Conjunctions

and Conjunctions are form

words. They have no
independent meaning
… but of their own and they
are used to connect
Conj.
words, groups of
words, clauses and
sentences.
though if (A Grammar of the English language)
 Classification of conjunctions
Semantic criterion Structural criterion

1. Coordinators 1. Simple conjunction

2. Subordinators 2. Correlative conjunction
3. Participial conjunction
4. Phrase conjunction
 Semantic criterion - Coordinators
1. Coordinators connect words, groups of words, clauses
that are independent on each other.
2. Coordinators = Coordinating conjunctions =
Coordinative conjunctions
E.g.:
Stay here, or you will be kidnapped!
I like apples and oranges.
She is my mother, but he is not.
Coordinators
Meaning Examples
Group of AND Meaning of addition too, in addition, along with, etc.
Group of BUT Opposite meaning in contrast, however, Yet, etc.
Group of OR Meaning of choices otherwise, either…or…, etc.
Meaning of
Group of SO hence, thus, so… that…, etc.
results/consequences
 Semantic criterion - Subordinators
1. Subordinators connect dependent clause(s) with an
independent clause.
2. Subordinators = Subordinating conjunctions =
Subordinative conjunctions
3. Subordinators can be used to introduce:
- subject clause
- predicative clause
- object clause: that – if – whether
- adverbial clauses (8 types)
E.g.: Let me know who you are!
Subordinators
Meaning Examples
Place where, wherever
Time when, whenever, as soon as, as, while, etc.
Reason/Cause because, since, for fear that, etc.
Concession though, although even if, etc.
Purpose in order that, so that, etc.
Result so…that…, such… that…, etc.
Comparison as… as…, as if, etc.
Condition if, unless, provided (that) , etc.
 Structural criterion - conjunctions

1. Simple conjunction:
E.g.: and, but, or, etc.
2. Correlative conjunction:
E.g.: both… and… ; either… or…; etc.
3. Participial conjunction:
E.g.: seeing…; supposing…; etc.
4. Phrase conjunction:
E.g.: in case (that) …; no sooner… than…; etc.
 Semantic criterion

Coordinator Subordinators
(Coordinative conj.) (Subordinative conj.)

We like this dress; however, my

mum doesn’t like it.
 Make compound sentences
 Subordinators in subordinate noun clauses
- Notes -

1. I think (that) we’ll find a better solution.

2. I believe (that) she will come.
3. I hope (that) you will get on well with her.
Prepositions

The preposition is a form

word which is used with a
noun (or pronoun) to
show its relation to other
words in the sentence.
(A Grammar of the English language)
 The use of prepositions
1. My friend is a woman of ambition.

2. Our country is rich in minerals.

3. We rely on you.

4. (a) I think of what she said yesterday.

(b) I wasn’t surprised at why he married her.

5. Did you know the detailed plan of what he has presented in the
meeting?
 Prepositions - Positions
1. (a) She wrote about him.
(b) The book is on the table.

2. (a) This is the man (that) I am talking about.

(b)What are you doing that for?

3. (a) A doctor must be sent for.

(b) Has any decision been come to?
 Prepositions – Positions - Notes
1. (a) I will speak to him.
(b) She is writing about them.

2. (a) The sun is near setting.

(b) I always relax by listening to music.
 Classification of prepositions
Semantic criterion
1. Prep. of time: on, at, etc.
2. Prep. of place/ position:
next to, behind, over, etc.
3. Prep. of direction/
movement: across, down, etc.
4. Prep. of relation: by, in, etc.
5. Prep. with V. (Adverb
particle): Turn off the light!
Structural criterion
1. Simple prep.: at, by, in, etc.
2. Compound prep.: within,
out of, into, etc.
3. Participial prep.:
concerning…; regarding…; etc.
4. Phrase prep.: by means of…;
in consequence of…; with regard
to…; etc.

Home reading
 Prepositions with verbs

1. Turn off the light!

2. Turn the light off!

3. Turn it off!
NOT: Turn off it!
Preposition vs. Adverb particle (same form)
Interjections

An interjection expresses
surprise, anger, pleasure, or
some other emotion or
feeling.
(A Grammar of the English language)
E.g.:
- feelings and emotions (Oh
man! / Good!)
- Surprise (Hello! / Oh!)
- Impatience (Tut-tut!)
- Pleasure (Ah!)
…
 Formation of interjections
1. By words:
Bravo!
Non-sense!
2. By phrases:
Good bye!
Farewell!
Oh dear! Dear me!
Just my luck!
3. By sentences: (Exclamatory sentences)
I say!
 Exclamatory sentences

What a / an + N. (sing. / count.)!

What + N. (pl. / uncount.)!

How + adj. / adv.!

1.There he comes!
Start with ‘there’, ‘here’, ‘away’, … 2. Here you are!
3. Away with you!
Inversion

E.g.:
Inversion is the change of the usual
So sad was he when he order of the subject and the
received the news. predicate verb (the predicate
verb is placed before the
subject).
(A Grammar of the English language)
 Classification of inversion

Full inversion Partial inversion

In the class are many parents. 1. Do you love me?

2. Can you take me home
tonight?
Inversion – Further use

1. Only with her, can I feel happy.

by talking to her,

2. Only when / if I talk to him, can I feel happy.

Emphasis

1. In prominent stress
2. In strong form
I did love her.
3. In printed texts: bold, italics,
underlined.
4. In abnormal position 
emphatic meaning.
(A Grammar of the English language)
Further ways of making emphasis

Hardly did I understand her.

What I’d like is a cup of tea.

1. Mind your own business!

2. This is the very city where I
was born.