o
f t
he p
ower ampli
fier is t
o increase the p
ower of the RF
s
ignal so t
hat i
tcan b
e r
adiated b
y the an
tenna . T he PA usua
l ly o
perates
s
traight t
hrough f
or g
ood e
ff
iciency. O n
ly i n unusual c
ases does the PA
a
ct a
s ad
oub
ler
.

The PA o perates a s f
ol
lows; Capac itor C-11 c ouples the RF from t he o u
t-
put o
f the IPA t o t
he gr
id of the PA. H ere a s in t
he I PA there is ac o m-
b
ina t
ion of grid-leak and ca
thode b ias provided b y R-6 and C -11
; a nd R -7
and C -12, respectively
. The RF c hoke while providing a DC p ath fro m
p
la te to B+ a
lso a cts a
s ahigh i mpedance p la
te load for the RF s ignal
.
C-13 c ouples the RF to t
he tuned circuit and blocks the DC .

The plate tank circuit C-15, L-3 is t

uned to t
he grid signa
l frequency and
ahigh RF v o
ltage is developed across it
. T he high powered RF s ignal i
n
t
he plate tank is coupled by coi
l L-5 to t
he antenna f
or r ad
iation. C oil L-4
c
ouples s ome e nergy b ack to t
he gr
id through capaci
tor C -14, called a
"
neutra liz
ing c apacitor." T he purpose of t
he neutra
lizing circuit wi
ll be- .
c
ome a
pparen
t s
hor
tly
.

r
P 7
1
T
h
eFi
nalP
owe
rAmp
lif
ier(
PA) I, M

C
-11 C
-13

RFC

(
PA C
-15
(
Class C)
6L-3
a
2to 8 mc
€
, L,
_°5 TO
°ANT .

V 3 L-4
B+

•••••
•• •
•••.. . i fo .

C
-14

4
-19
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANS M
ITTER

T
ransm
itt
ing T
ube F
ilamen
t C
ircu
it

T
ypica
l c a
thode
Trans m i
tting tubes u sed i n many
c
ircuit of
t
rans m i
tters u sua lly have d irect
ly
t
ransmit
ting t ube
h
eated c athodes wh ich a re c apab
le
o
f supply ing the l arge c urren t r
e-
q
uire men ts. T ungs ten c athodes
a
re c ommon ly u sed b ecause o f t
he ir
r
elatively long l i
fe . H owever , the
u
se of directly h ea ted tubes c omp l
i-
c
ates the w iring o f the c a
thode cir-
c
uit sl
igh tly
,a s s hown . f
b0000dboabo

Pa
th for
6
0-cycle
The f
ilamen t i
s connected across a h
eater curren
t
s
econdary w inding o
f af i
lamen t
t
ransfor mer. T his secondary wind-
i
ng is cen
ter-tapped to prevent the
6
0-cyc le f
ilament vol
tage from a p- C
-1 ,
7 C
-2
p
earing in the p
late s
ignal of t
he tube
. RFC

r
b0000db0000l

Pa
th for
RF curren
t
The center tap o
f the t
rans for mer is
connected to g
round through t he RF
c
hoke t o keep t
he RF c urrent from
f
lowing in the t
ransfor mer w inding
. . M0
The RF c urrent g
ets to the f
ilamen t / II
C
-1 C
-2
t
hrough C -I and C-2.
•7 •

RFC
-- - - -
.
1.

The DC tube c urren t f

lows t hrough
t
he RF c hoke , d ivides in going Path f
or
t
hrough the f i
lamen t transformer DC tube
w
inding a nd a rrives a t t
he f i
lamen t
. current
Because the DC c urrent d
iv ides ,
b
oth ends of t he fi
lamen t are a t t
he
s
ame DC p oten tial. I fone s ide w ere
l
ess posit
ive t han the other, more i
-
-r-
-i
p
late current wou ld be drawn f rom
O E M =
RFC
t
hat s
ide. S ince t he two sides o f the 4
1 10
f
i
lamen t are a t the s ame p oten t
ial, 7
e
qual curren ts a re drawn f rom e ach,
r
esult
ing i n longer l i
fe for t he tube.

4
-20
 A
T
H
R
E
S
TA
G
E
T
R
A
N
S
MI
T
E
R

C
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
Di
a
g
r
a
m
o
fa
T
h
r
e
S
ta
g
e
T
r
a
n
s
mi
t
e
r

O
S
Z
O
SZ
u

O
S
oo

Z
t
H0I
1
10

H0
1
£
,
^09
3
V

0
A
L

S
L'
VI

S
9
E-O
E
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

P
urpose o
f T
uning

I
f aClass C amp lif
ier is t
o operate eff
icien
tly, the pla
te tank circuit mus t
r
esona te a
t the same frequency as the gr
id signal
. Ut he tun
ing c apacitor
i
s variable
, t he p
late c
ircuit wi
ll be ei
ther on or of
f resonance d epending
u
pon the sett
ing of the v
ariable capaci
tor. A d
justing t
he variable c apaci-
t
or to make the pla
te tank c
ircuit resonate t
o the grid s
ignal is cal
led
"
tun
ing ."

When a t
ransmi
tter i
s d
etuned, aw eak s
igna
l wil
l b
e rad
iated and r
e-
c
eivers t
uned t
o t
he t
ransmitter f
requency may n
ot p
ick up t
he s
igna
l.

When a t
ransmitter i s t
uned to agiven f
requency, all the t
ank circu
its i n
t
he t
ransm i
tter are tuned to resonate a
t this g
iven frequency. T he trans-
mi
tter t
han rad
ia tes a stable s
ignal at maximum e f
ficiency and maxi mum
p
ower output
. T uning a trans m
itter i
s therefore t
he mos t importan
t p ro-
c
edure i
n its o
pera tion.

>

T
rans m
itted
S
ignal

1
1
1=>
Or
iginal
S
ignal 1
1
1
1
11
1
1 *l
l
l
i
l
i
li
i I>

1
st Power F
inal
2
nd Power
O
sci
lla
tor Amplif
ier Power
Amp
lifier
(
Buf
fer ) Ampli
fier

T
rans m
itted
Or
ig
S
ina
ignal
l
E
> n
i
> 1
-J
> S
ignal

1
st Power F
inal
2
nd Power
O
sci
lla
tor Amplif
ier Power
Amp
lifier
(
Buf
fer ) Ampl
ifier

1
1
:1
i
t
h
.

4
-22
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

T
uning Methods

A tank c
ircui
t i n series with the p la
te of aC lass C amp l
ifier can be
c
ompared to ar heostat in s
er ies with the p
late
. When t he plate circui
t is
c
omp lete
ly detuned, it acts just as if there w ere n o resistance in the
p
late. A s ar esult
,pla te vo
ltage w ill always b e equal to B+ a nd the
p
ulses of p
late c urrent (when g r
id i s driven a bove cut-off) wil
l be large.
The DC meter (M-1)wh ich measures t he average of the current pulses wil
l
t
here
fore r
ead h
igh
.

I
NPUT 0
-1

I
NV

T
uned C
lass C
M
-I
AMPLIFIER
CIRC U
IT
C
- 1+
As the t uning is varied s o tha t the r esonan t frequency o f t he tank c ircuit
c
omes c loser to the grid s igna l f
requency , the i mpedance o f the p late cir-
c
uit r ises a bove zero. N ow a s igna l voltage a ppears a cross t h
is i mped-
a
nce . J ust a s i
n an ordinary amp lifier, when t he grid s ignal i s positive
t
he p late v ol
tage d rops b ecause o f the v o
ltage d rop a cross t he pla te load
r
es istor . S ince the plate v ol tage i s now l ower t han b efore ( l
ower t han B +
)
d
uring t he time the g r
id i s d riven a bove c ut-o ff
, t he p ulses o f p late cur-
r
en t w il
l b e lower in amp litude , a nd there fore t heir a verage v alue w ill be
l
ess . When t he plate tank i s t uned t o the g rid signa l
, t he plate i mpedance
i
s a t its highest point and t here fore the v o
ltage d rop a cross t his i mpedance
i
s a t its highest point
. A s ar esult,the p late v o
l tage ( the d i
fference b e-
tween B + and the load v o
ltage ) i s a
t i t
s l owes t p oint
. S ince t he p late v o
lt-
age i s at it
s lowes t point (dur ing the time t he g rid is a bove c u
t-o ff)
,the
p
late c urren t pulses a nd t herefore t he a verage p late c urren t w i
ll b e a
t
t
heir l
owes
t p
oin
t.
Am in
i mum DC p la
te current r
eading i
s therefore an i
ndica
tion tha
t the
p
late t
ank is t
uned to t
he gr
id s
ignal f
requency . When a plate t
uned cir-
c
uit i
s tuned f
or a mini mum r
eading o
n the plate c
urrent meter, itis
c
alled t
uning f
or a "
dip
."
V
aria
tions o
f p
late V
oltages a
nd
C
urrents a
s t
uning v
aries- - - -
P
late V
oltage
B
+ 4"
vf
-N-
7
P
late C
urren
t
A
•
0 I
k 0 6

• 0

AVERAGE t
0 0m 0
10 •
As

A
pproach ing S
l
ightly l
ess A
t S
l
igh t
ly more
Well be
low
s
igna
l t
han signa
l s
ignal t
han signa
l
s
ignal
f
requency f
requency f
requency f
requency f
requency

4
-23
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

T
uning Me
thods (
con
tinued
)

The fi
rst s
tep in tuning a t
ransmitter i
s to set t
he oscil
lator to t
he desired
f
requency. T h
is may b e done b
y u s
ing a standard frequency meter w hich is
c
alibrated a
nd s e
t to the d
esired frequency. T he output o
f the osci
llator in
t
he transmit
ter ( cal
led the "master oscil
lator") i
s then zero-beat with the
f
requency me ter at which po
int t
he mas ter osci
llator is s
et to t
he desired
f
requency.
TUN
ING THE TRANSM
ITTER

The n ext stage to be tuned i s t

he s tage
which f o
llows t he master o sc il
la tor.
This c an b e d
one by o bserving t he plate
c
urren t for a mini mum i ndica t
ion when
t
he pla te circuit i
s tuned t o the mas ter
o
sc il
la tor frequency. I n
itially t his
s
tage i s d e
tuned and the p late c urrent P
late
i
s at af airly high value. c
ur r
ent
meter

As t
he tuning control is ro
tated , no
c
hange in the milliammeter r eading wi
ll
b
e not
iced u nt
il the tuned circuit f
re-
q
uency is near the oscilla
tor f requency.
When the current starts t
o " d
ip ," t
he
c
ontrol should be rotated slowly. N
ear
ing R
esonance

The current wi
ll cont
inue to d
ecrease
a
s the tun
ing control is r
ota
ted unt
il a
min
imum v alue occurs. T h
is is t
he
d
ip reading.

Con
tinuing to r
otate t
he control in t
he
s
ame d irect
ion will d
etune the circu
it
a
nd the current w
ill r
ise again.

O
ff R
esonance

When t
he current is o
bserved t o b
e r
ising
, the c
ontrol shou
ld be t
urned i
n
t
he o
pposite direct
ion unt
il itis se
t for m
inimum c urrent. At t
his p
oin
t,
t
he t
uned circuit i
s a
t the sa me f
requency a
s t
he signal f
requency a
nd t
he
o
utpu
t of t
he stage is maxi mum.

The p
late tank c
ircu
its o
f t
he o
ther s
tages c
an b
e t
uned i
n e
xac
tly t
he
s
ame way .
4
-24
 A THREE STAGE TRANSMITTER

Tun
ing Me
thods (
con
tinued
)

I
n add
ition to t
he p
late current me
ter, there i
s another meter wh
ich i
ndi-
c
ates correct t
uning o
f the p
late c
ircu
it. Th is meter is i
n t
he gr
id c
ircui
t
o
f t
he fol
lowing stage a
nd is l
abeled M-2 in t
he d
iagra m below.

When the p
late circuit i
s tuned t o
t
he f
requency o f the i
nput signa l
,
t
he vo
ltage d eveloped across t he
c
ircui
t is greatest and the output
f
ro m t
hat amp li
fier stage is
g
reatest. The l arger the outpu t
f
ro m t
hat stage, the greater is
t
he s
igna l t
o the grid o
f the fol-
l
owing stage.

The g rid of the fo

llow ing stage w il
l d raw curren t whenever t he input signal
drives the g rid posit
ive . The l arger the signal input, the greater w il
l be
t
he f l
ow o f c urrent f
ro m the c athode t o t
he grid. S ince the signal input to
t
he g rid w il
l b e g
reates t when t he plate c
ircuit of the previous stage i s ac-
curately t uned, the grid will d raw max i mu m curren t and millia m meter
M-2 ( which measures t he average g rid c
urren t
) w i
ll indicate a max i mu m
reading . Thus when t he p
la te tank is accurately tuned, the plate c urrent
me ter indica tes a d
ip a nd the g r
id c urrent meter of the fol
low ing stage
s
i mu ltaneous ly registers a r ise known a s a" peak" r eading.

P
l
ate C
u
rre
nt• ,•
G
rid C
u
rre
nt•
d
er
/wad
ed e
aea •• 6W
/redde
st

M
-
1 M
-
2

Tune f
or Mi
llia m meters Tune f
or

fte a 4

I
fthe gr
id circuit h
as fixed b
ias o r co mbinat
ion bias, no gr
id current wil
l
b
e drawn unti
l the s
ignal is f
airly large. Th is wil
l happen so me t
ime after
t
he p
late current meter has s
tar ted to dip. F or t
his reason
, the r
ising grid
c
urrent ind
ication i
s sharper than the d ecreasing pla
te current i
ndicat
ion.

The n or mal procedure for tuning a s

tage wh ich has a p
late current me ter
and is fo
llowed b y as tage which has a grid current meter, is t
o tune first
f
or a min i mu m plate current. This indication is b
roader and less likely to
be overlooked a s you vary the tun
ing. A fter y ou have observed the plate
curren t s
tarting to decrease, y ou watch the gr
id current meter for a rise.
The final adjust ment wil
l be for a r
ise in grid current
. S ince th
is i s a
sharper i nd
ica t
ion, tuning based o n t
his indicat
ion wil
l be more a ccura te
.

4
-25
 A THREE STAGE TRANS M
ITTER

T
uning Me
thods (
con
tinued
)

When a pla te tank circuiti s t

uned t o the s ame frequency a s the grid signal,
t
he voltage a cross t he tank is at its max i mu m. I fanother c oi
l is trans-
f
or mer c oup led to t
he c oil o
f the tank c ircuit
, t he vo
ltage induced i n th
is
co
il will also b e a max i mum. T h
is s econd c oil can be connec ted to apilot
l
a mp w hich w i
ll glow i f the induced v o
ltage is large enough . Ift he tank
c
ircuit is d etuned from t he grid signa l, the i
nduced v oltage in the l
a mp cir-
c
uit wi
l l drop a nd the la mp will go o u
t. T he transfor mer c oupled la mp is
t
herefore a c onvenien t means o f t
un ing a tank circuit as the la mp i
s
b
rightest w hen the tank circuit is tuned t o t
he signal frequency .

This method o f tuning is not as a ccurate as t

he c urrent meter i ndicat
ions
b
ecause t he l a mp c
ircuit loads d own the t
ank circuit and detunes itslightly
.
When u sing this method f or tuning indication
, t he coupling mus t be kept as
l
oose a s possib le t
o minim ize t he detuning e
ffec ts on t
he plate tank circuit
.
The lamp method o f t
uning c an b e convenient
ly u sed on bui
lt u p experimen-
t
al transmi tters in which the p late co
ils are access ib
le. I n many t rans-
mitters this method c annot be u sed since the t
un ing coi
ls are o u
t o f s
ight
,
a
nd t herefore tuning is done e xclusively by curren t meter indications.

U
s
ing al
a
mp f
o
r t
u
ning

O
ff r
esonance

N
ear r
esonance

A
t r
esonance

4
-26
 A THREE STAGE TRANS M
ITTER

N
eutra
liza
tion

S
o meti mes a t
uned Class C amp l
ifier wi
l l act as atuned-plate —tuned-gr id
o
scillator a
t the resonant frequency of the tuned circuits
. I n t
his c ase
,t he
i
nterelectrode capacitance between plate a nd grid i
s large enough to pro-
v
ide the proper amoun t of f
eedback for s ustained osci
llations. Th is type
o
f oscilla
tion is most of
ten e ncountered w ith t
riodes because of their large
i
ntere
lectrode c apacit
ies. T etrodes and pentodes r arely have this prob-
l
em of o sc
illa
tions because the ir i
nterelectrode capac it
ies a re very low.
When triodes are used as RF amp lifiers, itis poss
ib le to e
l iminate the
a
bove men t
ioned oscil
lations b y aprocess c a
lled "neu tral
iza tion." In
n
eutralization a c
ircuit is i
ncluded in the ampli
fier wh ich c ounteracts the
f
eedback e f
fect o
f the in
terelectrode g rid t
o pla
te c apacity.

Two c
ircuits are u sed to neutralize the g r
id-to-p late capacitance and
t
hereby reduce the p ossibi
lity of o sc
illations. E ach o
f these circuits ac-
c
omp l
ishes neutra lization by feeding b ack a signal fro m t
he plate t
o the
g
rid t
hrough a n eutralizing capac itor. T h
is signa l i
s opposite in p
hase
a
nd equal in magn i
tude t o t
he signa l fed back through the g r
id-to-plate
c
apacitance. These c ircuits are c al
led " plate neutral
iza t
ion" a nd "grid
n
eutraliza
tion" a nd get the
ir n a mes fro m t he p
art of t
he circu i
t in which
t
he f
eedback v o
ltage i s developed .

PLATE
NEUTRALIZATION
C
IRCUIT

Th
is i s t
he c ircuit for p
late neutralization. Cgp i s the grid-to-plate ca-
p
acitance r epresen ted in the sche matic a s acapac i
tor e xterna l t
o the tube.
Cn is t
he n eutralizing capacitor —that i s
, t he c
apac itor through wh ich the
n
eutra l
izing s ignal is brought to t
he g rid. The t uning coil, L -1, isc enter-
t
apped a t point C, wh ich i
s placed at RF g round by the RF b ypass capac i-
t
or CB . S ince p oints A and B are at o pposite ends of coil L -1, t
hey a re
1
80 d egrees o ut of phase. There fore t he RF v oltages measured a t points
Aa nd B with r espec t t
o ground are 1 80 d egrees out of phase a nd equal in
amplitude ( assu ming point C is t
he e xact center-tap).

The n eutral
izing c apacitor, Cn , i s c
onnec ted between p oin
t Ba nd the g
rid,
while the in
tere lectrode c apacitance, Cgp , i s connected between p oin
t A
and the grid. There fore the p hase of the voltage fed f
ro m the plate t
o the
grid through Cn i s opposite to the phase of the v o
ltage fed through the g
r id-
t
o-p late capacitance a nd the voltages c ancel. Cn i s made v ariable so t
ha t
t
he amp li
tude of the signal fed b ack through Cn c an be made t o balance out
exactly that f
ed b ack through Cgp .

4
-27
 A THREE STAGE TRANS M
ITTER

N
eutra
liza
tion (
con
tinued
)

I
n the plate neutralization c
ircuit just considered , b o
th p la
tes o f t
he tuning
c
apac i
tor a nd one p
late of t
he neutralizing c apacitor a re at ah igh DC p o-
t
ential with respec t t
o ground. Therefore ,the r o
tor o f the tuning capacitor
mus t be insula
ted f ro m g
round. I n many c o m mon types o f tuning capaci-
t
ors the r otor is co m mon t
o t
he c apaci
tor f ra me, a nd there fore an insu-
l
ated moun ting mus t be p
rovided to keep the c apacitor fra me i nsulated
f
ro m the c hassis.

I
f agrounded rotor tuning capaci
tor mus t be used, t
he plate n
eutralization
c
ircuit can b
e mod i
fied so that n
o DC v o
ltage is present on t
he rotor p
la te
a
s il
lustrated be
low . I n t
he sche mat
ic on the le
ft, t
he rotor o
f the tun
ing
c
apacitor is g
rounded. The t ap on t
he coi
l is grounded for RF t
hrough t he
0
.05 mfd RF b ypass capacitor. T he tap i
s also connec
ted to B+ through a
r
adio frequency choke. Observe t hat on
ly p ar
t of t
he coil f
ro m A to B is
i
n t
he tuned circu
it. The r
e ma
inder of t
he co
il f
ro m B t
o Cis t
ransfor mer-
c
oupled to t
he A-B por
tion o
f t
he c
oil
, a nd t
hus p
icks up RF f
or t
he neu
tra l-
i
z
ing circuit
.

I
n the o
ther sche matic t
he tuned circui
t is capac
ity-coupled to t
he p
late s
o
t
hat t
he DC plate current flows only t
hrough the radio f
requency choke
.
One s
ide of t
he tuning co
il a nd t
uning capac
itor connect direct
ly t
o ground
,
and t
he t
uning and neutralizing c
ircuits are completely i
solated f
rom DC.

92 A

3 S
ERIES FEED

.
0
5
R
FC

8
+

P
L ATE NEUTRAL
IZATI O N

SHUNT FEED

4
-28
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

N
eutra
liza
tion (
con
tinued
)

Another circuit w hich provides a means o f neutralizing the g r

id- to-plate
c
apac i
ty is the grid n eutralization c ircuit
. I n t
his circuit the n eutral
iz ing
v
oltage is applied t o end B of the cen ter-tapped c oil L-1 w hile the grid-to-
p
late feedback v oltage is applied to e nd A of c oi
l L -1. Since t hese t wo
v
oltages a re equal a nd of t
he s ame p olari
ty, t hey cause c urren ts to f
low
i
n the balanced g rid tank circuit whose e f
fec ts cancel each o ther . T he r e-
s
ult is t
hat oscillations d ue to feedback c anno t occur in the g r
id t ank cir-
c
uit and therefore t he entire stage w il
l not be able to oscillate. T herefore
i
f Cn is adjusted to b e equal to C g p, t
he voltages c oupled through t hese
c
apac i
tors w ill cance l each other a nd the tube w il
l not oscillate.

Once a n
eutral
izing capacitor is a
djusted f
or a p
art
icu
lar t
ube, i
twill re-
q
uire on
ly occasional checks. However , i
fthe t
ube i
s c
hanged f
or a n
ew
o
ne, the neu
traliz
ing capac itor w
ill n
eed adjus
tment s
ince t
he n
ew tube wil
l
h
ave a s
lightly d
ifferen
t value of Cgp.

4
-29
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

N
eutra
liz
ing P
rocedures

The procedures for neutral

izing a re a
l most i
ndependentof the t
ype of n
eu-
t
raliz
ing circuit used
. A t the start of n
eutralizat
ion 2t
he pla
te vol
tage is
r
e moved from t he s
tage to be neutral
ized so that any s
ignal present i
n t
he
p
late circui
t is d ue to the in
tere lec
trode c apaci
ty c oupl
ing b e
tween the
g
rid a nd p
late.

Then the master o scillator and those amp li

fier s
tages w h
ich p recede t he
u
nneutralized stage a re tuned. T his will p
rovide a s
trong signal to the
g
rid of the unneutralized s tage. T he next step depends on t
he i nd
ica tor
u
sed b ut i
talways r esu l
ts in the adjustmen t o
f t
he neutral
izing c apacitor
u
ntil t
here i
s am ini mum amoun t o
f e nergy t
ransferred to t
he plate circu i
t.

I
f t
here i s ag rid c
urrent meter, the grid current can be used to i
ndicate
t
he correct adjustment of t
he n
eutralizing capacitor. When t his capacitor
i
s no
t p roper
ly a d
justed, the g
rid current will d
ip as the p
late circui
t is
t
uned through resonance. When t he circui
t is properly neutralized, there
w
ill be no d
ip in t
he gr
id current when the p
late circuitis t
uned to resonance.

NEUTRALIZATION

•
.
11
.•
•r•

I
NPUT

Gr
id
c
urrent M
R CN
meter

E
f
fec
tofv
a
rying PLATE TUNING ON GR
ID CURRENT

LARGE DIP SMALL D IP NO DIP

w
hen s
tage i
s w
hen n
eutra
liza
tion w
hen properly
p
oor
ly n
eutra
lized i
s improved neu
tral
ized

4
-30
 A THREE STAGE TRANS M
ITTER

N
eutra
liz
ing P
rocedures (
con
tinued
)

O
ther methods u sed to adjust the neutral
iz ing c apaci
tor make u se o
f de-
v
ices wh ich can i
ndicate the presence of RF e nergy in t
he de-energized
p
late circui
t. S o me devices wh ich can be u sed for t
his purpose are t
he
o
scilloscope, an eon la mp, a sma ll f
lashligh t bulb o
r asens i
tive DC milli-
am meter. The d evice chosen a ffects t
he a ccuracy of neutral
izing bu
t not
t
he method o f ad
justing the neutra l
izing capac itor

i
n
dica
tor
s u
s
ed i
nne
utr
aliz
ing
•. .••. •••••••.•
•• ••••••
••••
•• ••• ••.:,,•,
? y ••• •

Osc
illoscope
Or Bu
lb

To '
scope
Y i
nput
o
r bulb

Cn

Neon Lamp

Cn

As be
fore, the circuits in the t rans mitter that precede the unneutralized
s
tage are tuned to provide a s trong s ignal to that s
tage. The p late supp ly
v
oltage is d
isconnected f ro m t he plate of the stage and when the plate is
t
uned to resonance,the indica tor w il
l s how either a max i mu m current flow-
i
ng in t
he tuned circuit or a max i mu m voltage a cross t
he tuned circuit.
The p
late circuit re mains tuned t o resonance a nd the n
eutralizing capac i-
t
or is a
djusted until the vo
ltage a cross ( or the current in
) the tuned circuit
i
s am ini mu m as shown o n the i nd
ica ting device.

4
-31
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSM
ITTER

P
aras
itic O
sci
lla
tions

I
n at ransm itter wh ich i s o
pera ting c orrec tly, t
he tuned C lass C amp lifiers
s
erve o nly to amp lify t he RF g enera ted b y the mas ter o sci
llator . S ome-
t
imes t he inductance o f wires in the c ircuit c ombine w ith stray c apacities
t
o for m tuned c ircuits wh ich are r esonan t to f
requenc ies much h igher t han
t
he d es
ired t rans m i
tted f requency . T hese stray tuned c ircu i
ts w il
l often
c
ause t he amp lifiers t o oscilla
te at v ery h igh frequenc ies. T hese oscilla-
t
ions, called " paras i
tic o scillations," a re trans mitted t ogether w ith t he
d
esired f requency . P arasitic o sc
i l
la tions a re undes irab le b ecause they
c
ause u ndue p ower l osses a nd reduce t he eff
iciency o f t he trans mitter. I n
a
dd i
tion,they c ause i nterference w ith o ther t rans mitters .

One way to eli minate parasitic oscil

lations i s t
o i mprove t he w iring b y
s
hortening leads a nd r
eloca t
ing c omponen ts wh ich may b e in the p arasitic
o
scilla
tory c ircu i
t. I fthis does not help, low v a
lue r esistors o r chokes o f
afew turns of w ire should be connec ted directly to the g r
id a nd pla te leads.
These added c omponen ts h ave very lit
tle effect on the amp l
ifica t
ion o f the
d
esired frequency . T hey d o
, h owever , isolate the g r
id from t he stray
t
uned circuits to the point where the p arasitic oscillations a re elim inated.
Componen ts wh ich are placed in ac ircuit to el
im ina te paras itic osc i
lla-
t
ions are called " parasit
ic s uppressors ." V ery often p arasitic o scilla-
t
ions can be elim inated only by comp letely r ewiring a circu it.

4
-32
 A THREE S
TAGE TRANSMITTER

R
eview o
f t
he T
hree-S
tage T
rans m
itter
MO

THE THREE S TAGES — The

master oscil
lator, i n
ter-
mediate power amp lifier
a
nd final power amp lifier
make up the basic three- I
PA
s
tage trans mit
ter.

PA

C
-14

TUNING —For e fficient

o
pera t
ion, the plate tank
c
ircuit of t
he amp lifier
must resonate at osc i
lla-
t
or frequency. Ad justing
t
he variable capac i
tor t o 1
st P
ower 2
nd P eer Foul
r
each t h
is condition i s 0Sc
illa
tor An
.p
(
Bo
l t
l
hr
ler)
•meh
l r power
Ampl
ifier

c
alled tuning
.

P
late V
oltage

B
.
P
late Curren
t
i
N
ik
)
TUNING METHODS —The
;I
p
late c
ircu i
t of e
ach t
rans-
mi
tter stage may be t
uned 0
AVERAGE

b
y adjusting t
he var
iable We
ll b
elow A
t S
l
igh t
ly more
s
igna
l t
han signa
l
c
apacitor for min
i mum DC f
requency fr
s
igna
l
equency f
requency
p
late current.

NEUTRAL IZAT ION —P late

o
r g rid neutralization C-

c
ircu i
ts may b e u sed t
o
counteract the feedback
e
ffect of the g r
id t o p
late
c
apac ity in amp li
fiers
u
s ing tr
iodes .

4
-33
 FREQUENCY MULT
IPL
IERS

P
urpose o
f F
requency Mu
ltip
lica
tion

Up unti
l now, ith as been assumed tha
t the p
late-tuned c
ircuit o
f a
n ampli-
f
ier stage in atrans mit
ter can b
e tuned only t
o the g
rid s
ignal f
requency,
whatever that may be. F or example, ifthe gr
id signal f
requency i
s 1 mc,
t
he plate c
ircuit is a
lso tuned t
o 1 mc.

I
fthe g rid s igna l i
s ap ure s ine w ave, t he p late circu i
t c an b e t
uned o nly
t
o t
he f requency o f t
his s ine wave ( called t he funda men ta l
) a nd none o ther .
I
tso h appens t ha tgenera ted f requenc ies a re very s eldom p ure;t hey u sua l
ly
c
ontain h ar mon ics of the f undamen tal frequency . T his i s e specia l
ly t rue
i
n t
rans m itters where C lass C amp li
fiers i ntroduce many h ar mon ics i nto
t
he genera ted s ignal. F or e xamp le , ift he master o scillator ( opera ting
C
lass C ) g enera tes a 1 mc s ine wave , t hat s ine w ave is r ich i n har mon ics
—it conta ins n ot only the f unda men tal ( 1 mc ) b u
t also t he s econd h ar mon ic
(
2 mc), t he t hird h ar mon ic ( 3 mc), etc . T here fore i f as igna l rich i n har-
monics i s placed o n t
he g r
id o f at uned amp lif
ier , the plate c an b e tuned
t
o any o ne o f the har mon ics t hat is presen t in the origina l g rid signa l. T he
p
rocess b y wh ich t he inpu t frequency t o the g rid is conver ted to ah igher
o
ne in the p late b y tuning t o ah ar monic o f the fundamen tal i s called "fre-
q
uency mu ltiplication." F or e xa mple, i ft he o u
tpu t of the o scillator i s
1
000 k c, t he o utput of the b uffer amp lifier m ight b e 2000 k c (second h ar-
monic) a nd o f the next amp lifier 4000 k c ( fourth h armon ic).

l
i e reie n eit M a l
ii p liC atiO n

13 0 IM O I*

Master Bu
ffer 2
nd I.P. A
. F
. P.A.
o
scil
lator (
Doubler
) (Doubler
)

V r 9 mcs

Master Bu
ffer 2
nd I.P
.A .
F
.P:A
.
o
scil
lator (
Tripler
) (Tr
ipler)

The r
eason that f
requency multipl
ier circui
ts a re used i
n trans m
itters is
t
hat a
n osci
llator operates more sat
isfactorily at l
ow frequencies. T here-
f
ore, i
f ahigh frequency is r
equired, the o
sc i
llator operates a
t al ow fre-
q
uency and the mult
iplier c
ircuits s
tep up t
he o sci
llator f
requency t o t
he
d
esired one
.

F
or very high frequencies, crys
tal oscilla
tors a re used t
o provide for
g
ood frequency stabi
lity. However , itis i mpractica
l to manufacture a
c
rystal t
o vibrate a
t such high f
requencies. T herefore, t
he crystal os-
c
i
llator is operated a
t a much lower frequency a nd t
he desired outpu
t fre-
q
uency is obtained b
y frequency mult
ip l
ication.

4
-34
 FREQUENCY MULT
IPL
IERS

T
he F
ina
l P
ower Amp
lif
ier

The maxi mu m p
ower which can be r
adiated f
rom a t
rans mi
tting a
ntenna
d
epends on the power o
utpu
t of the f
inal p
ower ampli
fier (FPA )
. Ifthe
f
ina
l power amp l
ifier h
as a power output o
f 1
00 wa
tts, the an
tenna can
r
adiate no more than 1
00 wat
ts.

Afrequency mu l
tipl
ier h as a lower o
utput than the s
ame s tage u sed as a
s
traight f
requency amp l
ifier. I fthe f
inal power amp li
fier w hich is ca-
p
able of an output o
f 100 wa t
ts as astraight frequency amp li
fier w ere used
a
s ad oubler, its power o u
tpu t wou
ld be about 65 wat
ts —as a t ripler
, 4 0
wa
tts; as aq uadrupler, 3 0 watts a
nd so forth. A s t
he multiplication of
t
he frequency increases, t he power ou
tpu t decreases.

Because the power output o

f atrans m i
tter depends t
o ag rea
t extent u
pon
t
he output o
f the f
ina
l p ower amp l
ifier, the FPA is no
t operated as afre-
q
uency mu ltip
lier. T hus al
l the mu l
tiplicat
ion of t
he osc
illa
tor frequency
must take p
lace in t
he inter med
iate p ower amplif
iers.

I
fyou h
ad t
h
is c
ircu
it
a
nd wanted t
h
is o
utpu
t

V
1
2 mcs

1
2 mc /12 mci 1
00 W
. .y
ou could
use t
his. . .. X
3 — F
.P.A
.-

--
-- b ecause
d
oubl
ing i
n the F. P.A.
w
ould r
esu
l t i
n
l
ower p
ower o u
tpu t
.

4
-35
 FREQUENCY MULT
IPL
IERS

F
requency Doub
ling

Le
t's examine a t
ypica
l d oub
ler circu
it —tha
t is
, one i
n which t
he o
utpu
t
f
requency i
s tw
ice the input f
requency —and see h
ow i
tw orks.

The c
ircuit o
f af requency doubler appears t o b
e the s ame a s tha
t o f an
ampl
ifier which operates a
t the input frequency. T he on
ly d i
fferences
a
re that t
he pla
te circuit w
ill be tuned to tw
ice the input frequency a nd no
n
eutraliza
tion is required s
ince the input and ou
tpu t operate at differen t
f
requencies. T his reduces the possibi
l i
ty of s
elf-excited o scil
lations .

WAVE FORMS I
N A TYP
ICAL DOUBLER C
IRCUIT

0
The d oubler c ircu i
t i s opera ted
-C
ut-o
ff
C
lass C w ith t he pla te tank r eso-
nant to twice t he grid s ignal f re- B
ias
q
uency . T he p u
lses o f curren t at
t
he s a me frequency a s the inpu t
s
igna l fl
ow f rom t he c athode t o the
p
late, e nerg izing t he plate t ank
c
ircu i
t a nd c ausing i tto oscillate
a
t twice t he g r
id s igna l frequency .
Between p u
lses o f plate c urren t
, •
t
he tank c ircu i
t c ontinues t o o s-
c
illate.

• 0

The reason t he t
uned c ircuit con t
inues to oscil
late i s t
hat the pulses of
c
urren t always a rrive at the same t ime during alterna te cycles of the
d
oubled f requency , thus energ izing t
he tank circuit at the right time. When
a
ccura tely tuned, the v o
ltage a cross the doubler-tuned c ircuit is at a max-
imum a nd the voltage at the plate is a
t am inimum when c urren t flows.
Therefore , the i
ndica t
ions f or tuning t
o twice the frequency a re the same
a
s for tuning to the input frequency . T he plate current me ter wi l
l indicate
adip as the plate circuit is tuned to tw
ice the input frequency . A t the
s
ame t ime , the grid curren t me ter wi
ll indicate a rise.

4
-36
 FREQUENCY MULT
IPL
IERS

F
requency T
rip
ling

Afrequency-tripling circuit
, or more b rief
ly a t
ripler, has an ou
tput f
re-
q
uency that i
s three times the i
nput frequency. T he a ppearance o
f the c
ir-
c
uit i
s t
he s ame a s t
hat of adoubler or of an o
rdinary amp li
fier
. F re-
q
uency trip
ling is accomp lished by t
uning the p
late circuit o
f t
he trip
ler to
t
he t
h
ird h
ar mon
ic o
f i
t
s i
npu
t f
requency
.

I
nput
v
oltage

P
late
P
u lses of curren t fl
ow f ro m cathode c
urrent
t
o plate —one p ulse p er cycle of ap-
p
l
ied s ignal. T hese p ulses arrive
Plate
a
t the tuned circu i
t d uring every
v
oltage
t
hird cycle of o u
tpu t voltage and de-
l
iver enough e nergy t o t
he tuned cir-
c
ui t t
o sustain oscilla t
ions d ur
ing 0
t
hose c ycles w hen n o current flows.
The sa me t unirg ind ications h old f or f
requency d oub l
ing a nd tripling a s for
f
undamen ta
l f re'uency amp li
f ica tion. When t he c ircu i
t i s tuned a ccura tely
t
o the third h ar mon ic of the a pp lied frequency, t he v oltage a cross t he tuned
c
ircu it will be larger t han i ft he c ircuit were p oor ly tuned . Th is w ill
c
ause t he v oltage fed t o the n ex t stage to be l
arger , wh ich r esults i n more
g
r id curren t. T he l arger v oltage a cross the accura tely t uned c ircu i
t
c
auses t he pla te vo
ltage t o be a t al ow value w hen t he t ube c onduc ts. T h
is
r
esu lts in d ecreased p late curren t
. T herefore t he t uning o f the plate cir-
cuit —whether i tis t uned t o the i nput f
requency o r to t he s econd o r t h
ird
har monic o f the inpu t frequency —can b e i
ndica ted a s ad ip o n t
he p late
curren t me ter o r as ar ise o n the g rid current meter o f the follow ing stage.
=-
-z-
----

Outpu
t

I
npu
t c
.
--I I P
late
c
urrent
D
IPS ..

P
late curren
t
0
00Q9i000Q
, -
I
- meter
Gr
id curren
t
meter Grid
c
urrent
RISES

C
IRCU
IT

4
-37
 FREQUENCY MULTEPL
1ERS

T
uning I
ndica
tions

At this p o
int the ques tion arises " How c an you te
ll to wha t frequency t he
p
late t ank circu it i
s tuned when t he plate curren t meter i ndica tes a dip
reading?" The o n
ly way t o t
el
l is to use a frequency i ndica tor s uch as a
wave me ter,o r ac alibrated dial ifthe tuned circuit has b een p rev iously
t
uned . I fy ou a re work ing with an uncalibrated trans m itter, t he thing to
do is to tune a stage , starting with the tun
ing c apacitor f ul
ly meshed . The
f
irst dip i nd
ica tes that the tank circuit is t
uned to the funda men tal. Th is
c
an b e c hecked w ith the wave me ter. As y ou continue d ecreas ing t he ca-
p
ac i
ty , y ou co me to as econd dip (not as pronounced a s t he first one) wh ich
i
s the s econd h ar mon ic. Aga in y ou can check the frequency w ith a wave-
meter . Con tinue d ecreas ing capacity and you may c o me to at hird dip
(
provided the circui
t c ons
tants are c
orrect
) which i
s not a
s pronounced as
e
ither t
he first or second dip
. T h
is d
ip i
ndica
tes that t
he p
late-tuned c
ir-
c
uit i
s tuned to the t
hird har mon
ic. H ere t
oo you c
an check t
he resonant
f
requency b y u
s ing a wave me
ter.

P
late curren
t
meter dip

Har monic
(Doubler)

Har monic
(Tr
ip ler)

4
-38
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

The O
vera
ll T
rans m
itter

T
he end resu
lt o
f t
rans m
itter o
perat
ion i
s t
he rad
iation o
f RF energy f
or
g
rea
t dis
tances t
hrough space s
o tha
t t
his e
nergy can b
e detec
ted by r
e-
mo
te r
ece
iving a
ntennas
.

You have studied o sc

illator and Class C amp lif
ier circui
ts whose function
i
ti s t
o generate a nd amp l
ify RF e nergy . O ther circui
ts a re n
eeded, in
a
dd i
tion to the ones just mentioned, t o transfer t
he amp li
fied RF fro m the
p
late circuit of t
he final power amp lifier to surrounding space. T hese a d-
d
itional circuits are trans m
ission l i
nes , antennas and coup l
ing c
ircuits.
J
ust as as peaker in a
ud io work t ransfers audio e
nergy f rom e lectronic
c
ircuits in
to the a
ir, so t he antenna is t
he means o f t
rans ferring RF
e
nergy f rom the e
lectron ic circuits in
to space. T he transm iss ion li
ne is
t
he conveyor o r l
i
nk between t he trans m
itter and t
he a n
tenna ; and the cou-
p
ling circuit c
onnects the final power amp lif
ier tank circuit to the t
rans-
m
iss
ion l
i
ne.

H
OW R
FISD
E
LIV
ERED F
R
OM T
R
ANSM
ITT
ER T
OSP
ACE

A
NTENNA T
RANSM
ISS
ION L
I
NE
S
upp
lies a
ntenna w
ith RF
R
adia
tes RF

%
. ..
.-

-_
_-
_ =
- - _
.
ir-
- -w
.- -
--
.
v
.---
-"\- -- -
-
..
.
..
.

-
-
_
.
7Z-
COUP
- LING C IRCU IT .'
_ Coup
les RF f
ro m t
ank c
ircu
it .
-
7- . t
o t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne %
1
.—.
...
. .1
—..
.. _
-
-..
.
.c. i
.
. i
-
- To
--5
.
-
1-
4.
-transmiss
ion
l
i
ne

F
ina
l P
a B
+
I
n t
h
is top
ic y
ou w
ill l
earn a
bout t
rans mission l
ines and c
oupling c
ircui
ts
—what t
hey a
re l
i
ke and h
ow they d
o their job
. An tennas wi
ll be d
is-
c
ussed s
epara
tely i
n t
he n
ext t
opic
.

4
-39
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

C
oup
ling C
ircu
its

Ac oupling circu it is used to transfer energy f rom the output of the trans-
mit
ter t o t
he t rans miss ion l
ine wh ich feeds the antenna. I n doing its job
o
f transferring e nergy, t he coupling c
ircu i
t iso la
tes the antenna s ystem
f
rom t he h
igh DC p otentials presen t i
n the plate of t
he fi
nal p ower amp li-
f
ier
. T he c oup l
ing c ircuit a
lso d eter m
ines t he amoun t o
f c oupling that is
r
equired for max imum p ower t ransfer from t he pla
te tank circu i
t of the
p
ower amp li
f ier t o t
he l i
ne input.

The s
i mplest coupl
ing c ircuit i
s direc
t c oupling f
rom the t
ank circu
it to a
s
ingle wire transmiss ion line
. A sma ll capac i
tor i
s a
lways placed at t
he
i
nput t
o the line t
o block the DC from t he antenna. The coupl
ing is ad-
j
usted by varying t
he t ap on t
he plate t
ank c oil
.

Another si mp
le c oup
ling c
ircuit i
s inductive c
oupl
ing t
o t
he p
late t
ank c
ir-
cu
it with an untuned co
il o
f afew turns. T h
is t
ype o
f c
oupl
ing is u
sed p
rin-
c
ipally wi
th flat li
nes (t
o b
e discussed later)
.

I
N
DUCT
IVE C
OUPL
ING

Asyste m o
f u n
tuned coupling called " L
ink C oupling" is used when the an-
t
enna c
oup l
ing i s r
e mote f
rom t he plate tank c
ircu i
t. T he l
ink consis
ts of
t
wo p
ick-up c oils o
f about two o
r t hree turns connec ted by wires and cou-
p
led t
o the pla
te tank and the a
ntenna c oup l
ing circuit,respective
ly.

4
-40
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

Tuned Coup
ling C
ircu
its

A more co m monly used t ype of c oupling is tuned coup ling in which the
c
oupling circuit is tuned to the o perating f requency . The a dvantage of
t
uned coupling is t
hat itinsures greater s electivity and min imizes the p os-
s
ibi
lity o
f u ndes
ired f requencies being r adiated. I n addition, since the
t
uned coupler is a
l mos t a
lways v ar
iab le tuned itc an c o mpensate for
c
hanges in the impedance o f t
he trans m ission line and thus insure max i-
mu m power transfer fro m the f
inal power amp lifier to the l
ine at al
l times.

When t
he trans m
ission l
ine has a l
ow inpu
t impedance, as er
ies-tuned cou-
p
ling c
ircuit i
s used
. S eries t
uning i
s cal
led"curren
t feed
,' and can ma
tch
t
he f
inal PA to t
he l
ow line impedance
.

, To l
ine
with LO W
i
nput
impedance

When a t
rans mission l
ine h
as a h
igh i
npu
t impedance, para
lle
l tun
ing,
c
alled"vo
ltage feed, i
s used
. Here the h
igh impedance o
f t
he para
llel t
ank
c
ircuit matches the h
igh i
nput i
mpedance o
f t
he li
ne, and max
i mu m p
ower
t
ransfer is e
ffected
.

To l
ine
wi
th HIGH
i
nput
impedance

I
fthe input i
mpedance o f the l
ine is o
ther than pure resis
tive, either of
t
he above two tuned coupler c
ircu i
ts can be adjusted so t
hat t
he r eactance
o
f t
he line i
s c ancel
led by the reactance o
f the tank c
ircuit. Th is results
i
n ap ure resistive load
, wh ich is the require ment for max i mum p ower
t
ransfer.

4
-41
 TRANSMISS
ION L
INES

T
rans m
iss
ion L
ines

Atrans miss ion l

ine prov
ides a means of t
rans
ferring electr
ical energy
f
ro m one point to a
nother. You know of a
t l
east o
ne applicat
ion of atrans-
mission li
ne i n c
arrying 60 c
ycle power f
ro m t
he generator to t
he po
int o
f
a
pplication.

I
n t
rans mi
tters, trans m
ission li
nes a re similarly used t
o c
onvey RF power
f
ro m o
ne point t
o another. F or exa mple
, at rans m
ission l
i
ne is a
lways
u
sed to c
arry RF p ower fro m t
he trans mitter to t
he an
tenna when t
he a
n-
t
enna i
s so me d
istance fro m t
he trans mi
tter .

7 144 t€'
4do 4e'4
,o4 Zi
fied
_
.
-
--
---
---
--
"-
--7
-
-
--/
' -- - -"
.
....
...
.. -.
..
.... _ _

I
-
--
--
---

I I
f
r
t60% /
t
owe
r
- -
--,
--
--
-j *if
_
_--
---
-'
i

_
-- , --
.

Or
tR
i f
z
ex
eve
,
t. ..

T
rans mission l
ines p
lay an i
mportan
t par
t in t
he o
peration o
f atrans-
m
itter
, n o
t only t
o convey RF e
nergy b
ut also a
s c
ircu
it co mponen
ts.

4
-42
 TRANSM
ISS
ION L
INES

F
requency a
nd Wave
leng
th
B
efore you l
earn the t
heory of t
rans miss
ion li
nes, you should understand
s
o meth
ing about t
he propert
ies of aradiated wave —i
ts velocity o
f propa-
g
ation (
how fas
t ittravels
), it
s frequency and i
ts wavelength
.
For purposes of si mplicity consider an AC g enerator sending 60 c ps
e
nergy along a trans mission l
ine from N ew Y ork to Cal
ifornia by way of
Kansas. A ssu me tha
t t he r
ate of t
ravel of t
he AC p ower is the s
ame a s
t
he veloc
ity of e
lectromagnet ic radiation i
n free space which is constant
a
t 186,000 miles per s econd o
r 3 00, 0
00, 0
00 me ters per second regard-
l
ess o
f t
he f
requency
.
I
ft he genera tor starts its g enera ting
a
ction a t t he z ero v o
ltage p o
in t on
t
he sine w ave , after a h a
lf c ycle h as
e
lapsed ( 1/120 o f as econd i n time )
, V
a
-
t
he zero v oltage p ointw il
l h ave t rav- 0
•€'
e
led a d istance wh ich c an b e deter-
I
•
le4 P
.1%
,
mined b y mu ltiplying the v elocity o f
t
he w
h
alf c
ave b
ycle
y t
. T
he t
h
ime d
is d
uration f
istance e qua
or a
ls
6
0 t
h Aw
l L
c
ps
a
bou t 1 550 m iles ( 186,000 x )
1
20.
which i s a pprox i mately t he d is-
t
ance f rom N ew Y ork to Kansas .

D
ISTANCE TRAV
ELLED 1
550
m
iles
I
N 1/12
0 O
F 4SECOND
When a nother h alf cyc le o r atotal of afu
ll cyc
le h
as elapsed (
1/60 o
f a
s
econd ), ths z ero v o
l tage p oint wil
l have trave
led a d
istance o
f 3
100 mi
les
(
186 ,000 x -k-n)w h
ich i s t
he a pprox-
imate distaHee f rom N ew Y ork to
California. T his distance o f 3 100 14e /

miles is the w aveleng th o f t

he 6 0
c
yc le AC , w hich is the d istance that 60
t
he w ave trave ls d uring t he time in- c
ps
t
erva l f
or o ne c ycle. T he s ymbo l
f
or w aveleng th is the g reek l et
ter " X"

D
I57 4NCE T
RAV E
LLED
3
100 m
iles
I
N 1/60Of 4SECOND
S
imilarly t
he w avelength of a
ny frequency r
adiation can be determined by
mul
tiplying t
he constant veloc
ity by the t
ime f
or o ne cyc
le . Since t
he t
ime
f
or one cycle is equal to 1d ivided by t
he f
requency 4 .
), the wavelength
V
e
quals constan
t v e
locity over frequency (X= 7 )or the veloc
ity equals t
he
f
requency t
imes t
he w
ave
leng
th (
V = f)
.
)
. S
ince V i
s c
ons
tan
t, t
he h
igher
t
he f
requency
, t
he l
ower t
he w
aveleng
th a
nd v
ice v
ersa
.
From n ow on,
trans miss
ion lines and a
ntenna l
engths wil
l be d
efined in
t
erms o f waveleng
ths of t
he RF e nergy t
hey a
re to radia
te. F or examp le
,
i
fa n an
tenna is ah al
f o
f aw avelength l
ong i
t means that o
nly one-ha
lf
wavelength o
f the RF wi
ll be present o
n the a
ntenna.
4
-43
 TRANS MISSION L
INES

Equ
iva
len
t C
ircu
it o
f a Trans m
iss
ion L
ine

Atypical t
rans mission li
ne used to c
onvey RF energy f
ro m one po
int t
o
a
nother may c onsis
t of two para
llel l
engths o
f w
ire which are spaced a
par
t
a
t equal d
istances by insula
ting spacers as i
l
lus
trated.

An RF trans mission line will h

ave a certain amoun t of resistance , capac i-
t
ance and inductance along i t
s length
. The r esistance is si mply the re-
s
istance of t
he wire. The i nductance is genera ted by t
he magne tic fi
eld
(
caused by curren t f
low ) expanding and col
laps ing along the entire length
o
f the l
ine, and the capacitance e x
ists because t he two conductors o f the
l
ine act a
s plates of ac apacitor separated by ad ielectric (i
n the a bove c ase
a
ir). Since the line can be broken up into any n umber of sma ll segmen ts
hav
ing equal amoun ts of inductance, capacitance a nd resistance , the entire
l
ine can be represented a s consist
ing of as eries of L, C, Rn etworks c on-
nec
ted as shown .

4
-44
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

Charac
ter
ist
ic Impedance

S
uppose a n RF generator is connected across a trans mission line. The
RF generator impresses a v ol
tage a cross the l
ine
, which forces a current
t
o fl
ow. The amp li
tude o f t
his current will be d
etermined b y the res
ist-
a
nce, inductance and capacitance of the li
ne, which together make u p t
he
l
ine
's i mpedance. I fthe magn itude of t
he input current is measured and
d
ivided in
to the i
nput voltage, the input impedance ( Z
i n )o
f t
he line i
s ob-
t
ained. Ift
he l
ine i
s i
nfini
tely l
ong
, t
his inpu
t impedance d
efines t
he char-
a
cterist
ic i
mpedance o
f the l
ine
. The sy mbol f
or c
haracter
istic impedance
i
s Zo .

I
npu
t I
mpedance Charac
ter
ist
ic I
mpedance

When a p ure resistance l oads d own a generator, al

l of the p ower g enera ted
i
s dissipa ted by t
his r esistance. S imilarly when a genera tor s ends elec-
t
rical energy d own a n infini
te ly l
ong trans mission line, the elec trical en-
ergy trave ls down the line indefinitely
. I n o
ther w ords , all the electrical
energy tha t t
he genera tor puts o u
t is absorbed or dissipated b y the in
fi-
n
itely long line. The i n
finite line therefore acts l
ike a res istance e qua l i
n
value to its c
harac teristic i mpedance , Zo . The infini
te line c an there fore
be replaced b y ar esistance e qual to it
s characteristic impedance a nd the
generator w ill s
end t he same amoun t o
f power into the resistance a s itdid
i
nto the infini
te line.

4
-45
 TRANSM
ISS
ION L
INES

L
ine T
erm
ina
tion I
n C
harac
ter
ist
ic I
mpedance

I
f atrans mission l
ine i
s terminated in ares
istive l
oad equa
l to i
ts c
har-
a
cteristic impedance, t
he load wi
ll absorb a
ll t
he energy f
ro m t
he l
ine t
hat
i
s appl
ied to the i
nput b
y the genera
tor . This is t
he i
deal c
ondit
ion of
maximum p ower t
ransfer.

.
.. F
ORM
AXIMUM P
OWER O
UT I

LOAD

An e
xamp le of g
etting max i mum p ower transfer from a t rans mission line
t
o aload is t
he case o f aline feeding an an
tenna. I f acertain type of an-
t
enna, ca
lled a'half-wave d ipole' is used, the impedance a t i
ts center
f
eed po
int is 73 ohms . T herefore in order to ge
t max i mum p ower t ransfer
f
rom the trans m
iss ion li
ne t o t
he antenna, the characteristic impedance o f
t
he l
ine should be 73 ohms o r c
lose to it
. When t h
is is the case, the line
i
s sa
id to be "matched" t o the antenna.

.. M
ATCH
ING L
I
NET
OAN
TENNA

ZANT.

An
ten
sa
I
f
.. ZA
NT
. 13 n
•
••
f
o
r Maximum P
ower O
utpu
t
L
ine
Z
osh
ou
ld e
q
ual 1
3
1)
. .

To
t
r
a
nsm,t
e
r

4
-
46
 TRANSMISS
ION L
INES

Nonresonan
t a
nd R
esonan
t L
ines

When a transm iss ion line is ma tched t o al oad ( Z

i oa d = Z0 ), t
he AC volt-
a
ge measured a cross t he line a
t a ny p oint i s the same , discoun ting t
he
s
light vol
tage d rops i n the line d ue t
o i ts r esistance. The c urrent meas-
u
red a t a
ny p oint i n t
he l ine is also the s ame . Th is c ondition is shown in
t
he il
lustra tion b y equa l readings o n t he RF v oltmeters a nd am meters
p
laced along t he l ength of the line . The e ffec tive voltage a nd current d
is-
t
ribution along t he line c an be shown g raph ically by t wo straight li
nes i
n-
d
icating that the e ffective RF v ol tages a nd c urren ts a re equa l a
ll a
long the
l
ength of line. S uch a l i
ne i s c
al led a " f
la t" line or n onresonan t li
ne. A
t
ransm ission l ine w i
ll a lways b e nonresonan t if it is term inated i
n it
s
characteristic i mpedance , wh ich i s the c ond i
tion r equired f or maximum
p
ower t rans fer.

C
ur
ren
t a
nd V
ol
tage d
istr
ibu
tion a
long a H at L
i
ne
1
1
,

01-
L
ine l
eng
th

I
f ali ne i s not termina ted in i
ts characteristic i mpedance i tis said to be
'misma tched ;
' a nd a l
l of the RF e nergy traveling d own t he line is not a
b-
sorbed a t the l oad e nd. The amoun t o
f energy a bsorbed d epends u pon h ow
c
lose t he v alue o f the load i mpedance is to the charac teristic impedance o f
t
he line . S ince t he load of am is matched line does n ot absorb all of t
he
energy c om ing d own t he li
ne , part o
f the energy w h
ich i s not a
bsorbed mus t
b
e r e
f lec ted b ack u p the line. Th is energy w hich is r eflected is cal
led t he
"
ref
lec ted wave !' Am isma tched line therefore h as t wo waves f lowing
t
hrough i t, the f orward wave a nd the ref
lected wave . , These t wo waves
co mbine a ll along t he line (now called a"resonan t line ) t
o form a r esultant
wave c a
lled a " standing wave ."

4
-47
 TRANSMISS
ION L
INES

S
tand
ing Waves o
n a Rope

To better u nderstand h ow energy trave ls d own a t

rans m ission li
ne a nd how
r
eflections g enera te standing waves o n the line, cons ider a rope when o ne
e
nd is f as
tened t o a wa ll wh
ile the other e nd is h
eld i n the hand. When t he
h
and f licks t he rope o nce
, av ibration s tarts to t
rave l d own the rope. I f
t
he rope w ere inf
in i
te ly l
ong, the vibration wou ld con tinue down t he rope
f
orever . T his is equivalent t
o a n i
nfinite length o
f t rans mission l ine o
r a
f
la
t line in tha t t
he e nergy put i
nto the line is comp lete ly absorbed .

T
o
i
n
finity
. .a
nd t
he L
ong Rope

When t he vibra t
ion t rave ling d own t he r ope r eaches t he end a
ttached t o the
wall
, i tis r e
flec ted b ack t oward t he h and. S im ilarly when a trans mission
l
ine is m is matched , t he electr ical e nergy i s reflected b ack t
oward t he g en-
era
tor . I fthe h and v ibra tes t he rope a t ac ons tant rate, the ref
lected v i-
bra
tions c omb ine with t he o ncom ing v ibra t
ions t o produce standing w aves
a
long t he rope. A t s ome p oints along t he r ope, t he forward and reflected
v
ibra t
ions a re i n phase , r einforcing e ach o ther t o produce vibration o f
l
arge amp litude. A t o ther p oints they a re o ut of phase, thereby cance ll
ing
e
ach o ther , and t he r ope a ppears t o be mo tionless a t t
hese points
. I n a
s
im i
lar manner s tand ing waves o f v oltage a nd c urren t a
re for med on a
t
rans miss ion line w hen i ti s m is matched .

4
-48
 TRANSMISS
ION L
INES

Open a
nd S
hor
ted T
rans m
iss
ion L
ines

When a t ransm iss ion li ne is open a t its end, t he f orward a nd r eflec ted
waves c o mb ine a long the l ine to form p oints o f v ary ing e ffec tive v ol
tage
and c urren t. A t t he open e nd, t he effec t
ive v oltage i s a max imum a nd t he
e
ffec tive c urren t is zero . I tis e asy t o see t ha t t he c urren t mus t be z ero
a
t a l times a t the open e nd because i ti s an o pen c ircu it
. A lso s ince
charges b uild u p o n the o pen ends , al arge v ol tage d ifference w ill e xist
t
here . A t h alf-wave leng th distances f rom t he o pen e nd, t he v oltage a nd
curren t c ond it
ions w ill repea t the mselves , a nd b etween t hese h alf-wave
points the e ffec tive v ol
tage a nd c urren t read ings w i l
l v ary a s as ine wave
varies . The meter r ead ing in the i l
lus tration s hows t he v ar iations i n the
e
ffec tive v oltage a nd c urren t along the l ength o f t he l ine at q uarter-
wave leng th d istances f rom t he o pen e nd to the i npu t. The wave f orms
shown a re a ctua lly a plo t o
f these v ol tage a nd c urren t r ead ings a t differen t
points along t he l ine. The wave f or ms a re c alle dstand ing waves: Ob-
serve t hat t he s tanding waves c ause t he voltage a nd c urren t t o be z ero a t
a
ll times a t c er tain definite p oints along t he l ine . N otice t ha t w hen t he
curren t i s zero ,the v oltage is a max imum a nd w hen t he v oltage i s z ero ,the
curren t i s max imum .

When t he t
ransm iss
ion li
ne i s shorted at i
ts terminating e nd, t he voltage
a
t the o pen end must be zero b ecause n o v
oltage can exist a cross a s hort.
A
lso t he current at the s
hort w il
l b e a maximum b ecause t he s hor t pro-
v
ides a z ero resistance path through wh ich current can flow . J ust as i
n
t
he open-c ircuited line
, these v oltage and current conditions at t he ter-
minating end w i
ll repeat the mselves at one-half waveleng ths b ack from t he
short circui
t. Observe t hat the standing waves on the shor t-circu ited li
ne
have been displaced a distance e quivalent t
o aq uarter of a waveleng th
(
90 degrees ) compared t o w aves o n t
he open-circuited line.

0
4
-49
 TRANSM
ISS
ION L
INES

I
npu
t I
mpedance o
f aL
ine

I
n atransm ission l
ine term inated in it
s charac terist
ic i mped ance,the volt-
a
ge and current readings are t he same all along the li
ne. T herefore,the
impedance anywhere along t he line i
s constant and equa l t
o its character-
i
stic impedance. In other w ords :ifyou were to break o f
f the line anywhere
a
long its l
ength and measure t he i mpedance ( Z
i o )l
ooking in towards t he
l
oad end, the impedance v a
lue measured w ould always b e t
he s ame a nd
e
qual to t
he characteristic i mpedance, Zo ,wh ich is resistive.

When a transm ission l i

ne i s term ina ted in o
ther than it
s c haracter istic
impedance , i
tb ecomes r esonan t and d evelops standing w aves. T he input
impedance then v aries w ith the leng th of t
he line because the effective
v
alues of the curren t and v oltage v ary along the length o
f the line. A lso
t
he reactance of the inpu t i mpedance v aries, being somet imes r esis t
ive,
s
omet imes c apaci tive a nd s omet imes i nductive. Therefore , ar esonan t
l
ine has the charac teristics o f ar esonan t c
ircu i
t which p resents a r esis-
t
ive load at t
he resonan t f requency a nd an inductive or capacit
ive r eactance
o
n either side of the resonan t f
requency .

D
epend
ing o
n l
eng
th

o
f l
i
ne (
L
), Z
in i
s
s
omet
imes .......

4
-50
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

I
npu
t I
mpedance o
f S
hor
t-C
ircu
ited L
ine

A shor
t-circuited l
ine appears as avery low resistance at the shor
ted end
,
s
ince the v
oltage i
s minimum a nd t
he current is maxi mu m
. Th is l
ow re-
s
istance i
s repeated every half wave
leng th b
ack fro m the shorted end
.
S
ince the l
ine is c
alled resonant
, itis convenient t
o th
ink of the low re-
s
istance p
oints a
long t
he l
ine as ser
ies-resonant circu
its. F or example
,
t
he inpu
t impedance a
t ahalf-waveleng
th section o
f shorted l
ine i
s tha
t o
f a
s
eries-resonant c
ircu
it. Aq uar
ter wavelength b
ack fro m t
he shorted e
nd,
t
he current i
s mini mum and the v
oltage i
s max i mum . Therefore
,this is a
p
oint o
f high res
istance. Th is h
igh resis
tance p oin
t is r
epeated every hal
f
i
ave
leng th b
ack fro m t
he f
irst h
igh resistance poin
t. The high resistance
p
oints can b
e cons
idered to be p
aralle
l-resonant c
ircu
its j
ust a
s t
he l
ow
r
esistance poin
ts are s
eries-resonant c
ircu
its.

Between t he high and low resistance p o

in ts, t
he input i mpedance is e
ither
ac apacit
ive r eactance o r a
n inductive r eactance. F ro m zero t
o aq uar ter
wavelength b ack fro m the t
er minating s hort c
ircuit, the input i
mpedance i s
i
nduc t
ive. The i nductive reactance i s low in t
he vicinity of t
he shor
t c ir-
cui
t a nd increases in magn i
tude a s you a pproach the quarter-wave p oint.
Exactly at the quarter-wave p oint
, t he i mpedance is ap ure high res
is tance.

B
etween a q uarter wavelength a
nd a h a
lf waveleng
th, the i
nput impedance
i
s capaci
t ive reactance. The capacitive reac
tance decreases as the ha
lf-
wavelength po
in t i
s approached un
til
, a t t
he hal
f-wavelength p
oint, the im-
p
edance i
s ap
ure l
ow r
esis
tance
.

The t
ype and magni
tude o
f the i
npu
t impedance a
s seen a
t d
if
feren
t p
oin
ts
a
long the s
hort-c
ircui
ted li
ne is i
l
lus
trated be
low.

I
N
PUT I
M
PEDANC
E A
L
ONG AS
HORT C
IRCU
ITED L
I
NE

T
o
G
enerator

1
-
*
1
1*
- -
- X/4
X
/2 I
.I

1
-
* 3
/4 X o
r1

1
-
4
4
-51
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

I
npu
t I
mpedance o
f Open-C
ircu
ited L
ine

I
n the o pen-c ircuited l
i ne
, t he terminating i mpedance ( open c ircuit
) is a
h
igh r esistance a nd t
here fore acts l
ike ap aralle
l circu i
t. Aq uarter wave-
l
ength b ack t he input impedance i s alow r esistance a nd t here fore has the
c
harac ter istics o f as eries-resonan t circu it
. B etween z ero a nd one-
q
uar ter wave length back f rom the open circu i
t, the input i mpedance i s ca-
p
acitive, a nd b etween o ne-quar ter and one-ha lf waveleng th t he input im-
p
edance i s i
nduc tive. I fy ou compare the o pen- a nd shor t-c ircu i
ted lines,
y
ou w ill observe t hat f
or a g iven wavelength b ack from t he e nd, the react-
a
nces a re o ppos i
te to each o ther; where o ne is capacitive t he o ther i
s in-
d
uctive a nd vice v ersa.

I
N
PUT I
M
PEDANCE A
L
ONG A
N O
PEN -C
IRCU
ITED L
I
NE

T
o
G
enerator OPEN
s
lp
t
i

1
-
4 - 2 --
- -° I
I 3
/4X *1

The f
ol
lowing d
iagrams il
lustra
te dif
feren
t leng
ths of o
pen a
nd s
hor
ted
l
ines a
nd t
he i
npu
t impedance t
hey p
resent t
o agenera
tor.

I
tis o
bvious f
rom the above d
iagrams tha
t the term inal c
ondi
tions at t
he
e
nd o
f the l
i
ne are the o
nly f
actors wh
ich determ ine the t
ype and magni
tude
o
f t
he i
nput impedance a
t any po
int a
long t
he li
ne .

4
-52
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

F
requency Measure men
t Us
ing S
tanding Waves

Whenever s tanding waves exist on at rans mission line, t

he adjacent peaks
o
f vol
tage a re always one-half wave leng th a
part a s are t
he adjacent p
eaks
o
f curren t
. S im i
larly
, ad
jacen t zero p oints o
f voltage and current are a
lso
o
ne-ha ll wavelength apar
t. I ft he d
is tance between t wo ad
jacen t p
eaks of
e
ither voltage or current can be deter mined, the frequency of the RF can
5906
b
e c alculated using the for mula: f requency ( i
n megacyc les
) —

where "D" i
s t
he measured d
istance i
n i
nches b
etween a
djacen
t p
eaks
.

As tandard p rocedure f or d e
ter m ining t he h
igh frequency o sci
llations o f
an o scillator i s t
o u se a L echer w ire s e
tup. Ap ilot la mp i s coupled t o t
he
oscilla tor tank circu it u n
t i
l i tglows . T hen a short is placed a cross t he
o
pen t er minals o f the L echer w ire a nd moved s low ly b ack t oward t he
oscilla tor un t
il ap oin t on the l ine is r eached where t he s hort r eflects a
shor t a cross t he i nput t o t he line l oading down t he osci l
la tor tank circu it.
The o scillator d oes n o
t g enera te a s much p ower a s be
fore a nd the b ulb
's
brigh tness d i ms. As t he s hor t c ontinues to move d own t he line, t he re-
f
lec ted s hort a t t
he o scillator o utput disappears a nd the b ulb co mes b ack
t
o i ts o r
igina l brightness . S oon a nother p oint i
s r eached where t he shor t
reflec ts a s hort across t he o scillator o utput and again t he b u
lb flickers .
The n umber 5 906 div ided b y t he distance , i
n inches , between t hese t wo
points g ives t he frequency o f o scillations i n megacyc les .

5
906
F (
mc) = D
(in
)

MEASURING OSC
ILLATOR FREQUENCY US
ING S
TAND
ING WAVES

4
-53
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

A
ppl
ica
tions o
f T
rans m
iss
ion L
ine P
rinc
iples

Wi
th your understanding o
f h
ow trans m
iss
ion l
ines work, s
uppose you
l
earn about afew of t
he many a
pplica
tions o
f t
rans m
ission l
ines i
n
e
lectronic e
quip ment
.

Ashorted q
uarter-wave trans m
iss ion l
ine, known as a"stub," w i
ll of
fer
avery h
igh impedance a
t its i
nput. Itc an t
herefore b
e used a s a metall
ic
i
nsula
tor t
o support atwo-wire trans mission l
ine w
ithou
t s horting the l
ine
.

7Y4 ST U B USE D AS A ME T A L LI C I
NS U L A T O R

H
IGH
•

IMPEDANCE
7 t
Two-w
rans m
l
i
ire
iss
ne
ion

A/4

s
tub
(
ver
tica
l me ta
l r
ods
)

S
upport
ing
meta
l base

T
he s
horted q
uar
ter-wave s
tub a
lso makes a v
ery e
f
fect
ive f
i
lter f
or h
ar-
monic f
requenc
ies of the funda men
tal wh
ich one d
oes not des
ire to t
rans-
mi
t. F or t
he funda menta
l frequency t
he stub i
s ahigh impedance as was
s
hown above. F or t
he second har monic, the s
tub is now a h
alf wavelength
l
ong and w
ill act a
s as hort c
ircui
t a cross the t
rans mission l
ine
, s hort
ing
o
ut t
he undesirable har mon
ic and preven t
ing itfro m ge
tting t
o t
he a n
tenna.

LO W
IMPEDANC

/ "
1 -

4-
54
 TRANSMISS
ION L
INES

A
ppl
ica
tions o
f T
rans m
iss
ion L
ine P
rinc
iples (
con
tinued
)

An important a
pplica
tion o
f as hort trans miss
ion l
ine
, o ri
lt
uned l
ine s
ec-
t
ion
; a s i
tis cal
led, is t
o tune ou
t the reactance o
f aload on at
rans m
is-
s
ion li
ne thus l
eaving t
he load resist
ive.

For examp le, suppose a 3 00-ohm l ine is feeding a l oad wh ich l

ooks l i
ke a
3
00-ohm r esistance in p arallel wi
th a c apac i
ty . S ince t he l
oad is not com-
p
letely resistive, standing waves w ill exist on the line a nd maxi mum p ower
t
ransfer to the load will not be realized. I fa n inductance c ould be placed
i
n parallel with the capac i
ty, t o e
ffect ap arallel-resonan t c
ircuit, the
t
rans mission line wou ld look into the 300-ohm r esistive c omponen t i
n p ar-
a
llel wi
th the high r esistance o f t
he para llel-resonan t circuit
. S ince the
h
igh resistance o f t
he p arallel-resonan t circu it is so much g reater than
3
00 o hms, t he t
rans m ission line effect
ive ly s ees o n
ly t he 300-ohm r esis t-
a
nce. T he effect of t
he c apacity has thus b een c ance lled out.

The way to i
ntroduce a n i
nductance across the load i
s t
o place a quarter-
wave shorted stub
, w ith a movable shorting arm, across the l
oad ter mi-
na
ls. B y moving the short s
o that t
he stub i
s less t
han a quarter wave-
l
ength long, t
he inpu t r
eactance of t
he stub becomes inductive
. T he value
o
f th
is inductance c an be v
aried by means of the movable short un
til itcan-
c
els t
he c
apac
ity o
f t
he l
oad
, l
eav
ing t
he l
oad r
esis
tive
.

A
/4
M
IS MATCHED = 0 3
1
)20 H
igh
L
INE

3
00S
1 3
00E
2 / MATCHED L INE...
L
ine = 0 3
000 i No s
tand
ing waves
S
TUB ADDED Maximum power trans
fer

Quarter-waveline sect
ions are also u
sed a s t
ransfor mers or match ing de-
v
ices to connect c
ircuits o
f unequal impedances. I f alow impedance i nput
c
ircuit i
s to be c
onnected to ahigh impedance g rid circui
t, the input c
ir-
c
uit may b e t
apped down on t
he c oi
lof atank circui
t a s s
hown. I f atuned
l
ine is u
sed, the i
nput c
ircu
it can similarly be t
apped d own on t
he tuned
l
ine. T h
is is an example o
f at uned l
ine used as astep-up transfor mer.

Low
i
mpedance
i
npu
t
c
ircuit

Aquarter-wave s
tub can be used as astep-down trans
for mer t
o match a
h
igh impedance l
ine t
o alow i mpedance dipole an
tenna. T he l
i
ne is c
on-
n
ected t
o the h
igh impedance inpu
t of t
he stub and t
he an
tenna is c
onnected
n
ear t
he low impedance shor
ted e nd o
f the s
tub.

S
tub u
sed as
H
igh i
mpedance
l
ine astep-down
trans
for mer —

4
-55
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

Types o
f Trans m
iss
ion L
ines

Many d
i
fferen
t t
ypes o
f t
rans m
iss
ion l
i
nes a
re emp
loyed i
n e
lec
tron
ic
a
pplications. Each li
ne has a c
ertain character
is t
ic impedance, current
c
arrying c apac
ity, i
nsula
tion a
nd p hysica
l shape to meet apart
icular re-
q
uire ment. B elow a
re shown so me of t
he most frequen
tly used t
rans mis-
s
ion li
nes .

S
ingle
A s
i mple method o f feeding an an
tenna
Wire
f
ro m a trans m
itter is to use a s
ing
le-wire
t
rans mission line wi
th t he ground re
turn
c
o mpleting t
he c ircu
it.

Another type of trans mission l

ine c onsists of t
wo p arallel wires wh ich are
maintained at af ixed d
istance fro m e ach other by insulated s pacers. Since
t
he line i
s n o
t s h
ielded, losses o ccur , due to r
adiation a nd absorption by
metallic ob
jec ts. The u se of t
he l i
ne is therefore r es
tr icted to co mpara-
t
ively low-frequency t rans mission a nd i
ts hould be strung o nly in p
laces
where itw i
ll b e away fro m metallic objects and out in the open.

TWO W
IRE
L
_L
O
PEN L
INE I
nsu
la pacer : P
ted s 71ra
a lle
l w
ires
S
o me of t
he disadvantages o f t
he two-w ire open l
ine a
re overco me in t
he
c
oncentric li
ne wh ich is made of ac ylindrical c
opper t
ube with a t
hin con-
d
uctor running fu
ll length through the center. The inner conductor i
s kept
c
entered by spacers a nd the ou
ter c onductor is g
rounded t
o shie
ld the in-
n
er conductor. S ince the line i
s mechan ically r
igid
, itcan be used on
ly
f
or per manent i
nstallations.

C
ONCENTR
IC
L
INE Ou
ter c
onduc
tor S
epara
tor I
nner c
onduc
tor

The i
nflexibili
ty of t
he concen
tric line i
s overco me i
n the c
oax
ial cable
which consists o
f one or more inner conductors imbedded i
n a
n insulat
ing
material and covered wi
th a grounded copper braid. The coax
ial cable h
as
much higher losses than t
he concentric l
ine.

I
nsu
lat
ion Rubber c
over
ing7
C
OAXIA
L
CAB
LE
r
I
nner
c
onductor Grounded c
opper b
raid
ing

A
t very high f
requenc
ies the l
osses i
n a
ny o
f t
he a
bove men
tioned l
ines b
e-
c
o me excessive a
nd wave gu
ides must b
e u
sed. Wave gu
ides are made o
f
r
ound or rectangu
lar hol
low tubes
.

WO E
G
UIDE R
ectangu
lar h
ollow t
ube

4
-56
 TRANSM
ISS
ION L
INES

D
emons
tra
tion —Trans m
ission L
ines

I
n th
is de monstration a high- frequency o sc
illator i
s going to f
eed L echer
w
ires o n which s
tand ing w aves w i
ll be g enerated. The p resence of these
s
tanding w aves wi
ll b e shown w ith dif
feren t types o
f pickup devices. Y ou
w
ill also see t
hat the curren t and voltage p eaks are shi
fted a half wave-
l
ength when the end of the line is shorted . Ap rocedure for determining
t
he frequency output of an oscillator u s
ing L echer wires w i
ll be demon-
s
trated as will a method for d eterm ining the characterist
ic i mpedance of
atransm ission l
ine.

The t
rans m itter u sed for this d e monstration i s av ery h igh frequency
t
uned-line o scillator wh ich w ill oscil
late in the n e
ighborhood o f 160 mega-
c
ycles. T he o scillator is effectively a C olpitts oscillator with the tuned
l
ine act
ing a s the c oil o
f the t ank circuit and t he tube interelectrode c a-
p
acit
ies a cting a s the capac itor v ol
tage d ivider n etwork . The s che matic
a
nd equivalen t RF c ircu it of the oscillator are p ictured b elow. T he ca-
p
acit
ies r epresen ted in the e quivalent circu i
t a re the interelectrode c apac-
i
t
ies, a nd the induc tance L i s the inpu t reactance o f the less-than-a-
q
uarter-wave leng th shor t-circu ited trans miss ion line. T he oscil
lator w i
ll
a
lways o scillate a t the f requency f or wh ich t he tuned l ine is less t han
aquarter-wave length long . O ne of the pickup d evices i s an RF c urrent
meter whose c ircu i
t diagram a ppears b elow.
S
che ma
tic

B
+
S
horting
RF c
oupl
ing b
ar
RFC C
ircu
it d
iagram o
f
c
apac
itor
RF C
urrent Me
ter

HY75A

Less RFC
t
han
)
V4
R
RFC RFC
B—
RFC
To f
i
lamen t
To c
enter t
apped t
ransfor mer
f
i
lamen t t
rans
for mer c
enter tap T
o meter move men
t

4
-57
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

D
e mons
tra
tion —Trans m
iss
ion L
ines (
con
tinued
)

N
ext t
he i
nstruc
tor d
e mons
tra tes t
he ex
istence o
f s
tanding waves a
long t
he
o
pen
-ended Lecher w
ires, us
ing various i
ndica
ting d
evices.

The h
igh frequency osc
illator i s turned o n, and the Lecher wires a re en-
e
rgized. T he meter-type RF c urren t indicator is moved undernea th the
w
ires, a nd t
he d
istance of the loop from t he wires is a
djusted so that the
meter shows a maximum d e
f lection. Then t he me ter i
s moved s low ly
a
long the l
ength o
f the wire a nd the position of the maximum c urren t points
a
re noted. T he d
istance between t wo ad jacent current peaks i
s e qual to
o
ne-hall wavelength
.

O ddr iU g
.
:147
•
•
•CURRENT PEAKS ON
AN OPEN L
INE....

Max
imum r
ead
ing

„ •,

The meter indicator is p

laced a t apoint o
f max imum c urrent
, a nd the in-
s
tructor shorts the open e nd o
f the l
ine with a screwdr iver. T he reading
d
rops i mmed iately and t
he meter i s moved to the new c urren
t p eak which
i
s aq uarter wave length away from the previous c urrent peak posit
ion.
The short has displaced the s
tand ing waves one-quar ter wavelength from
t
heir posit
ion w hen the l
ine w as open. T he short is re moved and the de m-
o
nstration continues.

0
1
14 S
HORT
ED 1
/NE
• •The peak has b
een
d
isplaced one
w
avelength
.
M
inimum /
4
'4 •
r
ead
ing •

4 /4

4
-58
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

De mons
tra
tion —Trans m
iss
ion L
ines (
con
tinued
)

The pos
ition o
f current p
eaks can a
lso be shown u sing a p
ilot l
igh
t i nd
ica-
t
or. The p i
lot i
ndicator i
s p
laced across the open-ended L echer wires
and s
lowly moved along t
heir en
tire l
ength. When a c urrent peak is
r
eached,the bu
lb ligh
ts. Observe that t
he b u
lb lights at t
he same p oin
t
where t
he current meter had i
ndica
ted curren t p
eaks .

U
S
ING P
I
LOT 1
61/T T
O I
N
DICAT
E C
URRENT P
EAKS

,
\
T
o O
sci
llator\ \ / / e / /

•
The voltage peaks c an b
e found by u s
ing a neon bulb. The i ns
tructor ho
lds
t
he glass e nd of t
he bulb w
ith his fingers and moves i talong one w
ire,keep-
i
ng a wire f ro m t
he bulb i
n contact with the l
ine a
t all t
imes . The b u
lb re-
mains o u
t at the current p
eaks p reviously noted
, b ut l
ights up b
etween the
current peaks, r eaching maxi mum b ril
liance equidistant be
tween t wo c
ur-
rent p
eaks . The p o
int o
f max i mum b ri
lliance is avoltage peak.

U
S
ING N
EON B
ULB T
O I
N
DICA
TE V
OLT
AGE P
EAKS

I-
-
/ ,
\
./

B
oth v
oltage and curren
t peaks can be s
hown b
y us
ing a l
ong f
luorescen
t
l
igh
t. The light a
reas are vo
ltage peaks o
r c
urrent n
ulls
.

O
BS
ERV
ING S
T
AND
ING W ING A F
AVES U
S LUORESCENT L
IONT

s
, s
s E
- •, —
,

4
-59
 TRANSM
ISS
ION L
INES

D
e mons
tra
tion —Transm
iss
ion L
ines (
con
tinued
)

When a t
ransm ission line is t
erm inated i
n its characterist
ic i mpedance ,
n
o standing waves o f voltage or current wi
ll e x
ist on the l
ine
. T here
fore
t
he characteris
tic i mpedance of al i
ne can be determ ined by p
lac ing di
f-
f
erent values of resistance a cross the l
ine until t
he standing w aves d
is-
a
ppear o r are reduced t o am inimum . The v alue o
f the res
is tor which
p
roduces this resul
t is equal to t
he line c
harac terist
ic i mpedance .

The instructor turns o n the high frequency o scil

la tor and checks f or stand-
i
ng waves o n the line using t he meter- type RF c urren t i
ndicator . A s t
he
meter indicator is moved a long the line, the readings v ary from a max i-
mum t o am ini mum i ndica t
ing t he presence o f s
tand ing waves . N ext,each
o
f the resistors in turn is c onnected a cross the line, and a c heck is made
each time for the presence o f s
tand ing w aves. When t he curren t indicator
g
ives a p ract
icaly c onstant r eading along the entire length of the line, the
value of t
he resistor c onnec ted across t he end o
f t he l
ine is a pproxima tely
equal to t
he line charac teristic i mpedance .

When meter g ives

constant r
eading
a
long line, the l
ine
T
o p ower i
s properly
supply •••••• t
erm inated •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

T
er minat
ing
r
esis
tor

D
etermin
ing Charac
terist
ic
I
mpedance o
f aLine

4
-60
 TRANS M
ISS
ION L
INES

D
e monstra
tion —Trans m
iss
ion L
ines (
con
tinued
)

The i
nstruc
tor now demonstrates a procedure f
or de
term
ining t
he f
requen-
cy o
f ahigh f
requency o
scil
lator using Lecher wires
.

The pilot light a nd pickup loop a re c oupled t o the o scil

la tor tank c ircuit by
p
lacing t he c oi
l b etween the t uned l ine and t he tuning r od so t hat t
he b ulb
l
ights. Then , h olding a screwdr iver b y the insu lated h andle a nd w i
th the
metal s hank a t the input end, the i nstruc tor s horts o ut the line, and s lowly
moves t he s crewdr iver t
oward t he o pen e nd, k eeping t he line s horted. A t
ac ertain poin t the pilot l
ight di ms, i ndicating t hat the s hort is electrically
ah al
f wave leng th away f rom t he c oupling l oop a nd there fore i s loading
down t he osc il
la tor. T his poin t is c arefully n o
ted a nd t he instructor c on-
t
inues t o move t he screwdr iver t oward t he o pen e nd. Aga in a point is
reached when t he light d
i ms. T his p oint is one-ha lf w aveleng th away f rom
t
he p
reced
ing p
oin
t. T
he i
nstruc
tor u
sing t
he f
or mu
la F - 5
90-
D-
6
- - (
where F
i
s t
he frequency in megacyc
les and D i
s t
he d
istance i
n i
nches b
etween t
he
t
wo po
in ts
) calcu
lates the o
sci
lla
tor f
requency.

I
fthe meter-type RF current i
ndicator i
s u
sed i
n p
lace o
f t
he bu
lb, t
he cor-
r
ectly p
osit
ioned shor
ted p o
ints wil
l show up a
s adip r
eading o
n the me
ter.

D
ete
rs a
f
ef

4
-61
 TRANS MISSION L
INES

R
eview

TRANS M ISSION L INES — The p ur-

pose of at rans miss ion l
ine in a
t
rans m itter is t
o c onvey RF e nergy
f
ro m t he trans mi
tter to the antenna.
The c harac ter
istic i mpedance of the
t
rans m ission line s hou
ld ma tch the
i
npu t i mpedance o f the antenna,if
max i mum p ower t ransfer to the
antenna a nd there fore max i mum
radiated p ower is to be realized.

CHARACTER ISTIC I
MPEDANCE — A t rans m
ission l
ine has a c
haracter-
i
st
ic impedance (Z0)
. Ifiti
s t
er m
inated in aload e
qual t
o it
s character-
i
st
ic impedance, max
i mum p
ower is t
ransferred to t
he l
oad and no s
tand-
i
ng waves ex
ist o
n t
he l
ine
.

.
.MA
TCH
ING L
I
NE T
OAN
TENNA

Z A,N T.

x
ntenna
I
f
.. ZA
N
T 73 n
.
..
f
o
rMaximum P
owe
rOu
tpu
t
L
ine
Zo s
h
oul
d e
q
ual 1
3
_0
.
Z
o

.
t
o
t
ranswat
ter

STANDING WAVES — When a t rans m

ission line i
s ter m
inated i
n al oad
o
ther t
han it
s characteris
tic impedance, so me of t
he energy is r
eflected
a
t t
he end o
f the l
ine back t
owards the generator. The f orward and re-
f
lec
ted waves co mbine a
long t
he line t
o for m s
tanding waves. The v oltage
a
nd curren
t distr
ibu t
ion a
long an open and shorted l
ine are as s
hown .

4
-62
 ANTENNAS

P
urpose o
f a
n A
ntenna

The purpose o f atransm it

ting antenna is t
o c onvert t
he power de
livered by
t
he trans mission line in
to a wave c a
lled an"electromagnetic wave
'. T his
e
lectromagne tic wave has the un
ique p roperty of rad
iating t
hrough space
w
ithout the aid of wires. A ll a
ntennas w ork o n t
he sa me p
rinc
iple —the
a
ntenna c urren t g
enerates a n e
lectromagne tic fie
ld which l
eaves the an-
t
enna and r adiates outward as an electromagne tic wave.

The antennas you will b

e concerned with n
ow a re those which a
re designed
a
s trans mit
ting antennas. T hese wi
ll operate at much higher f
requencies
t
han the power lines and wi
ll be much more e f
ficient. H owever
, itis sti
ll
t
he current which flows in t
he an
tenna that causes the e
lectromagnetic
f
ield t
o be radiated.

E
lec
tro- Magnet
ic
waves

N ;
A
ntenna
I\ \
E
lectr
ical
P
ower

1.
T
rans m
itter

4*
.
•
•
••N
.
•••

A
n interesting exa mple of a n
tenna action can be observed by t
ouching y
our
f
i
nger t o t
he vertical input ter m
inal of a
n o sci
lloscope. Y ou wi
ll see a 6
0
c
ycle w ave f
orm o n the 'scope s creen which obviously must come from
y
our body. Wha t is ac
tua lly happening is t
hat your body i
s pick
ing up 60
c
ycle electromagnet ic w aves w h
ich are radiated from the many power
w
ires that carry 60 cyc le current. T he power lines are ac
ting as t
rans-
m
itting antennas although t hey were not designed for t
hat p
urpose.

Body picking up
6
0 c yc
les
r
adiated from
p
ower l ines

4
-63
 ANTENNAS

How a
n An
tenna Works

I
fthe w
ires of a
n open-ended t rans m
ission line a re bent b
ack a q uarter
w
avelength f
rom the open end
, a t r
ight angles t
o the l
ine, asi mp
le a ntenna
i
s f
ormed called a h
alf-wave dipole
'
', a'i
double
t uo
r aH ertz an
tenna .

T
he vo
ltage a
nd current d
istr
ibu
tion o
n t
he a
ntenna a
re t
he s
ame a
s o
n t
he
o
rig
inal t
rans m
ission l
ine
.

rB
end t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
n
e h
e
re
t
ofo
rm a

-A
valf * i
ac
a
t
Ve 1
lvo.-
I
4
W
ilt elilla
0
A
lthough the v o
ltages a t any t wo points on the a ntenna w ires (a
lso o n
t
he trans m
ission l ine), e
quidistan t f
rom t he e nds, are e qual in ampli-
t
ude, they are o pposite i
n p olarity just a
s t he e nds of at ransfor mer
w
inding are equal in amplitude b u
t opposite in polarity
. T he same holds
t
rue for c
urrent. T herefore, to indicate po
lar i
ty a s wel
l a s ampli
tude on
t
he wires t
hat compr ise t
he transm ission l
ine a nd antenna, the wave forms
a
re redrawn a s shown .

W
AVE F
O
RMS S
HOW
ING P
O
LAR
ITY A
NDA
MPL
ITUD
E

Observe t ha
t the stand
ing w aves of vol
tage and c
urrent i
ndicate t
hat
t
he a ntenna ends are points of maxi mum vo
ltage and min
i mum current
,
whereas t he cen
ter of the antenna is apoin
t of maximum c urren
t and
mini mum v o
ltage.

4
-64
 ANTENNAS

H
ow a
n An
tenna Works (
con
tinued
)

Whenever t here is adifference of vo

ltage between two points, an electric
f
ield is set up be
tween t hese po
ints. You learned in Basic Electricity tha
t
when a c apaci
tor i s c
harged , o
ne plate w
ill be p
osit
ive a nd the o
ther n eg-
a
tive. A s ar esult
, an electric f
ie
ld having a d
irection toward t he p os
i-
t
ively c harged pla te i
s b u
ilt up between the capacitor plates a s shown.
S
im ilarly, the voltage d
ifference between t
he two wires of an antenna also
g
enera
tes a
n e
lec
tric f
ield h
aving a p
attern a
nd d
irect
ion a
s s
hown b
elow
.

E
lec
tr ic F
ield o
f a
Charged Condenser E
l
ec
tri
c F
i
e
ld S
u
rro
und
ing
ag 74,
t
reio
ta

Bes
ides this e
lectric f
ield
, there is a
lso a magnet
ic field which i
s gener-
a
ted by t
he antenna current. The plane o
f t
his magne t
ic field i
s a
t right
a
ngles t
o the direct
ion of t
he current f
low a
nd therefore is at r
igh
t a ng
les
t
o the a
ntenna, as shown. T he elec
tric a
nd magnet ic f
ields must therefore
b
e a
t r
igh
t a
ngles t
o e
ach o
ther
.

M
agne
tic F
i
e
ld S
u
rro
und
ing
i
F
ie
R
lds a
igh
t
t Ang
les

a
f
t 4te
e#1
414

These e
lec
tric a
nd magne
tic f
ields a
lterna
te a
bou
t t
he a
ntenna
, b
uild
ing
u
p, r eaching a peak, c ol
lapsing , and bu
ilding up again in t
he opposi
te di-
r
ection, at the sa me frequency a s the a
ntenna c urrent
. I n the p
rocess of
b
uilding up and collapsing , ap ortion o
f these f
ields escape fro m t
he an-
t
enna a nd beco me the electro magnetic waves wh ich radia
te through space
c
onvey ing the t
rans m i
tted intelligence to d
istan
t r eceivers.

4
-65
 ANTENNAS

Bas
ic An
tennas

The h
alf-wave d
ipole o
r Hertz a
ntenna i
s o
ne type o
f bas
ic antenna wh
ich
f
inds w
ide app
licat
ion in many t
ypes o
f t
rans m
itting a
nd rece
iving equ
ipmen
t.

Ano
ther b
asic a
ntenna i
s av
ert
ica
l q
uar
ter-wave g
rounded a
ntenna s
o me-
t
imes c a
lled a.iMarconi antenna "
. Ifo ne o f t
he ele ments of aH ertz a
ntenna
i
s re moved and the wire that wen t t
o that ele ment is grounded, the resu
lt
i
s a Marcon i antenna. The e arth ac
tua l
ly t akes the place o
f one of t
he
q
uarter-wave e le ments so that the earth a nd t
he r e main
ing quarter-wave
e
le ment for m an e
ffective hal
f-wave d ipo le. T he c urrent maxi mu m and
v
oltage mini mu m points are at the base of the antenna a s s
hown .

BASIC VERTICAL A
/4 GROUNDED
ANTENNA (
Marcon
i)

ANTENNAS
D
IPOLE
ELE MENT

A
/4

Ground

When a Marcon i a ntenna is u sed, t he e arth directly benea th the a n

tenna
must be ag ood elec tr
ica l conduc tor . S o meti mes copper t ubing is d r
iven
i
nto the ground at the b ase of the an tenna t o i mprove the g round c onduc-
t
ivi
ty. On s h
ipboard a v ertical q uar ter-wave a ntenna may b e so me d is-
t
ance above the d eck. A s i mulated g round i s provided by u sing grounded
metal rods at l
eas t aq uarter wave leng th l ong and placing t he m at the base
o
f the antenna. Th is s i mu
la ted ground i s c al
led a"coun terpo ise:
'

S
ince a quarter-waveleng th d
ipole antenna is physically ha
lf as long as a
h
alf-wave grounded a ntenna, itis o
ften preferred at low frequenc ies
(
large wavelength) e
specia l
ly when there are s pace restrictions on antenna
mount
ings. A t h
igh frequencies the hal
f-wave length dipole is ex
tensive ly
u
sed because e ven t
hough itis longer than the quarter-wave a ntenna, its
o
verall l
ength w
ill b
e sma
ll, a
nd i
tcan b
e made o
f meta
l t
ubing wh
ich i
s
s
elf-suppor
ting
.

4
-66
 ANTENNAS

Rad
iat
ion R
esistance

I
n ah al
f-wave d ipo
le antenna, the voltage at the c
enter is mini mum (prac-
t
i
ca l
ly z ero) whereas t he curren t is max i mum . If you w il
l recall the
c
haracter istics of aseries-resonan t circuit
, y ou wi
ll re me mber that the
v
oltage a cross itis a
lso m ini mum a nd the current t
hrough i tis maxi mum .
A
t i t
s c enter, ah a
lf-wave d ipole is e quiva
len t t
o as eries-resonan t cir-
c
uit when o perated at the proper f requency . A g enerator t hat s
upp l
ies
p
ower t o as eries-resonan t circui
t works i nto a pure r esistance since
XL a nd XC c ancel each other —the r esistance being ma inly the wire
r
esistance o
f t
he c
oil
.

S
im i
larly
, atrans m
ission l
ine works i
nto a pure r es
istance when a h a
lf-
wave d
ipole i
s c
onnected t
o i
t. T his r
esistance consists of b
oth the ,r
e-
s
istance o
f t
he w
ire and a r
esistance ca
lled the Pr
adiation r
esistance: T he
r
esistance o
f t
he w
ire i
s n
egl
ibib
le, s
o o
nly t
he r
adia
tion r
esis
tance i
s
c
onsidered.

T
H
EIN
PUT I
M
PEDANC
EOF AD
OUB
LET L
O
OKS L
I
KE.
...

The rad
iat
ion resis
tance is no
t an a
ctual r
esistance. Itis an equ
ivalen
t
r
esistance wh
ich, ifconnected i
n p
lace of t
he antenna, wou
ld dissipa
te
t
he same amount of p
ower a s t
he a
ntenna rad
iates into s
pace.

T
he v
alue o
f t
he r
adia
tion r
esis
tance c
an b
e d
eter m
ined f
rom t
he p
ower
f
or mu
la, R =1),where P i s the p
ower r ad
iated from the an
tenna and Iis
12
e
qual to t
he antenna curren t a
t the c
enter of t
he antenna. F or a h
alf-wave
d
ipole the radiation resistance is about 73 o hms, measured at the cen-
t
er of the antenna. T h
is v a
lue i s f
air
ly c onstant f
or di
fferent fre-
q
uency h a
lf-wave d ipo
les .

A
/4 A
/ 4-
-*
-
1

t
he r
adia
tionr
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
nres
istance
I
mpedance l
ook
ing i
n

4
-67
 ANTENNAS

An
tenna Impedance

S
ince a h
alf-wave d
ipole a
cts l
ike a s
eries-resonan
t circui
t, i
tw i
ll exh
ibi
t
e
ither i
nduct
ive or c
apacit
ive p
roperties as t
he RF frequency a
pplied t
o
t
he an
tenna is v
aried
.

When the frequency of t

he RF i s j
ust r
ight, the dipole i
s exac
tly a h alf
wavelength long and i
s series-resonant, with it
s i mpedance resistive a nd
equa
l to the rad
iation resistance. In trans m
itt
ing i tis a
lways d esirable
t
hat the antenna presen
t ar es
istive l
oad to t
he trans mission l
ine s o t
ha t a
maxi mu m amoun t o
f power w i
ll be a
bsorbed b y the an
tenna and r adia
ted .

Op
ti mu m c
ond
ition

7
3S2
4 1111 = 0

im
l
i mm i9
F-4
6444
1- 1 =

‘
1
) 2 T
he r adiat
ion
P
edan c
e 1
°°* r
esistance

I
ft he frequency of t
he trans mit
ter goes up, t he an
tenna will b
e longer than
ah alf wavelength. T he series circuit i
s then operating a
t afrequency
which is above it
s resonan t f
requency. A t t h
is applied f
requency, the in-
ductive reactance i
s larger than the capaci
t ive reactance a
nd the antenna
a
ppears i nductive t
o the trans mit
ter.

D
ipo
le L
ONGER t
han A
/2 a
ppears I
N
DUCT
IVE
/
3" I
ENN
.
= ME
1 OEM.

I
fthe f
requency of t
he trans mitter goes down, the antenna will b
e slight
ly
s
horter t
han a ha
lf w avelength. T he series circuit i
s then operat
ing at a
f
requency which i
s below its resonant frequency. The c apac
itive react-
a
nce is l
arger t
han the inductive reactance and the antenna appears ca-
p
acit
ive to t
he t
rans mitter.

D
ipo
le SH ORTER t
han A/
2 a
PPears C
APAC
ITIVE

-
A
,
/2

4-68
 ANTENNAS

Tun
ing t
he An
tenna

You have seen that a

s the f
requency o f the t
rans mit
ter is varied
, t he elec-
t
rical l
ength of the a
ntenna varies as does the impedance a t i
ts input
.
S
ince itis desirable to h
ave the antenna i mpedance resistive f
or all trans-
mit
ter frequencies (for maximum r adiated power)
,t he an
tenna c an be res-
o
nated by adding inductors o
r c apacitors to e
ffect
ively increase o r shorten
i
t
s e
lec
trica
l l
eng
th.

F
or examp le, if avert
ica l quarter-wave grounded antenna is less t
han a
q
uarter wave length l
ong, its input i
mpedance at its base w
ill be resist
ive
a
nd capacit
ive . T he a
ntenna c an be e
lectr
ically lengthened (resonated) by
a
dding the right size inductor to cancel the capacity, t
hus leaving the
a
ntenna resistive
. The i nductor mus t b
e placed in series w
ith the antenna
a
t i
t
s b
ase a
s s
hown
.

RESONAT
ING A MARCON
I ANTENNA
-

J 1
X/4

l
ooks l
i
ke o
-V, WM —
I F-o l
ooks l
ike —
AN " —

I
f avertical quarter-wave grounded a n
tenna i
s longer than a quarter
wave
leng th, t
he input impedance at i
ts base i
s resis
tive a nd i
nductive.
The an
tenna c an be e
lectrical
ly shortened by a
dding the right size c
apaci-
t
or to cancel t
he inductance
,thus leaving t
he an
tenna r esistive
.

I X
/4

4
-69
 ANTENNAS

R
adia
tion P
attern

When an a
ntenna radiates elec
tro magnetic waves
, the rad
ia t
ion wil
l be
s
tronger i
n so me d
irec t
ions than i
n others. T he a
ntenna is sa
id to b
e di-
r
ectiona
l a
long the line of s
trongest rad
ia t
ion wh
ich is a
t right a
ngles t
o a
p
oint o
f maxi mu m c
urren t on t
he an
tenna .

A rad
ia tion t es
ter , c alled af ield streng th me ter ,
' can b e u sed to measure
t
he rad iation streng th a t a
l l po
in ts a round t he a ntenna. I ft hese fie
ld
s
treng th r eadings a re p lot
ted o n at hree d i mens ional g raph , the three d i-
mensiona l c urve obta ined w ill be the a ntenna r adiation p attern. T he r adi-
a
tion p at
tern f or a h orizon tally p os
it ioned h alf-wave d ipole i s doughnu t
s
haped a s shown . Observe t hat the t h
ickes t part of the d oughnu t pattern
i
s in ap lane wh ich i s at right ang les t o the antenna a t i t
s c enter. Max i-
mu m r adiation takes p lace i n this plane . T he t hinnest p art of the d oughnut
l
ies a
long i ts ax
is wh ich c orresponds t o the line of min i mu m r adiation. I f
t
he antenna i s ro
tated 9 0 degrees i n av er tical plane, max i mu m radiation
o
ccurs i n ah or
izon tal p lane.

Maxi mu m
Rad
iation
i
n t
his plane

Maxi mum
Rad
iation
i
n t
his plane
M
ini mu m.
R
adiation

The a
bove radia
tion patterns a
ssu me tha
t the an
tenna is i
solated i
n space
away f
ro m al
l g rounds. In ac
tual p rac
tice, t
he antenna i
s loca
ted near
g
round surfaces s o t
ha t t
he r
adiation pat
tern i s a
ltered appreciab
ly
f
ro m t
hat s
hown a bove.

4
-70
 ANTENNAS

Wave P
ropaga
tion

You k
now that t
he funct
ion of an a
ntenna is t
o radiate electromagnet ic en-
e
rgy in
to space
. O nce th
is energy i
s re
leased f rom t he antenna, i
tt ravels
t
hrough space unt
il itis picked u
p by ar ece
iving a n
tenna o r is r
eflected
o
ff a
n objec
t, as i
s the case with r
adar transmiss ion.

I
tis important to k
now w hat happens to ar adiated wave in space (name ly
,
what i
t
s path is
, ifi tis absorbed by t
he e arth, i
fiti s r
eflected by the sky
,
e
tc.) i
n order to t
ell how far t
he wave w i
ll travel before itcan be picked
u
p. T he study of wha
t happens to ar adiated electromagne tic wave o nce i
t
l
eaves the an
tenna is cal
led " wave propaga t
ion."

When a rad
ia ted wave leaves the antenna, p ar
tof the energy t ravels t hrough
t
he earth f
ollowing the c urvature of t
he e arth a
nd is called the " ground
wave." T he rest of the energy is rad
ia ted in a
l
l direc t
ions i nto s pace.
Those waves wh ich strike the ground between the trans mitter a nd the h or-
i
zon are called "space waves ." Waves wh ich l
eave the a n
tenna a t an angle
grea
ter than that between the antenna a nd the h
orizon a re "sky w aves."

The ground w ave, the s pace waves a nd the sky waves c ontain the trans-
m
itted intell
igence . H owever , a
t certa in frequenc ies one o f t
he waves w il
l
b
e much more e ffective i n transmitting the intelligence t han the others. A t
c
ompara t
ively low t rans m it
ted frequenc ies, mos t of t
he r adiated energy i s
i
n the ground w ave. S ince t he earth is ap oor c onductor , the ground w ave
i
s rapidly attenuated a nd therefore is n ot e
ffective for transm ission o ver
g
rea t d
istances u nless l arge amoun ts o f t
rans m i
tted p ower a re used. T he
s
tandard b roadcas t frequenc ies are e xamp les of trans miss ions using
g
round w aves . A t these f requencies t he e
ffec t
ive r adiating area i s within
1
00 m iles of the t
rans m itter. A s ar esult
,ne ighboring c ities more t han
1
00 m iles away from e ach o ther can trans m i
t o n the same f requenc ies a nd
y
et not in
terfere w ith e ach other.

4
-71
 ANTENNAS

S
ky Wave a
nd G
round Wave

At first one wou ld b e incl

ined t o think t hat s ky w aves c an s erve no useful
purposes s ince t hey w ill o nly t rave l straigh t o
ut i n
to s pace a nd get lost.
For v ery high frequenc ies t h
is a c tually h appens a nd t here fore the sky w ave
i
s u seless . B e
low a c ertain c ritica l f
requency , h owever , t he sky w ave
does n o
t trave l straigh t out b u
t i s bent b ack t o e
ar th in the u pper layers o f
o
ur a t mosphere . T his return ing w ave i s not sharp ly r ef
lected a s is l
ight
f
rom a m irror . I ti s b
ent b ack s low ly a s ifi twere g oing a round a curve ,
a
nd i s therefore c a
lled ere fracted w ave': T h is refrac ted w ave, once i t
r
e turns to e arth, is r ef
lec ted b ack t o the s ky again w here i tis once again
r
efrac ted b ack to e arth. T his p rocess o f refraction f rom t he sky and re-
f
lection f rom t he e arth continues u n
til the w ave i s comp letely at
tenua ted,
s
ince t he e nergy o f ar adiated w ave d rops a s it
s d istance f rom t he t
rans-
mitting antenna i ncreases .

A r ece iving a ntenna w il l be a b

le t o pick u p as igna l at every p oint w here
t
he r efrac ted w ave h its the e arth. I ft he s ky w ave w ere radiated t o the s ky
a
t o nly o ne a ngle , no signa l wou ld e xis t between p oints where t he r efrac ted
wave h its t he ear th. T he s ky w aves , h owever , a re r adiated at a ll ang les
t
o the s ky a nd there fore t he e arth's s urface ( beyond a c ertain m ini mum
d
istance f rom t he a ntenna ) is c omp letely c overed w ith r adio signa ls. A s
t
he a ng le of r adiation of t he s ky w ave i ncreases , a n angle is r eached where
t
he w ave is n o l onger r efrac ted b ack t o ear th but c ontinues trave l
ing i nto
s
pace . A s ar esu l
t,there i s az one a round t he an tenna i n which n o re-
f
racted s ky w ave hits the e ar th. T he g round w ave i tself is on
ly e f
fec tive
ashor t distance . T here fore ,the z one b e
tween t he max imum e ffect ive r a-
d
iating d istance o f the ground w ave, a nd the p o
in t w here t he f
irs t s ky w ave
i
s refrac ted b ack t o earth, i s a n area o f rad io silence ( no signa ls) c alled
t
he"sk ip z one :
"

L
ost Sky
Waves

T
he c
rit
ica
l f
requency
, wh
ich i
s t
he f
requency a
bove w
hich n
o s
ky w
aves
c
an r
eturn to e
arth, varies depend
ing u pon n
umerous factors s
uch as t
he
ime o
t fd ay, t
he time of year, t
he w eather
, etc
. A s aresult
,long d
istance
c
ommun icat
ion can some t
imes b e achieved w
ith f
requenc
ies w h
ich normally
h
ave n
o return
ing sky wave .

4
-72
 ANTENNAS

S
pace Wave a
nd F
ading

A
t frequencies above the critical f
requency , neither the g round wave n or
t
he sky wave c an be u sed for trans mission. A t these high frequencies,
t
he ground wave i s rapidly a t
tenuated a nd the s ky w ave is not r
efracted
b
ack to earth. A s ar esul
t,t he only radiated wave t hat c an b
e used for
t
rans m
ission at t
hese frequenc ies is one that t
rave ls in ad irect l
ine f
rom
t
he t
rans mit
ting antenna to the receiving antenna . T his type of t
rans mis-
s
ion i
s cal
le e l
ine of sight trans mission'
: a nd the radiated wave i s c
alled
a"
space wave
."

L
ine o
f s
ight transmission i
s u
sed in r
adar f
or detect
ing ene my c
raft
a
nd i
n sh
ip-to-plane communica
tion
. T he f
requencies used a
re usual
ly
a
bove 3
0 megacyc
les
.

L
INE OF S
IGHT TRANS M
ISSION

.
.K
ies i
n
,rad
ai
t.
S
pace waves

S
ome ti mes a receiving antenna picks u p two signa ls which h ave t raveled
a
long different paths from the same t rans m i
tting a n
tenna . F or e xamp le,
o
ne signa l may travel direct from the a n
tenna , a nd the other signa l may
h
ave been r eflected of
f an object. Since t he signa l paths are c ons tant
ly
c
hanging , the two signals wi
ll s ometi mes b e in phase a nd at o
ther t imes
b
e out of phase, thus tending to cancel or r e
in force e ach other. T he re-
s
ult i
s av ariat
ion in signal strength a
t t he receiver e nd called " fading."
•:
-
,-
z-,7
-
•,
3
-
..
-/
-7
-
er "7
?
-.
'2 115f
,
-

Iitl
1
1"1""
‘"'"

'
re e
l .I
v_ e t
i
f

P
e
•
•
.
‘1

Se, ••
•••
•
•
•

S
igna
ls r
ece
ived o
u
rorP
HASE

4
-73
 ANTENNAS

F
requency S
pec
tru m

The f
ollow
ing is a
n ou
tline o
f t
he c
o mponents o
f ar
adia
ted w
ave wh
ich a
re
u
sed for t
rans m
ission a
t var
ious f
requencies
:

Fro m 3
0 t
o 300 kilocyc
les ( l
ow frequency band
) the ground wave i s largely
u
sed for mediu m range co m mun
ication s
ince i
ts stabi
lity i
s n o
t affected by
s
easonal and weather changes . For very l
ong distance co m munication,the
s
ky wave is used
.

Fro m 3
00 to 3000 k
ilocycles (mediu m frequency band
), the r ange o
f t
he
ground wave varies f
ro m 15 t
o 400 miles . Sky wave trans mission i
s ex-
cel
lent a
t nigh
t for ranges up t
o 8000 m iles
. I n t
he dayti me
, h owever, sky
wave t
rans mission beco mes e
rratic, especial
ly at t
he high end of t
he band.

Fro m 3 t
o 30 megacycles (h
igh frequency b and)
. the range o
f t
he ground
wave decreases r ap
idly and sky wave trans mission is h
ighly e
rratic d
e-
pend
ing upon the seasona
l factors p
revious ly mentioned. Space wave
t
rans mission beg
ins to b
eco me important.

Fro m 3
0 to 3
00 megacycles (
very h
igh frequency b
and VHF),neither t
he
g
round wave nor t
he sky wave a
re usab
le , and s
pace wave t
rans miss
ion
f
inds major a
ppl
ication
.

Fro m 3
00 t
o 3000 megacycles (u
ltra-high f
requency b
and UHF
), s
pace
wave t
rans m
ission i
s used exc
lus ive
ly.

i11
1
11
11
1
i1
11
1
11
1
.
,
1
1
;0
1,

3
0 k
c 300 k
c 3 mc
.. Used f
or Com mun
ica
tion

4
-74
 ANTENNAS

D
e mons
tra
tion —Curren
t D
istr
ibu
tion A
long a
n An
tenna

The v
ery high f
requency t
uned-line t
ransmit
ter is s
et t
o osc
illate a
t a
bout
1
60 megacycles
. A t 1
60 megacycles
, aw aveleng
th i
s about 6feet l
ong
.
There
fore, aq uar
ter-wavelength is 1
-1/2 f
eet (
18 i
nches)
, w hich i
s t
he
l
eng
th o
f e
ach p
ole o
f t
he d
ouble
t a
ntenna
.

The i
nstructor c onnec ts a d
ipo le antenna section to each trans mitter ou
t-
p
ut t
er minal. H e then energ izes the trans mi
tter , and the oscil
la tor t
ube
f
i
lamen t s
tar ts to glow i mmed iately. Aq uick c heck for oscilla
tions is
made by ho
ld ing the glass e nd of an eon la mp and pressing o ne lead aga
inst
o
ne of t
he tuned l i
nes . I fthe la mp glows it means t hat RF is presen t a
nd
t
herefore t
he t ube is o sc
illating.

CHECK FOR O
SCILLAT
IONS U
SING NEON LAMP

Once osci
llations have b een verif
ied, the ins
truc tor d
e monstrates the
p
resence o f s
tanding waves a long the half-wave a n
tenna by ho
ld ing a f
luo-
rescent l
a mp close to and parallel w
ith the antenna. T he l
a mp is ign
ited
by p
lacing one end agains t t
he tuned l
ine. T he lamp glows at the ends and
i
s out i
n the middle.

FLUORESCENT LA MP S
HOWS
Wevj
e
4

L
ight l
a mp b
y
p
lacing e
nd aga
ins
t
t
uned l
ine

4
-75
 ANTENNAS

De mons
tra
tion —Rad
iat
ion P
attern o
f a
n An
tenna

To de monstrate the r adiat

ion pattern around t he antenna, aw ave me ter is
u
sed wh ich is made u p of ahal
f-wave a ntenna connec ted to an RF c urrent
meter. A7 3 o hm r esistor is p
laced a cross the antenna i nput for proper
t
er mination and a ger man iu m crystal d
iode a nd a capac i
tor a re connected
a
cross t he resistor. T he crystal recti
fies the RF a nd t
he c apacitor fi
lters
o
ut RF f ro m t
he r ectifier vo
ltage. T he DC m illia m meter is connec ted
a
cross t he capacitor t hrough two RF c hokes wh ich block RF b u
t p ass DC
t
hrough t o t
he me ter. When t he antenna p icks up RF r adiation, the me ter
d
eflects an amoun t p roportional to t
he intensity of the radiation.

The i
nstructor places t
he wave me ter f
ar enough away f ro m t
he trans mit
ting
a
ntenna so that t
he meter needle d oes no
t deflec
t off scale. T hen,the t
rans-
mit
ter frequency is v
aried until the meter goes through a peak reading. At
t
his po
int the t
rans mi
tting antenna is exact
ly a half-wave leng
th long and is
t
herefore radiat
ing at maxi mu m.

When t
he wave me
ter r
eaches
aP eak r
eading

t
he an
tenna is exactly a
Hal
f Wavelength long

Vary t
he
t
rans m
itter
f
requency

4
-76
 ANTENNAS

D
e monstra
tion —Rad
iat
ion Pa
ttern o
f a
n An
tenna (
con
tinued
)

Next
,the instructor shows the in
tens ity of the radiated f
ie
ld b y p
lac ing t
he
wave meter at d
ifferent p
ositions around t he antenna. T heoretically the
rad
iation in
tensity is maxi mum i n ap lane at r
igh t ang
les to t
he antenna at
i
ts center and i
s m inimum a t t
he e nds of the antenna. A ctua
lly this is no
t
so s
ince ground e f
fects and multiple r ef
lections around the room d istor
t
t
he r
adia
tion p
attern
.
MEASURING Max
imum meter r
ead
ing

I
i
7o
dia
.ti
onI
. nt
ens
ity

A
nte
rma

M
ini mum
M
inimum

Theoret
ical
Radia
tion
Pat
tern

Max
i mum
To show t
hat move men t o
f objec
ts n ear t
he an
tenna affect t
he radiation
p
attern
, t
he i
nstructor sets t
he wave meter d
own at ag
iven point and walks
b
etween t
he meter and the a
ntenna. Observe tha
t the meter read
ing v aries
s
harply a
s t
he instructor wa
lks about
.

MOV
ING OBJECTS AFFECT
RAD
IATION PATTERN

4
-77
 ANTENNAS

Demons
tra
tion —Rad
iat
ion Pa
ttern o
f a
n An
tenna (
con
tinued
)

The i
ns tructor de monstrates another t
ype of wave me
ter using a h
alf-wave
d
ipole c onnected t
o ap ilot l
a mp. When t he a
ntenna picks up r
adia
tion,
t
here w ill b
e a max i mu m o
f current a
t it
s center, which w
ill f
low through
t
he la mp causing itto ligh
t.

P
ink b
ead (
F\ P
ilo
t l
a mp a
nd s
ocke
tI

r
i
tTi
t
enna—

3
6

F
irs
t,the t
rans m
itter i
s r
etuned u
nti
l t
he b
ulb i
s b
righ
test
. T
hen
,the i
n-
t
ensity of the radiation around t
he a ntenna is de monstrated by mov ing the
d
ipole, para l
lel to the antenna, fro m the center out t
o either end. Observe
t
hat the bulb is brightest when t
he c enter of the wave meter dipole is l
ined
u
p with the center o f t
he antenna, and t he bu
lb goes o u
t when t he center of
t
he w ave meter dipole is in l
ine w
i th the end of t
he trans mit
ting antenna.

C
H
ECK
ING T
HE R
adi
ata
ig P
arte
ut
"

"

tI
r

BULB GOES OUT AT END

4-
78
 ANTENNAS

R
eview o
f A
ntennas

HALF- WAVE D IPOLE — A h a

lf-wave dipole a
ntenna c
an be c
onsidered a
s
apara
llel wire t
rans m
ission l
ine whose wires are b
ent a
t 9
0 degrees t
o t
he
l
ine a q
uar
ter w ave
length from the o
pen end.

rB
e
nd t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
n
e h
e
re
t
ofo
rm a

RADIAT ION — T he vo
ltage and current d
istribu
tions along t
he antenna
g
enerate electric and magne
tic fields a
t righ
t angles t
o each other which
a
re radiated in
to space as e
lectromagnet ic waves. T hese waves contain
t
he in
telligence of the modulating signal and can be d e
tected by dis-
t
ant receivers.

1
F
ie
R
lds a
igh
t
t Ang
11
-
les!

M
agne
tic F
i
e
ld S
u
rro
und
ing
r
i
lat
eiou
t

\-
1
-1

WAVE PROPAGAT ION — T he energy radia

ted from an a
ntenna c
ons
ists
o
f sky waves
, space waves and ground waves. E ach o
f t
hese i
s u
sed f
or
t
rans m
ission a
t f
requencies for which i
tis bes
t suited
.

4
-79
 CW TRANS M
ISS
ION

Advan
tages o
f CW T
rans m
iss
ion

You may re me mber fro m the in

troductory t
opic on t
rans m
itters t
hat a
message can be trans mitted by ei
ther code o
r voice
. Code t rans m
iss ion
i
s e
ither CW ( continuous wave ) or MC W (modula
ted cont
inuous wave )
. I n
b
oth cases t
he RF r adia
ted by the antenna i
s t
urned on and o
ff by ahand
k
ey in do
t and dash s equence.

CW t rans mission is used very wide ly. When a t rans mitter i

s modu lated b y
v
oice o r MC W, i tsends out not o
nly t he carrier frequency , but a
lso t he
s
um a nd difference (beat
) frequenc ies of the carrier a nd t
he modu lation
s
igna l
. These a ddi
tional frequencies a re c a
lled "sideband frequenc ies . "
A receiver , in order to p
ick u p av oice or MC W s ignal, mus t be b road ly
t
uned s o that itwill p
ick u p b
oth the c arrier and the sidebands. A s a
r
esu l
t t he receiver may p ick up an earby s ignal in a
dd it
ion t
o the des ired o ne
.
Th
is i nterference may make i ti mposs ible to understand the desired s ignal.

CW trans mission, on the other h

and, d oes no
t con
tain sidebands. N otice
t
hat t
he receiver would n ot need t
o cover as wide a r
ange of frequencies
f
or a CW signa l a
s it would for a v
oice signal
. Therefore , there is no
t
l
ike
ly to be in
terference when r eceiving a CW signal
. T his i
s the main
a
dvantage of CW o ver either MC W o r v
o ice
.

Carr
ier Wave F
requency

C W
I

Carr
ier Wave F
requency

\
_
,
S
ideband
I Frequencies

C
arr
ier Wave F
requency
\
S
idebands S
idebands

V
O
ICE l
i
1
11
1 O a k
There are many d i
fferen t c
ircuits which are u sed t
o obtain CW t rans-
mission
. They l ook different and operate d
ifferently, but each has the
s
a me purpose —to t urn the RF of the t
rans mi
t ter on and of
f. You w il
l
l
earn about so me of these circuits on t
he next few sheets
. I n t
he next
t
opic
,you will f
ind o ut more a bout MC W and v oice t
rans mission.

4
-80
 CW TRANS M
ISS
ION

C
athode K
eying

Regardless of t
he c
ircuit used, t
he CW o utput o
f at rans m
i t
ter l
ooks l
ike a
s
eries of pu
lses of RF s epara
ted b y g
aps of no RF. The g aps b
etween t
he
RF pulses occur when the key i
s up, while the l
ength of each RF pu
lse i
s
d
eter mined by t
he leng
th o f t
ime the operator ho
lds the key down.

T
he s
i mp
lest a
nd most c
o m mon
ly u
sed method o
f o
bta
ining CW t
rans m
is-
s
ion i
s by "ca
thode key ing." I n th
is type of circuit, the key is connected
i
n t
he cathode
's DC r eturn t o ground. Thus , when t he k ey i
s opened, n o
c
urrent can f
low and no RF c an b e r
adiated f ro m the antenna. When t he
k
ey is c
losed, t
he circu i
t o pera tes nor mally. The s tage tha
t is usually
k
eyed in t
his manner i s the master o scillator itself or the master oscilla-
t
or p
lus one or more of t he fo
llow ing amp lif
ier s tages.

4
-81
 CW TRANS M
ISS
ION

C
athode K
eying (
con
tinued
)

The d
isadvan
tage i
n u
sing d
irec
t c
athode k
eying i
s t
hat t
he o
pera
tor w
ill
get as hock ifhe g ets his f ingers a cross t he key contacts, while the key is
open. When t he key i s u p
, t he series c ircu it of t
he key, tube a nd B+ is
open at the k
ey a nd n o c urren t can flow . With t he operator's fingers
across the contacts , the c ircu it i
s c o mple ted and current flows. The
p
late res is
tance o f the tube a nd the res istance o f t
hat part of t
he o perator
's
hand across the k ey c ontac ts for m a v oltage divider circuit across B+ .
The resistance of t he opera tor's hand w il
l u sually be l
arge c o mpared to
t
he plate resistance , w ith t he result tha t mos t of t
he B+ v o
ltage w ill b
e
a
cross t he key and t herefore t he opera tor 's hand.

1
0K
Plate
Res
is tance

HO W A VOLTAGE DEVELOPS ACROSS

THE OPEN KEY CONTACTS

To sa
feguard the operator
, as ligh
t v ar
ia t
ion is made o
n t
his basic c
ircui
t.
The var
ia t
ion i
nvolves the use o
f ar e
lay . The k ey i
s c
onnected to al
ow
vo
ltage circu
it c
ontaining the c
oil o
f the relay
. When t he c
oil o
f the r
elay
i
s e
nergized, t
he c
ontacts o
f t
he r
elay
, which are i
n series w
ith t
he c
ath-
o
de c
ircuit c
lose
, per m
itt
ing t
he s
tage t
o o
perate nor mal
ly.

KEYING CIRCUITS
USING RELAY
R
elay

Con
tacts

L
-S
.
0
-
1
1
A
rma
ture
To
I
f c
ircuit
C
oil E
lectro-
K
ey magnet
I
nsulat
ion
To vo
ltage
The relay c
onsists of s
oft i
ron c ore,
s
ource
acoil and a
n ar mature which wil
l b e
Armature
a
ttracted t
o the core when the co
i l i
s T
o c
ircu
it
e
nergized, thereby closing the c
on-
t
acts
. As pring opens t
he contacts Re
turn
when t
he c
oil is d
e-energized. s
pring

4
-82
 CW TRANS M
ISS
ION

B
locked-Gr
id K
eying

Keying can a
lso be acco mpl
ished by changing the gr
id v o
ltage of the s
tage
being keyed. When t he key i
s open, t
he grid bias is many times c u
t-off
,
so tha
t the RF gr
id signal can n
ever bring the tube in
to conduction. A s a
result
, no RF signal appears at the pla
te. When t he key i
s closed, the
b
ias i s the n
or mal value for Class C operation and the s
tage o perates
n
or ma
lly
. Th
is t
ype o
f k
eying i
s k
nown a
s "
blocked-gr
id k
eying
."

I
n the circuit shown b e
low , the key (or r
elay
) c ontrols the DC b ias on the
g
rid of an inter mediate power amp lif
ier. Wi th the key o pen, the vol
tage
o
n t he grid is e qual to C - wh
ich i s many times c ut-off. Wi th the key
c
losed, t he grid is c
onnec ted to avoltage d
ivider wh ich p rovides nor mal
o
pera t
ing b ias t o t
he t ube. T herefore with the k ey down , the trans-
mit
ter i s send ing out a n RF signal. Th is s
igna l is i
nterrup ted each time
t
he k
ey i
s o
pened
.

T
he sa me i
dea can be app
lied t
o t
he screen g
rid
. The circuit o
n t
he right
i
s f
or screen g
rid keying. In t
his c
ircui
t, t
he vol
tage v
aries f
ro m a p
osi-
t
ive opera
ting v o
ltage, with t
he k ey closed, t o anegative blocking v
oltage
w
ith the k
ey o pen. When t he key is opened, the screen is connected through
r
esistor, R, to C - which is suff
icien t to c u
t of
f t he stage co mple
te ly.
When the key is c
losed, the screen i s connected directly t
o B+. The p ur-
p
ose of R is t
o limit t
he curren t f
low ing fro m C- to B+ when the key is
c
losed. I n t
his circui
t, as in the last, ar elay (
not shown ) i
s used in place
o
f t
he k
ey t
o p
rotec
t t
he r
adio o
pera
tor f
ro m h
igh DC v
oltages
.

B
LOCKED G
R
ID K
E
YING C
I
RCU
ITS m
i
lm am

4
-83
 CW TRANSMISS
ION

Keyer Tube C
ircu
its

Re
lay or k ey c
ontacts cannot c
lose or open c
ircuits a
s quickly a
s av acuu m
t
ube can start or s
top conduct
ing. There fore so me a
ppl
ica t
ions use one o
i
more vacuu m tubes t
o key the RF circu
its. These tubes are cal
led "keyer
t
ubes." There a re s
everal varia
tions of k
eyer tube c
ircuits, bu
t they a
ll
t
urn the t
rans mitter o
n when the hand key i
s c
losed and off when t
he key
i
s opened.

I
n t
he c
ircui
t shown b elow
, the keyer tube i
s connected in s
eries with t
he
c
athode o
f t
he power amp l
ifier t
ube. The t rans mi
tter wi
ll be on when the
k
eyer t
ube conducts and w
ill b
e off when the k
eyer tube i
s cut o
ff. T he
k
eyer t
ube can be keyed b
y any o
f the blocked-grid key
ing methods d e-
s
cribed p
reviously.
Power -
o
Ampl
ifier OUTPUT
I
NPUT 0--
I

KEYER
TUBE
C
IRCU IT
B
+
C
-

Asi mp
lified s
che ma
tic o
f another t
ype of keyer tube c
ircu
it is s
hown b e-
l
ow. Wi th t
he key o
pen,current f
lows through R-1 and R-2 producing a
l
arge vol
tage drop a
cross these r
esistors. Res istor R-1 i
s the PA screen
d
ropping resistor and r esistor R-2 i s the PA plate dropping resistor
. The
k
eyer tube current flows t hrough R-1 a nd R-2 causing the power amp li
fier's
s
creen a nd p
late vol
tages t o drop, thereby c ut
ting of
f the power amp lif
ier.
When the key i
s closed, C - is applied to t
he grid of t
he keyer tube so tha
t
i
twill be cut o
ff
. As a r esu l
t, t he screen and plate vol
tages of the power
ampl
ifier increase to their nor ma l values, the power amp li
fier conducts,
a
nd the t
rans mitted pulse i s radiated fro m t
he antenna.

Power
Ampli
fier OUTPUT

I
NPUT

KEYER
TUBE
-
2!
C
IRCUIT
Keyer
Tube

C
-

4-
84
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

Wha
t Amp
litude Modu
lat
ion I
s

The t
ype of vo
ice trans m
ission most co m monly u
sed is one in which t
he
ampl
itude of the c
arrier is var
ied i
n accordance w i
th the amp l
itude of t
he
v
oice signal. This method of modulat
ing the carrier is c
alled "amplitude
modula
t ion
." MC W t rans mission i
s amplitude modu la
tion in which a s
teady
a
udio frequency is u
sed, instead o
f vo
ice, to vary the amplitude of t
he RF
c
arr
ier
.

I
n add
ition t
o t
he o sc
illa
tor a nd power ampli
fiers, an AM trans m
itter con-
t
ains a modulator, which a ppl
ies the audio frequency s
ignal to the PA
where it i
s co mb
ined w ith the RF c arr
ier wave . Ab lock d
iagram o f a
t
ypical v
oice AM trans mitter is s
hown below.

1
1
1
1
11
1
1
11
1
11
1
1
11
1 1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
l
o
Ok

Aud
io
Ampli
fier

I
n the opera
tion o
f an AM trans mitter
, i tis essential t
hat t
he modu la
tor
un
it b e o
n d
uring t
rans mission because the in
telligence that i
s to b
e trans-
mitted must c
o me t
hrough the modu lator. Ift he modulator is e
ither of
f
or defect
ive
, only un modu
la ted RF will b
e trans mitted and a r
eceiver at
s
o me d
istan
t p
oin
t w
ill n
ot r
ece
ive a
ny message
.

MODULATOR of MODULATOR O
N

'42\
1
1
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
111
1
1
Un modulated
RF

4
-85
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

S
idebands

When a n RF c arrier i s amp litude modu lated, t he effect is to add n ew f re-

quenc ies t o the t rans m it
ted s igna l i n addition t o the o rig
ina l carr ier fre-
quency . F or e xa mple , ifi n MC W t rans m ission a 5 00 k c carrier i s modu-
l
ated w i
th a 2 000 c ycle a udio n ote, t he frequenc ies r adiated by t he a n
tenna
w
i ll conta in, i n a ddi
tion t o the c arr ier f requency , the s um ( 502 k c) and
d
ifference ( 498 k c) frequenc ies b etween t he c arr ier a nd the modu lating
a
ud io frequency . These n ew frequenc ies a re c alled " sidebands" —the
h
igher f requency b eing k nown a s t he " upper s ideband" a nd the l ower f re-
q
uency t he " lower s ideband ." The r ange o f frequenc ies t rans m itted fro m
t
he lower s ideband t o the upper s ideband i s known a s the "bandw idth" of
t
he trans m iss ion. I n the above e xa mple t he b andw idth is 4k c —fro m 4 98
k
c t o 502 k c. I ft he modu lating a ud io s ignal is r educed i n frequency f ro m
2
000 t o 1000 c ycles, t he sidebands w il
l b e closer t o t he carrier f requency
a
nd t he b andw idth w ill be only 2 k c. I ti s the s ideband f requenc ies, a nd
n
ot the c arrier f requency , t hat c on tain the inte lligence o f t
he t rans m ission.
I
f
, f or e xa mp le , a n MC W r eceiver were t o pick u p only t he carr ier a nd
e
xc lude t he s idebands , n o intel
ligence wou ld b e h eard.

iBandw
idth 1-
4—

Lower Upper
S
ideband I S
ideband

4
98 5
00 5
02

2kc F
requency-kc
modu
lat
ion
I
n av
oice t
rans m
iss
ion
, t
he modu
lat
ing s
igna
l c
onta
ins many f
requenc
ies
—so me a
s high a
s 5000 cycles p
er s econd
. A s ar esu
lt, vo
ice t
rans m
is-
s
ions c
ontain many s
idebands (one sideband for each f
requency
) which may
b
e as much as 5kc above and 5 k
c below the carr
ier frequency
. Th
is type
o
f t
rans m
ission, t
herefore, may c over a range o
f frequenc
ies 10 k
c wide.

C
arr
ier
L
ower S
ideband , U
pper S
ideband
Vo
ice
Modu
lat
ion
11
1
111
1
111
1
1fi
l 1
1
1 1
1
11
11
11
1i
111
1„
.1
111 11
.11
1
11
111
111
1
111 k
til
i
! 1
1
4
95 5
00 5
05

Bandwidth
1
0kc

4
-86
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

How Modu
lat
ion I
s Acco mp
lished

I
n a
n u
n modu
lated t
rans m
itter
, t
he amp
litudes o
f t
he p
late c
urren
t p
ulses
i
n the Class C amp lifiers are the sa me, cycle a
fter cycle. These p la te
current pulses flow to an LC circuit which is t
uned to the RF frequency o r
a mult
ip le o
f it
. The p ulses o
f c urrent del
iver a certain amoun t o
f p ower
t
o the tuned circuit and th
is power r e mains the s
a me for each cycle.
Therefore.the amp li
tude o f RF voltage across the t
uned c ircu
it re mains the
s
a me f
or e
very c
ycle
.
^
+
0 —
, -
,
+
0 —
.0,

When t
he trans mi
tter is modu
lated, the amp
litude o
f t
he p
late c
urrent
pu
lses is made to v
ary according t
o the amp
litude o
f t
he modula
ting s
ignal
.
Thus t
he amplitude of t
he RF curren
t v ar
ies f
ro m o
ne cyc
le t
o the n
ext a
nd
t
he p
ower de
livered to t
he t
uned c
ircui
t a
lso var
ies. This v
ary
ing power
c
auses t
he R F v
oltage a
cross t
he t
uned c
ircu
it to v
ary
. These var
iat
ions
w
ill f
ol
low the modulating s
igna
l i
n amp
litude a
nd f
requency
. Th
is i
s h
ow
modulat
ion i
s acco mp
lished.

VO
ICE

Modulat
ing
S
ignal
-

P
late Curren
t

+
]
Pu
lses
1
1
1
1 0

Voltage
+
+
0- I
I
A
T
cross
uned
0- I
I
- Circuit

4
-87
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
he Modu
lator

I
n MC W and v o
ice amp li
tude modu lation, a modulator is used t
o i mpress
t
he audio o
n the RF. F or voice, the modulator is no
thing more t han an
o
rdinary audio amplif
ier wh ich provides the vo
ltage o r p
ower n eeded to
v
ary the amplitude o
f the trans mi
tter's RF . F or MC W , the modulator
c
ontains an audio o
scillator which drives the a
udio amp li
fier. T he o u
tput
i
s ap ure s
ine wave wh ich varies the amplitude o
f the RF p u
lses in the
s
a me manner a s t
he amp litude o
f the audio var
ies.

S
ince t
he modulator i
s connected t
o the stage of t
he t
rans mi
tter tha
t is t
o
b
e modulated, i
ts o
utput must be o
f suff
ic ien
t power to p
roduce the neces-
s
ary var
iations o
f curren
t in the modulated stage o
f t
he trans m
itter. F or
t
h
is reason
, C lass B push-pu
ll amp
lif
iers a
re o
ften u
sed a
s t
he f
ina
l s
tage
i
n t
he modula
tor u n
it.

The f
ollowing s chentat
ic i l
lustrates a p ush-pull amplif
ier w hich can be u
sed
a
s a modu lator. I tis al most exact
ly t he sa me as t
he p ush-pull ampl
ifier
s
hown i n Volume 2 o f Basic Electron ics. T he only d
ifference l i
es in t
he
modulation transfor mer wh ich has a different t
urns ratio and higher curren
t
c
apacity than the previous ly used output transfor mer
.

P
USH-PUL
L A
MPL
IFIER

F nst
a
7
o
mit
ter

The modu lat

ing v oltage may be appl
ied in s eries w ith a
ny of the t
ube's ele-
ments. T he na me of the t
ype o
f modu lat
ion u sed d epends o n t
he t
ube cle-
ment to which the s econdary w
inding of the modu lat
ion transfor mer is con-
n
ected. F or exa mp le, p
late modulation is achieved b y connecting t
he out-
p
ut of t
he modu la tor in ser
ies wi
th the plate circu i
t. O ther types of modu-
l
ation used with triode tubes a
re grid modu lation a nd cathode modulation.
I
n pentode tubes, s creen grid modulation or s uppressor g rid modulation
may be used in place o f t
he o
ther me thods.

4
-88
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

P
late Modu
lat
ion

I
n the s
i mp l
ified circui
t of the power amp li
fier shown b elow, t
he modu-
l
at
ing aud io voltage is appl
ied to the p
late of t
he tube. The a udio vo
ltage,
s
ince itis in series with the DC plate supply vo
ltage, w ill c
ause the t
ota
l
a
pplied plate voltage to vary above and below B+ b y an amount equal t
o
t
he peak a udio vol
tage a nd at arate equal t
o the f
requency o f t
he audio
.

S
i mp
lif
ied c
ircu
it f
or

Pa
te i
foo
tat
ati
ept

While t
he applied p late
v
oltage is varying , a
c
onstant amplitude o f RF
i
s being f
ed to the grid of C
ut-o
ff
t
he tube f
ro m the o u
tput B
ias
o
f the p
revious s tage, the F
ixed g
rid
I
PA . S
igna
l

During t he positive c y- +3
00 V
c
les o f the audio , t he
p
late v oltage of t he PA Modulating
0 v
oltage
i
s higher t han B+ a nd a s
ar esult more p late c ur-
-300 V
rent flows . There fore,
+
800 V
on the p ositive h alf-
cycles o f t
he AF modu- Varying
l
ating v oltage, ag rea ter B+ p
late supply
RF v oltage is d eve loped vol
tage
across t he tuned c ircu it
. 0
During t he nega tive c y-
c
les o f the audio , t he
p
late v oltage i s lower R
esultant
t
han B+ , resu lt
ing i n p
late
l
ess c urren t flow a nd c
urrent
l
ess v oltage d eve loped .
0
As ar esult
,t he amp l
itude
o
f the o utput v o
ltage
varies i n t
he manner
shown. The wave i l
lus-
t
rated i s an amp litude Resul
tant
modu lated wave . o
utput
0 vo
ltage

4
-89
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

G
rid Modu
lat
ion

I
fthe a
udio voltage is a
pplied i
n the gr
id circui
t ins
tead of t
he p
late c
ir-
c
uit
, you have grid modulation
. T he e
ffect o
f the modula
ting vo
ltage i
s to
v
ary t
he grid bias at a
n audio ra
te. A s ar esult o
f th
is, the p
late cur-
r
ent t
hat flows d ur
ing e ach RF c yc
le w i
ll vary as the grid b
ias in-
c
reases and decreases.

RF
I
NPUT

0
MOD
. RF
OUTPUT
0

B
+
PA

MODULATOR
C
- j G
rid V
oltage
I
n the a ccompany ing wave f or ms y ou 0
c
an s ee t hat t he t otal g rid v o
ltage i s
0 —RF
-
t
he s um o f t hree v oltages —the RF
i
nput v oltage , t he AF modu la ting
voltage a nd t he DC b ias v ol
tage . CUT
- OFF
B
IAS
Dur ing t he p os itive h alf-cyc les o f
t
he modu la t
ing v oltage t he bias d e-
creases a nd d ur ing t he n egative h al
f-
cycles, t he b ias i ncreases . S ince \ Modula
ting
t
he RF w i ll always v ary a bout t he Vo
ltage
b
ias l eve l, t he p ositive c ycles o f RF
P
late
are r a
ised d ur ing p os it
ive modu la-
C
urrent
t
ion p eaks a nd d epressed d uring t he
negative modu la tion p eak . A s ar e -

sul
t, t he p late c urren t pulses a re 0-11
111
11
11
1 1
1
1
11
11
. 1
1
1
11
11
l
arger i n amp li tude d ur ing the p osi-
t
ive h alf-cyc les o f t
he a udio v ol
tage
t
han d ur ing t he n egative h al
f-cyc les.

I
H
I
S
ince t he v o
ltage d eve loped a cross
t
he p late t ank v aries w i
th t he pla te
c
urren t amp litude , the RF o u
tpu t
v
oltage a lso v aries a ccord ing t o the
modu lating s igna l.

Grid modu la
tion is used in compact or mob i
le t rans m
itters b
ecause this
t
ype of modu lat
ion d oes no
t require a modulator w i
th a l
arge power outpu
t.
When the modu lator
's w eight i
s on
ly a minor cons idera
tion, p
late modu-
l
at
ion w i
th the larger modu lator i
trequires is used because i
tp roduces
much better results than gr
id modulat
ion.

4
-90
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

O
ther Me
thods o
f Modu
lat
ion

P
late v
oltage has a
l most n
o effect on t
he pla
te current i
n apentode o r a
t
e
trode and in t
hese tubes p
late modu la
tion is n
ever used. Instead the
a
udio v
oltage i
s applied t
o the screen grid a
nd the r
esults a
re al most iden-
t
i
cal t
o those o
f pla
te modu lat
ion w i
th a tr
iode.

S
creen G
rid Modu
lat
ion
RF
I
NPUT

T
he v
aria
tions i
n s
creen v
oltage Aud
io
OUTPUT
MODULATED

c
ause the amplitude of t
he RF
p
ulses of p
late current t
o vary
a
nd this c
auses the output t
o be
modulated b
y the audio s
ignal.

Modulat
ion can also t
ake place when t he audio ou
tput of t
he modu lator is
c
onnected i
n the circuit o
f the s uppressor g rid. With a negat
ive v oltage
o
n it
, the s
uppressor c an control pla
te c urrent t
he s ame way a contro l
g
rid can, e
xcep t t
hat the t
ube i s less sensit
ive to vol
tage changes o n the
s
uppressor. O f course, only p entode tubes w h
ich have ex
terna l connections
t
o t
he suppressor c an use this type of modula t
ion. T he operation is very
s
imilar to control grid modu lation and the modu lator does n ot need a
l
arge p
ower o
utpu
t.

S
uppressor G
ri0 Modu
lat
ion
RF
I
NPUT
MODULATED
OUTPUT
0
Aud
io I

C
- B+
I
fthe audio v ol
tage w ere a pp
lied to the cathode (or fi
lamen t) of t
he t ube,
t
he cathode's v ol
tage wou ld vary with r espect to ground. T his w ould h ave
t
he same e ffect as app ly
ing t he aud
io v oltage to every other ele ment in the
t
ube si mul
taneous ly
; a pplying the voltage to the cathode causes the v oltage
o
n every other t ube elemen t to v
ary w ith respect to the ca
thode . T here-
f
ore cathode modula tion i s
, i n e
f
fect, ac omb inat
ion o f t
he other types o f
modulation. T he only difference is that as the cathode's vol
tage i s r a
ised,
t
he curren t decreases .
C
athode Modu
lat
ion

MODULATED
OUTPUT
0

4
-91
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
i me B
ase Modu
lat
ion P
attern

The oscil
loscope can b e u
sed t o good advantage to i
ndicate the extent t
o
which t
he o u
tput o
f at ransm i
tter i s modulated. Itc an also po
in t ou
t dis-
t
ortion exist
ing in t
he modu lation. I f apickup l
oop, wh ich is connected t
o
t
he 'scope input t
er m
ina ls
, is b rought close t
o the p
late tank coil in t
he
o
utput circuit o
f a modulated trans mitter, the '
scope will show the modu-
l
ation pattern.

T
IME
-BAS
E

i
goi da
t
it "-
Pa"

I
fthe modulating v ol
tage i
s as ine w ave
(
as in MCW ) and the sweep (called the
t
ime-base) isp roduced inside t he os-
c
il
loscope,the pattern on t
he r ight is
o
btained. T h
is p attern i
s usefu l in de-
t
erm in
ing the presence of distor t
ion.

Ap at
tern s uch as this would i
nd icate
t
hat the positive peaks of t
he modu-
l
at
ing v oltage are not causing corre-
s
pond ing peaks in plate current. T his
may b e due to improper g r
id bias,
s
atura t
ion d ue t
o low em ission, o r i
n-
s
ufficient excita
tion of the power am-
p
li
fier s tage.

I
ft he t
ransm it
ter o u
tpu t shows breaks
i
n the modu lation pattern, the t
rans-
mitter is sa
id t o be "over- modulated."
This is usually due to excessive modu-
l
ating voltage b ut may also be due to
i
nsu f
ficient signal voltage on t
he g r
id
o
r e xcessive g rid b
ias v o
ltage.

4
-92
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
rapezo
id F
igure

The t rapezo id figure is another t ype o f o

scilloscope p attern t hat is of
ten
u
sed t o d
e ter mine t he presence o f d istortion in the modu la ted signal a nd
a
lso h ow much t he signal is b e
ing modu lated. T he trapezo id figure h as
t
he a dvantage o f mak ing poss ible the d etection of certain t ypes of distortion
which c anno t be detected b y means o f the t
ime -base p at
tern . T o produce
t
he t rapezo id figure , the modu la
ting s ignal i
s u sed as an e xternal h orizon-
t
al s weep s ignal ins tead of the interna l sweep of the 'scope . T he vertical
d
ef lection i s s
till the modu lated RF o utput of t
he trans m itter. T he ad-
v
an tage o f using t rapezoid f igures o ver time-base modu lation patterns t o
a
na lyze t he opera tion of at ransm i
t ter i s t
hat they are e asier t o i
nterpret .

Atypical s
et-up f
or showing t
rapezo id f
igures i
s i
llustrated b
elow. T he
v
ertical i
nput o
f t
he 'scope i
s coupled t
o the p
late co
il of t
he power ampli-
f
i
er a nd t
he hor
izonta
l input i
s coupled t
o the a
udio output o
f t
he modulator.

I
n o
rder t
o unders
tand how t
rapezo
id figures are for med, you h
ave to k
now
s
omething a
bout t
he a
ction o
f t
he v
ert
ica l and hor
izon tal p
lates i
nside t
he
c
athode r
ay t
ube
.

S
et-up f
or o
bserv
ing T
rapezo
id f
igures

Modulat
ing
s
ignal

To
modu
lator

4
-93
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
rapezo
id F
igure (
con
tinued
)

The picture you see on a n oscil

loscope s creen is t
he path fol
lowed b y a
b
eam o f e
lectrons striking the inner surface of t
he cathode r ay tube.
I
n the cathode ray tube there a re two pairs of meta
l plates w hich deflec
t
t
he electron beam f rom i ts path. The top and bot
tom p lates are c a
lled
"
ver t
ica l p
lates" because t hey move t he elec
tron beam v er
tica l
ly. T he
l
eft and righ
t plates are c a
lled " horizontal p
lates" and they move t he
e
lectron b eam horizon tal
ly f rom left t
o right
.

The vertical plates are c onnec ted to t

he signal under o bserva tion. Th is
s
ignal displaces t he electron b eam i n av ert
ical direct ion. U nder n or mal
o
perating c onditions, the h orizontal plates are connec ted t o the output of
a
n oscillator b u
ilt i
nto t he oscilloscope. T his oscillator, c alled esweep "
o
scil
la tor, g enerates a s aw too th v
oltage w hich s weeps t he electron b eam
a
cross t he face of t
he ' scope s creen, from l eft t
o righ t, at ac ons
tan t
s
peed. I fthe input signa l t
o the vertical plates is the fam il
iar s ine wave
o
f vo
ltage , the c ombined a ction of this signal and the h orizontal s weep act-
i
ng on the electron beam p roduce t he sine wave p icture.

S
ome t
imes t he i
nterna
l hor
izontal sweep i
s d
isconnected a
nd an e
xternal
s
ignal i
s used as t
he sweep v
oltage
. T h
is i
s what i
s done t
o p
roduce the
t
rapezoid f
igure
.
Y-Inpu
t X-Inpu
t
T
er minals , T
erm inals

Sweep V
oltage

A / V
I

Oscil
la tor
Horizon ta
l
Sweep
C
ircu it

Vertical
D
eflection Horizonta
l
P
lates Def
lection
P
lates

ZeS
et
yveDv
iec
tron n
ta
tes
4
-94
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
rapezo
id F
igure (
con
tinued
)

Modula
ting
Vo
ltage

The trapezoid f
igure i
s produced i
n the fol
low ing manner. When the mod-
u
lating vol
tage is a
t i
ts most negat
ive v a
lue , the '
scope sweep (
which i
s
produced by t
he modulating vo
ltage) wi
ll be at the l
eft o
f t
he '
scope s
creen
.
As the modu lating v oltage increases t o i
ts most posi
t ive value, t he e
lec-
t
ron b ea m wil
l sw ing over to the right s
ide of t
he screen ( Point A ). When
t
he modu lating v oltage is at its mos t n
egative va
lue, t he s
po t wi
l l be o
n t he
l
eft (Point C). I ft he modu lating v ol
tage were a p er fect s
ine wave , the
e
lectron b ea m wou ld be midway b etween the s
ides of the t
rapezo id f
igure
(
Poin t B) when the modu lating v ol
tage is zero. A t any ins
tan t the position
o
f the electron b ea m i n t
he hor izontal d
irection i
s a measure o f h ow nega-
t
ive o
r p
osi
tive t
he modu
lat
ing v
oltage i
s
.

A
t the s
a me time that t
he e
lectron bea m i
s moved fro m one side o
f the
s
creen to the o
ther under t
he inf
luence of t
he modulating vol
tage , the mod-
u
lat
ing voltage is c
ausing t
he trans m
itter o
utpu
t to increase a nd d
ecrease.

The trans mitter o utput is a pplied to the

'
scope t o produce v ert
ica l d eflections.
When t he modu lating v oltage i s at its
p
os it
ive peak , the t rans m i
tter o u
tpu t
a
nd t he he
igh t of the 'scope p icture a re
g
rea test. T hus, the r ight side o f the
t
rapezo id figure s hows t he l argest am-
p
litude. When t he modu lating v oltage
i
s at its n
ega tive p eak, t he trans m itter
o
u tput and the heigh t of the 'scope p ic-
t
ure a re at their m ini mu m. T his oc-
curs when t he electron b ea m i s at t
he
l
eft side of the screen .
.
.-1
A

h
l

Because of the way in which t

rapezo id f
igures are ob
ta ined, they represent
ag raph o
f the output vo
ltage as co mpared to t
he modu lating vol
tage. I fthe
ou
tpu t v
oltage i
s a lways proport
iona l t
o the modula
ting v oltage —as itwil
l
be when the modu lat
ion is l
inear —there w i
ll be astraigh t l
ine along t
he
t
op a
nd o
n t
he b
otto m o
f t
he t
rapezo
id.
4
-95
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

T
rapezo
id F
igure (
con
tinued
)

T
I ME-BASE F
IGURE
TRAPEZO
ID F
IGURE

Max
i mu m

M
ini mu m
_

The two 'scope p

resentat
ions s hown above are for the sa me condi
tion of
modulation. You could deter mine t
he maxi mu m height (peak) and t
he m in-
imu m height (
t
rough or valley
) of t
he RF fro m e
i ther figure
. You c ould
a
lso deter mine t
he l
inearity o
f the modulat
ion fro m either presentation,
b
ut itis easier t
o d
o so fro m the t
rapezoid
.

I
ft he modulating vo
ltage i
s var
ied i n amp
litude, the peak a
nd t rough po
ints
o
n t he t
ime-base wave pattern co me c
loser together
. The s a me ef
fect is
s
een i n t
he trapezo
id pat
tern as ad ecrease in t
he horizonta
l a nd vert
ical
d
i mensions.

The f
ollowing i
l
lustrat
ions show bo
th t
ypes of wave f
or m p
resen
tat
ion f
or
t
hree d
i f
ferent modula
ting v
oltage amp
litudes
.

EFFECT OF VARY
ING AMPL
ITUDE OF MODULAT
ING VOLTAGE

Smal
l modulat
ing L
arge modulat
ing L
arger modula
ting
v
oltage v
oltage v
oltage

4-96
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

P
ercen
tage Modu
lat
ion

The percentage modu lat

ion is a measure of the extent t
o which t he carrier
i
s modu lated. If the carrier is modu lated 100 p ercent, the max i mu m
h
eight of t
he modu lated wave is tw
ice that of t
he un modulated wave a nd t
he
mini mu m h
eight i
s z ero
. The t rapezoid figure i
s at riangle for this mod-
u
lating condi
tion. I n vo
ice co m municat
ion the goal is a
lways 1 00 percen t
modulation because the RF signal is t
hen trans m
itted at max i mu m power .

f
o
om1
34
4 i
0
, d
it
ot F
or max
i mu m power i
modula
n t
te 1
rans m
00 %
iss
ion
.

U
n modu
lated c
arr
ier

I
fthe max i mu m heigh
t of the modula ted wave i s more t han twice that of
t
he un modula ted wave and the mini mu m h eight is z ero for more t han an
i
nstant during the cyc
le, the carrier i s over modula ted. The p ercen tage
modulation is more than 100 percen t. Th is c ondi
tion i s character ized by
g
aps in the time-base figure and a line e x
tend ing fro m the lef
t side o f t
he
t
riangle in the t
rapezoid figure. The more t he wave i s over modu lated, the
l
onger a re the gaps o
f the time-base f igure and the l onger the line in t
he
t
rapezoid figure. Over modu lat
ion is u ndesirable b ecause itd istorts the
s
ignal and genera tes unwanted sidebands wh ich may i n
terfere w ith adjacent
c
arr
ier f
requenc
ies
.

d
istorts t
he s
ignal a
nd in
terferes
w
ith other c
arrier f
requencies

4
-97
 AMPL
ITUDE MODULAT
ION

P
ercen
tage Modu
lat
ion (
con
tinued
)

S
o met
i mes i tis des
irab le t
o know the e xact percentage of modulation
. I f
t
he max i mu m height of the modu lated w ave is l
ess than twice t
hat o
f the
u
n modulated wave a nd the mini mu m he
igh t i
s more t han zero, t
he percent-
a
ge modu lation i
s less than 100 percent. T h
is is the most c om mon con-
d
it
ion. T he exact p ercentage modu lation can b e calculated using the
f
or mu
la b elow.
H max
. -
H m
in.
% modu
lat
ion - x1
00
H max
. +
H m
in.

"H max." is the maxi mu m h

eight o
f the modulated wave and "H min." is
t
he mini mu m he
ight. T hese values can b
e measured f ro m t
he '
scope pic-
t
ures —the trapezoid f
igure is more convenient f
or th
is purpose but t
he
t
ime-base figure gives suf
fic
ien t
ly accurate resul
ts.

I
n t
he f
igures b
elow, H max
. i
s 8b
oxes a
nd H m
in. I
s 2b
oxes
. T
he p
er-
c
entage modu
lation i
s
:

6
0% m
od
ula
tio
n
OM OMOMMI
O M
IMEMMIIMMO
MOM OMOMMOMMMOMMOOMMOMMO MOMM
MO MMEMMEMOMO OMMOMMEMMOMMOMMOMMOMMOMM
OMMEMOOMMEMMEMOMMEMOMM
%modu
lat
ion 8 2 x1
00 = —
1
0
6 x1
00 = 6
0% r a
leg ralr a n n o
n m
u
s
ila
n
8+ 2 OMMUMMEMMEMMEMEMOM MENO
W i
im m
em mom mommo mmw•MOMMSMOMEMMEMOIMM
I N
I MMEM
MEMMEMOM MEMMEMMOMENSL IMMUMMUM MEMMEMMEMO MMOM

1 9,
4 2,P = M CI
m aaau• Mk W A M f i
- Il
i
' i
V OOM MOM
MO 1
U M: M
Oi I
l
2b
oxes M, MO M 1
1. A MMO MUMM
MN : 1
.515
253 5
SEE25:
i
mmonsomm ommem omm
ommom m mummo
ss
.
...
...
.....
..
m
o.
s..
...
.
.
..
..
.
..
....
.
...
...
.
.
U
.
... •
I
f H max
. i
s 9b
oxes a
nd H m
in. I
s 1b
ox, t
he p
ercen
tage modu
lat
ion i
s
:

8
0x m
od
ula
tio
n
I

II
lI
—H min
.

-1
1 1
1b
ox

1 H
i
l
4
-98
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

R
eview o
f Amp
litude Modu
lat
ion

AMPL ITUDE MODULATION — AUD

IO MC W
RF
The method w hich uses v o
ice
or an aud
io signal to v
ary t he 1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
11 NV
\ i
1
1
10
1
1
11
1,
amplitude of an RF carrier
wave. The modu lator i
s t he RF VO
ICE VO
ICE
componen t o
f the AM trans-
mit
ter wh ich combines t he au- 1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
11 1
1
1
11
1
1 11
1
1

d
io and RF s ignals
.
B
andw
idth :
e—
S
IDE BANDS —Frequenc ies
c
ontained i
n the trans mit
ted S
t
a
:aver
ideband S
tde
tund

s
ignal i
n addition t
o the RF 2kc
4
98 5
00 5
•
02
modu
lation
c
arrier f
requency . S idebands
a
re equal t
o the sum a nd di
f- C
arr
ier

f
erence of carrier and modu- L
ower S
ideband 1 L
I
PP, 5
0Jeband

l
at
ing signals. MC W h as two
s
idebands; voice has many . Vo
ice
4
55 5
05
Modu
lat
ion

PLATE MODULATION —The

method whereby t
he modulating
s
ignal var
ies the PA t
ube volt-
a
ge, thus modulat
ing it
s ou
tpu t
i
n response t
o the a
udio s
igna l
.

GRID MODULATION —The

modulat
ing signal is a
pp l
ied t
o
t
he grid o
f the PA tube. Vary-
i
ng grid v
oltage in t
his manner
c
ontrols PA tube plate curren
t
a
nd hence modu lates output
v
oltage.

TRAPE ZO ID F IGURE —The o s-

c
il
loscope p attern ob
tained by
u
sing the trans mit
ter ou
tput
v
oltage as 'scope's Y i
nput,
a
nd t he modulating s
ignal a
s
XI nput
.

PERCENTAGE MODULATION
—The measure o f the extent
t
o wh
modu
ich t
la
he RF c
ted
. 1 00 p
arrier i
ercen
s
t mod-
60Z m
odu
lat
ion
u
lation i
s des ireab le f
or v o
ice
t
ransm iss
ion s o that max i-
mum p ower i s transm itted.
Over modulation p roduces a
d
istorted signa l and in
troduces
unwanted sidebands .

4
-99
 TRANSMITTE R
S

R
eview o
f T
ransm
itters

L
et's p
ause a
nd r
eview b
rie
fly w
hat y
ou h
ave l
earned a
bou
t t
rans m
itters
.

Keyed

CW TRANSMISSION —An RF RF

s
igna l is g
enerated in the trans-
mitter b y an RF o scil
la tor,
a
nd r adiated i
nto space. I n-
t
ell
igence i s imparted b y turn-
i
ng t rans mi
tter on a nd o f
f
w
ith a k ey. CW i s used mos t
o
ften for long d
istance c om-
mun icat
ions.
Keyed
Modu
lated RF
MC W TRANSM ISSION —A c on-
s
tant ampl
itude a udio f
requen-
c
y signa
l is superimposed o n 1
-1
11
t
he RF carrier wave . T rans-
Y
H
I
mit
ter is turned o n and off
Key
b
y means of ak ey a s i
n CW TranRam
F l
i
ter
t
ransmission. MC W i s used Audio
Osc
illa
tor
f
or emergency a ppl
ications.

AM U
ntnodu
lated
V
oice modu
lated RF RF Carrier

VOICE TRANSMISS ION —In

ampli
tude modu lat
ion a voice 1
11;
1
1
1
'1 11
1
111
s
ignal varies the amp li
tude of Voice
t
he RF c arrier
. Transm ission waves
RF
i
s continuous, a nd is t
he t
ype T
rans m
itter

u
sed for standard r adio b
road-
Ampl
itude
c
asting. modu
lator

M
icrophone .
4
.

GRID-LEAK B IAS —A r es is-

t
or and capacitor in t
he gr id
c
ircuit o
f an amp li
fier tube
t
o make the amp lif
ier oper-
a
te Class C. The amoun t of
b
ias depends o n t
he grid c ur-
r
ent, and varies a s the
s
trength o
f the input s
igna l
c
hanges.

COMBINAT ION B IAS —A co m-

b
inat
ion of f
ixed a
nd grid-
leak
b
ias most com monly u
sed in
t
ransmit
ters.

4
-100
 TRANS MITTERS

Rev
iew o
f Trans m
itters (
con
tinued
)

THREE-STAGE TRANS MITTER — The master osc

illa
tor (MO), i
nter mediate
p
ower ampl
ifier (
IPA
) and f
ina
l p
ower amp li
fier (PA) make u
p the basic
t
hree-s
tage t
rans m
itter
.

C
-4

C
.1

CI
I

MO I
PA PA

TUNING — For ef ic
ien t o
per-
a
tion , t
he p late tank circuit of P
late Vo
ltage
t
he amp
a
t o sci
l
li
la
fiers mus
tor f
t r
requency
esona
. Ad-
te 1
3
•
P
late Curren
t
(
v7\
)
j
usting t he v ariable capacitor
t
o r each t his condition is
cal
led " tun ing." P late volt- 0AVE RAGE
A
t S
ligh
tly more
age is max i mum a nd curren t n
i1
4, 1; s
igna
l han s
t igna
l
mini mum a t signal frequency . r
equ i
in n; f
requency f
requency

ca :
t:

NEUTRALIZATION — P late or P
late
Neutra
lization
g
rid n eutraliza
tion c ircuits 1
3
may be used to counteract the
f
eedback effect at t
he grid-to-
p
late capacity o
f triodes used
i
n trans mi
tter amp li
fiers.
Grid
Neu
tra
liza
tion

TRANS MISS ION L INE —Used

t
o convey t he RF s ignal fro m
A
N
TENNA .
.
I
'
T
RANSM ISS ION L I
N EI
R
adia
tes RF S
upp
lies a
ntenna w
ith RF
.s
.

t
he trans mitter to the antenna.
For max i mu m power o utput
t
he c haracteristic i mpedance
o
f the line should e qual t
he in-
put impedance o f the antenna.
Coupling circuits a re used to C
O
UPL
ING C
I
RCU
IT
couple the trans mission line C
ouples RF f
rom t
ar* c
ircu
it
t
o t
ransmiss
ion l
i
ne
t
o the trans mitter
.

4
-101
 TRANSMITTERS

Rev
iew o
f Trans m
itters (
con
tinued
)

STAND ING WAVES — Vo l

t-
age a
nd c urrent d
istribu-
t
ion a
long a trans mission
•
l
ine o
r a n
tenna c an be re-
p
resented b y wave for ms T
rans m
iss
ion L
ine
c
a l
led "s
tand ing waves."

Trans m
itter

ANTENNA — Rad iates en- f f

R
ds a
igh
t —
t Ang
les
ergy, r eceived f
ro m trans-
mission l ine, i
nto space.
E
lec tric a nd magne tic
f
ields g enerated by cur-
r
en t and v o
ltage waves o n
a
n tenna e xpand and col-
l
apse a s trans m
itter sig-
n
al v aries.

- Bu
idw
idth

t
'
Lower 1 Upper
S
idebend 8 S
ideband
S
IDE BANDS —Frequenc ies
4
90 5
00 5
02
c
onta
ined in t
he trans mit-
t
ed s
ignal i
n addition t
o 3ke F
requeney-kc
modu
lat
ion
t
he RF carr
ier frequency . C
arr
ier
L
oire r S
ide b
and I U
pper f
l
ideband
MC W h
as two sidebands;
v
oice h
as many s idebands.
a
uI
l
iI
L!
b a lk _
4
55 5
00 5
0S

B
andwidU
i
Vo
ice 1
0ke
Modu
lat
ion

PLATE MODULATION —
A method whereby t
he mod-
u
lat
ing signal v
aries the PA
I
nPu
t
r
r a
odu
la
RF u
ted
put

t
ube plate vo
ltage, thus Modu
lAt
ion P
osh-pu
ll

modulat
ing it
s outpu
t in re-
MODULATOR
s
ponse to t
he audio s
ignal.

GRID MODULAT ION — The

modulating signal i
s applied
t
o the grid o
f the PA tube.
Varying grid vol
tage in this
manner c ontrols PA t ube
p
late current and hence PA

modulates output vo
ltage. MODULATOR
'

4
-102
 I
NDEX TO VOL
. 4

(
Note: A cumu
lat
ive index c
over
ing a
l
l fi
ve vo
lumes
i
n t
his s
er
ies w
i
ll be f
ound at t
he e
nd of Vo
lume 5
.)

Amp
lif
iers
, r
ev
iew o
f c
lasses o
f o
pera
tion
, o
ther me thods o f
, 4 -91
4-8 p
late, 4-89
Amp
litude modula t
ion, 4-85 to 4
-99 Modulators
, 4 -88
p
ercentage modu lation
, 4-97, 4
-98 R
eview, AT hree -Stage T ransm i
tte
r, 4
-33
t
ime base modulation pat
tern, 4
-92 Ampli
tude Modu lation, 4-99
t
rapezoid f
igures
, 4-93 to 4
-96 An
tennas , 4
-79
what i
tis
, 4
-85 C
lass C Amp l
ifiers
, 4 -15
A
ntennas
, 4-63 t
o 4
-79 T
ransm ission Lines, 4-62
bas
ic, 4-66 T
ransm itters
, 4-100 t o 4
-102
fading , 4-73 S
idebands, 4-86
g
round wave , 4 -72 T
hree
-stage transmit
ters
, 4-
16 t o 4
-33
how they wo rk , 4-64, 4-65 c
omplete diagram of
, 4-21
i
mpedance , 4 -68 i
n
termedia te power ampl
ifie
r, 4
-18
p
urpose o f
, 4 -63 n
eut
ral
iza tion
, 4-27 t
o 4-29
r
adiation p a
t te rn
, 4-70 n
eu t
ralizing p rocedures, 4-30, 4-31
r
adiation r esistance , 4
-67 o
scil
lato rs, 4-17
s
ky wave , 4 -72 parasi
tic o sci
llations, 4-32
s
pace wave , 4 -73 power amp lif
ie r
, 4 -19
t
uning, 4-69 p
u rpose o f tuning , 4
-22
wave propaga tion, 4
-71 t
hree b asic circuits, 4
-16
C
lass C amp l
ifiers, 4 -8 to 4
-15 t
ransm i
tting t ube f i
lament ci
rcui
t,
c
omb ina t
ion b ias
, 4-14 4
-20
f
i
xed b ias, 4-11 t
uning me thods , 4-23 to4-26
s
elf-b
ias , 4-12 , 4-13 T
ransm
ission, AM, 4
-6
t
uned, 4-9 , 4-10 FM, 4
-6
Coup
ling c
ircu
its
, 4
-40 k
eyed , 4-5
t
uned
, 4-41 v
oice, 4-6
CW t
r
ansm iss
ion, 4
-80 to 4
-84 T
ransm
ission l i
nes, 4-39 t o 4
-62
a
dvan tages o
f, 4
-80 c
harac terist
ic i mpedance , 4-45
b
locked-grid k
eying, 4
-83 equivalent circuit of
, 4-44
c
athode keying, 4
-81, 4
-82 i
npu t i
mpedance o f al i
ne, 4-50
k
eyer t ube c
ircuit
s, 4
-84 i
npu t i
mpedance o f an o pen-
D
emonstration, Current D
istr
ibut
ion c
ircui
ted l i
ne, 4-52
A
long a n A n
tenna, 4-75 i
npu t i
mpedance o f as hort-
R
adia t
ion P attern o
f an An
tenna, c
ircui
ted l i
ne, 4-51
4
-76 t o 4
-78 l
i
ne t ermina t
ion i nc harac terist
ic
Transm i6sion Li
nes, 4
-57 to 4
-61 impedance , 4-46
F
requency, 4
-43 nonresonan t a nd r e
sonan t l
ines,
F
requency doubl
ing, 4-36 4
-47
F
requency measuremen t
, u
sing st
anding open a nd sho rted, 4-49
waves
, 4-53 s
tand ing waves o n ar ope, 4-48
F
requency mul
tip
licat
ion, purpose o
f
, t
ransfering e lectr
ica l energy, 4-42
4
-34 t
ypes o f
, 4-56
F
requency m u
ltipliers
, 4 -34 t
o 4-38
T
ransm
iss
ion l
ine p
r
inc
iples
, a
ppl
ica
tions
f
i
nal powe r amp l
ifier, 4
-35
of
, 4
-54, 4
-55
t
un
ing i ndica t
ions , 4-38
F
requency s pect rum, 4-74 T
ransm
itter
s, asimple type
, 4-2 t
o 4
-4
F
requency tr
ip l
ing , 4-37 o
ve ra
ll, 4
-39
Modulat
ion, g r
id , 4-90 what they a
re, 4
-1 to 4
-7
h
ow i tisa ccomp lished, 4-87 Wave
leng
th, 4
-43

4
-103
L
HO W T
HIS OUTSTAND
ING COURSE WAS D
EVELOPED
:
I
n the S pr
ing of 1951
, the Chief o
f NaVal P er
sonne l
, s
eeking a s t
ream l
ined ,
more ef
ic
ien t m
ethod of p
resen
ting Bas
ic E
lectr
icity and B
asic Elec
tronics to the
t
housands of studen
ts in Navy spec
ialty s
chools
, cal
led on t he graphiological
e
ngineer
ing f
i
rm o
f V
an V
alkenburgh
, Nooger g
:Nev
ille
, I
nc
., t
o p
repare s
uch a
c
our
se. Th
is o
rgan
iza
tion
, s
pec
ial
ist
s i
r t
he p
roduc
tion o
f c
o mp
lete "
packaged
t
r
ain
ing p
rog
ram
s," h
ad b
road e
xper
ience s
e
rving i
ndu
str
ial o
rgan
iza
tion
s r
e
-
q
uir
ing ma
ss-t
rain
ing t
e
chn
ique
s.
The
se w
ere t
he a
ims o
f t
he p
ropo
sed p
rojec
t, wh
ich c
ame t
o b
e k
nown a
s t
he
Common-Core p
rogram: to make Bas
ic Elec
tric
ity and B
asic E
lec
tron
ics com
-
p
lete
ly u
nders
tandable t
o e
very Navy st
udent
, regard
les
s o
f prev
ious e
duca
tion
;
t
o e
nab
le t
he Navy t
o t
urn o
ut t
r
ained t
e
chn
ician
s a
t af
a
ster r
a
te (
cu
tting t
he
c
os
t o
f t
r
ain
ing a
s w
ell a
s t
he t
ime r
equ
ired
), w
ithou
t s
acr
ific
ing s
ubjec
t ma
tter
.
The f
i
r m me
t w
ith e
l
ect
ron
ics e
xper
ts, e
duca
tor
s, of
icer
s-in
-charge o
f v
ar
iou
s
Navy s
chools and
, wi
th t he Chie
f of Nava
l P
ersonne
l, c
reated a d
ynamic new
t
rain
ing course .. c
o mp
letely up
-to
-da
te ...w
ith heavy emphas
is o
n the v
i
sual
a
pproach
.
F
ir
st es
tab
lished i
n se
lected Navy s
choo
ls i
n Apr
il, 1
953
, t
he t
ra
ining c
ourse
c
om,o
ris
ing B as
ic E
lectr
icity a
nd B a
sic E
lec
tron
ics was s
uch a tr
emendous
s
ucces
s t
hat i
t i
sn ow t
he backbone o
f t
he Navy
's c
urren
t e
l
ectr
ici
ty a
nd e
l
ec-
t
ronic
s t
ra
ining prog
ram!•
The c
ourse pre
sen
t s one f
undamental t
opic a
t atime
, t
aken u
p i
n t
he order o
f
n
eed, r
endered absolu
tely under
standab
le, and h
ammered home b
y the use o
f
c
l
ear
, c
ar
toon
-type i
lus
tra
tion
s. The
se i
lus
tra
tion
s a
re t
he mo
st e
fec
tive e
ver
p
resented. Ever
y page has a
t l
eas
t one s
uch ilustra
tion—ever
y page cover
s o ne
c
omp lete i
dea! An imag
inary i
n
struc
tor s
tand
s figurat
ive
ly at t
he r
eader
's elbow,
d
oing demonstra
tion
s t
hat make i
tea
sier t
o u
nder
stand e
ach s
ubjec
t p
resen
ted
i
n the c
our
se.
Now
, f
o
r the f
i
r
st t
ime, B
asic E
lec
tric
ity a
nd Bas
ic E
lec
tronic
s have b
een r
elea
sed
b
y t
he Navy f
or c
i
vil
ian use
. Wh ile t
he c
our
se was or
igina
lly de
signed f
or the
Navy
, t
he c
oncep
ts a
re s
o b
road
, t
he p
resen
tat
ion s
o c
l
ear—w
ithou
t r
e
ference t
o
s
pec
ific Navy e
quipmen
t—that i
sisid
eal fo
r use by s
chool
s, indu
str
ial t
r
ain
ing
p
rograms, or h
ome s
tudy. T
here i
sno f
iner t
r
a in
ing mater
ial
!

"
Bas
ic E
lec
tron
ics" c
ons
ist
s o
f f
i
ve v
olume
s, a
s f
o
llow
s: V
ol
. 1
—In
troduc
tion
t
o E
lectronic
s, Diode Vacuum Tubes
, Dry Me
tal Rec
tif
iers
, What aPower
S
upply Is
, Filter
s, V
oltage R
egula
tors
. Vol
. 2—In
troduct
ion to Amp
lif
ier
s,
The T
riode Tube
, T etrode
s &P
entodes, Audio Vol
tage & P
ower Ampl
ifier
s.
Vo
l% i—V
ideo Amp l
ifiers
, RF Ampl
ifier
s, Osci
lla
tors. V
ol
. 4 —Tran
smitter
s,
T
ran
smi
ssion L
ine
s & An
tenna
s, CW T
ran
smi
ssion & Amp
litude Modu
la-
t
i
on. V o
l. 5—Rece
iver An tenna
s, D
etec
tor
s g
c M
ixer
s, TRF R
ece
iver
s,
S
uperhe
terodyne Rece
iver
s.

"Basic E
lectr
ici
ty," t
he f
i
rs
t p
ort
ion o
f t
h
is c
our
se, i
s a
vai
lab
le a
s a300
Sara
te
s
e
rie
s of vo
lume s
.

JOHN F
. R
IDER PUBL
ISHER
, I
NC.
, 1
16 WEST 1
4th S
T.
, N
. Y
. 1
1, N
. Y
.