Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

Tải và Hệ số tải
(Load and Load Factor)

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Wing Loading
Aircraft Total Weight
divided by
Wing Area or Lifting
Surface

= Load

Types of Loads
Live Load
Dead Load

2
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Wing Loading
Dead Load
The load put on the aircraft when it
is sitting on the ground
Weight due to gravity

Live Load
Additional loads added in flight due
to acceleration or change in
direction associated with
manoeuvres

3
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Wing Loading

4
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load factor (hệ số tải)
The ratio of a
specified load to the
total weight of the
aircraft. The specified
load is expressed in
terms of any of the
following: aerodynamic
forces, inertial forces,
or ground or water
reactions.

5
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load factor (hệ số tải)
In aeronautics, the load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift of an
aircraft to its weight and has a trigonometric relationship. It
represents a global measure of the stress ("load") to which the
structure of the aircraft is subjected.
Lift L 1
n= = = where  is a bank angle.
Weight mg cos 
Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless.
However, its units are traditionally referred to as Gs, because of the
relation between load factor and apparent acceleration of gravity felt
on board the aircraft.
Load factors greater or less than one (or even negative) are the result
of Aircraft Performing manoeuvres or wind gusts.

6
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load factor (hệ số tải)

7
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load factor (hệ số tải)

8
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load Factors in Aircraft Design

Limit load: is defined as the maximum load that an aircraft is

expected to see at any point in the service life of that aircraft. Any part
of the structure of an aircraft must be able to support the limit load
without permanent deformation.
Ultimate load: is the amount of load applied to a component beyond
which the component will fail. The chance that it will occur is,
however, not zero, and, if it were to occur, then the relevant structure
in the aircraft would stand a large chance of fracture.
Ultimate load  Limit load  Factor of Satefy ( = 1.5 )

Note: The above considerations apply to all loading conditions,

whether they be due to gusts, maneuvers, or landings.

9
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load Factors in Aircraft Design

10
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Load Factors in Aircraft Design

11
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
A gust is a sudden change in the wind velocity. It can be broken down
into two parts:
• A horizontal component. Example: wind shear
• A vertical component called updraft or downdraft and clear air
turbulence.

12
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
Horizontal gust: (gió giật ngang)
Let us consider a horizontal gust first. An aircraft in level flight at a
velocity V encounters a gust of intensity ± u. the positive sign being
for a gust that increases the relative wind.

1
Lgust 2  (V  u ) SC L
2

n= =
W W
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 13
 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
Horizontal gust: (gió giật ngang)

Because the aircraft was in level flight before the gust, L = W.

As well, due to the sudden nature of a gust and to the aircraft's inertia,
the α, thus CL, remains essentially the same.

1
Lgust 2  (V  u ) SC L (V  u ) 2
2
2u
n gust = = = 2
1
W W V V

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 14

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
Vertical gust: (gió giật dọc)

A vertical gust, on the other hand,

will change the (increasing it for
an updraft and decreasing it for a
downdrart) α, a value angle is 𝛥α.

u > 0: gust increase α.

Lgust Lgust CL  CLgust

ngust = = =
W L CL

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 15

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
Vertical gust: (gió dọc)

where: CLgust dCLgust dCL So u << V:

= =
 gust d  gust d u
tan  gust =   gust
dCL V
 CLgust =  gust
d

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 16

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

1. Definition
❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
Vertical gust: (gió dọc)

dCL dCL u dCL

 gust   u V
n gust = 1  d = 1  d V = 1    d
CL W   mg 
2  2 
S  S 
V 2

 ngust = 1  kV

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 17

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

2. Load Factors in Turns

This maneuver is used to change the aircraft heading. The turn is
initiated by using the ailerons or spoilers to roll, or bank, the aircraft to
one side. Vertical Component of Lift
Keeps aircraft in air (opposes
Lift
weight)

Centrifugal Force Centripetal Force

Imaginary force that
pulls aircraft outside of
turn (is really inertia)
Weight
Horizontal component of lift,
pulls aircraft into turn
Angle of Bank

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 18

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

2. Load Factors in Turns

At a constant altitude, during a coordinated turn in any aircraft, the load
factor is the result of two forces: centrifugal force and weight.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 19

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

2. Load Factors in Turns

As angle of bank is increased in a turn the load factor and amount of
lift required also increases
Load factor increases exponentially with angle of bank

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 20

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

3. Load Factors and Stalling Speeds

Increased load factor during manoeuvres in flight requires increased
lift to maintain level flight
Critical angle of attack is reached at an increased speed

Stall speed increases

Load factor Speed to reach

Stall
during flight critical angle of
speed
attack

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 21

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

3. Load Factors and Stalling Speeds

A study of this effect has revealed that an aircraft’s stalling speed
increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 22

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

3. Load Factors and Stalling Speeds

Relationship between stall speed,

load factor and bank angle

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 23

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Turn
Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns. As
noted in the section on load factors in steep turns, load factors
become significant to both flight performance and load on wing
structure as the bank increases beyond approximately 45°.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 24

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Stalls
The normal stall entered from straight-and-level flight, or an
unaccelerated straight climb, does not produce added load factors
beyond the 1 G of straight-and-level flight. As the stall occurs,
however, this load factor may be reduced toward zero, the factor at
which nothing seems to have weight.

During the pull up following stall recovery, significant load factors are
sometimes induced. These may be further increased inadvertently
during excessive diving (and consequently high airspeed) and abrupt
pull ups to level flight. One usually leads to the other, thus increasing
the load factor. Abrupt pull ups at high diving speeds may impose
critical loads on aircraft structures and may produce recurrent or
secondary stalls by increasing the AOA to that of stalling.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 25

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Stalls
As a generalization, a recovery from a stall made by diving only to
cruising or design maneuvering airspeed, with a gradual pull up as
soon as the airspeed is safely above stalling, can be effected with a
load factor not to exceed 2 or 2.5 Gs.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 26

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Spins
Definition: Auto-rotation which develops
after aggravated stall
• When The wing that stalls first will drop:
− increasing its angle of attack and
deepening the stall.
− The other wing will rise, decreasing its
angle of attack, and the aircraft will yaw
towards the more deeply stalled wing.
− Drag on down wing increases, further
increasing angle of attack. The aircraft to
continue yawing. Wing stalls further, nose
drops, auto-rotation starts.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 27

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Spins
A stabilized spin is not different from a stall in any element other than
rotation and the same load factor considerations apply to spin
recovery as apply to stall recovery. The load factor in a proper spin
recovery usually is found to be about 2.5 Gs.

The load factor during a spin varies with the spin characteristics of
each aircraft, but is usually found to be slightly above the 1 G of level
flight. There are two reasons for this:
1. Airspeed in a spin is very low, usually within 2 knots of the
unaccelerated stalling speeds.
2. An aircraft pivots, rather than turns, while it is in a spin.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 28

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Chandelles and Lazy Eights

Lazy Eights

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 29

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Chandelles and Lazy Eights

It would be difficult to make a definite statement concerning load

factors in these maneuvers as both involve smooth, shallow dives
and pull-ups. The load factors incurred depend directly on the speed
of the dives and the abruptness of the pull-ups during these
maneuvers.

Generally, the better the maneuver is performed, the less extreme

the load factor induced. A chandelle or lazy eight in which the pull-up
produces a load factor greater than 2 Gs will not result in as great a
gain in altitude; in low-powered aircraft, it may result in a net loss of
altitude

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 30

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Chandelles and Lazy Eights
CS23
(a) The normal category is limited to non-aerobatic operations. Non-
aerobatic operations include –
(1) Any manoeuvre incident to normal flying;
(2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
(3) Lazy eights, chandelles and steep turns or similar manoeuvres, in
which the angle of bank is not more than 60°.
(b) The utility category is limited to any of the operations covered
under subparagraph (a); plus –
(1) Spins (if approved for the particular type of aeroplane); and
(2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, or similar manoeuvres in
which the angle of bank is more than 60° but not more than 90°.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 31

 Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

4. Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers

❑Chandelles and Lazy Eights
CS23
(c) The aerobatic category is without restrictions, other than those
shown to be necessary as a result of required flight tests.
(d) Commuter category operation is limited to any manoeuvre
incident to normal flying, stalls (except whip stalls) and steep turns in
which the angle of bank is not more than 60°.
(e) Except for commuter category, aeroplanes may be certificated in
more than one category if the requirements of each requested
category are met.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 32