Chapter -01

Fundamental Terminologies and Concepts

1.0 Introduction

The cold Primary Air (PA) ducts are placed between Forced Draught (FD) fan and Air Pre
Heater in a coal powered thermal power plant. These ducts feed atmospheric air to the Air
Pre Heater at flow conditions desirable for a good operation of Air Pre Heater. In this major
project an attempt is being made to reverse engineer cold PA ducts. Brief descriptions of
some of the frequently mentioned terms are given below to aid the comprehensive ability of
the reader.

1.1 Reverse Engineering

Reverse Engineering [1], also known as 'Back Engineering' is the process where a man -
made object is deconstructed to reveal its designs, architecture, or to extract knowledge from
the object. Reverse Engineering process in itself is not concerned with creating a copy or
changing the artefact in some way, it is only an analysis in order to deduce design features
from products with little or no additional knowledge about procedures involved in original
production.

Fig 1.1 Reverse Engineering Process

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1.2 Thermal power plant components

In order that the reader may appreciate the design environment, brief descriptions of the
components of a coal powered thermal power plant are presented.

Fig 1.2 Thermal Power Plant Block Diagram

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 Fig 1.3 General Layout of Thermal Power Plant

1.2.1 Air Pre Heater

The Air Pre Heater [2] is a heat exchanger in which heat is extracted from the exhaust gases
of the steam generator and used to raise the temperature of the combustion air and thus
increase the efficiency of the steam generator. It is a large revolving drum consisting of a fine
steel mesh with large surface area that rotates alternately through the hot flue gases and the
cool combustion air, transferring heat from the former to the latter. In the Air Pre Heater, the
exhaust gas is typically reduced from a temperature of around 426.6°C to between 137.7°C
and 162.7°C.

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 Fig 1.4 Rotating Plate Regenerative Air Pre Heater

1.2.2 Forced Draught Fan

The Forced Draught (FD) fan [3] sucks air from the atmosphere and sends it into the heating
system. It provides more amount of air for combustion process, thus producing a positive
pressure. The boiler gets pressurised so that it starts only after the Induced Draught (ID) fan
starts, which is a bigger fan when compared to FD fan. FD fans require less maintenance and
consume less pressure as the density of cold air is lesser than hot air.

Fig 1.5 Forced Draught Fan

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 Chapter - 02

Literature Survey

2.1 Review of Structural Design of Coal - Fueled Power Plant Ductwork (thesis)

In a 1986 publication [2], the author, Stanley Pearce Rader has provided a detailed design
procedure based on Allowable Stress Design (ASD) [9] philosophy with the computer
programs written in PRO/BASIC implementing the above mentioned philosophy. An
alternate design procedure based on the Load and Resistance Factor Design Approach is also
discussed. The publication provides a consistent, economical, efficient design method with a
sound theoretical base. The author has provided certain empirical relationships between duct
sheet thickness and corrosion allowance given by:

ℎ ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑖

2.2 Review of Duct Optimization - A Case Study

C. Hemalatha et al. [10] worked on Duct Optimization and found that it would be cost
effective and easy to work with steel sheets of 4 mm thickness providing uniform stiffener
spacing throughout the span of the duct. Various stiffener spacing configurations and steel
sheet thicknesses were analysed to optimize costs incurred in material procurement and
fabrication. This technical paper also gives equations to determine stiffener spacing
considering Stress criteria, Static plate deflection, Dynamic plate deflection, Plate vibration
criteria. The equations are given below:

𝑌
Stress Criterion: = √ + "
𝑃

4 . 𝐸
Static Plate Deflection: = √ + "
𝑃

4 𝑡
∆ ( )𝐸
Dynamic Plate Deflection Criterion: = √ −𝜇 𝑃′
+ "

√𝐸
Plate Vibration Criterion: = √ + "
𝑓

Where, f - Natural Frequency

S - Stiffener spacing E - Young's Modulus

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 t - Plate thickness μ - Poisson's Ratio

Ys - Yield Strength Δ - Plate Deflection

P - Design pressure P' - Expected Pressure Pulsation

Stiffener sizes for different cases can be evaluated using the equations given below:

𝑀𝐵 𝑆
Based on stiffener stress criterion: 𝐿 ≤ √ 𝑃𝑆
+

𝐸𝐼𝐾
Based on stiffener deflection criterion: 𝐿 ≤ √
𝑃𝑆

𝐸𝐼
√
Based on stiffener vibration criterion: 𝐿 ≤ √ 8
𝐴
𝑓

Where

M - Combined section modulus of (plate + stiffener)

B - Allowable Bending Stress

L - Maximum allowable stiffener length

I - Combined moment of inertia of (plate + stiffener)

K - Length factor,

K = 1 for uniform stiffener spacing

K = 2 for non uniform stiffener spacing

A - Combined cross sectional area of (plate + stiffener)

2.3 Inference

Considering the available literature, we could know that C. Hemalatha et al. refers to the
advantage of using steel sheets which are 4 mm thick for making the stiffeners. But the work
fails to even mention anything about providing a margin for corrosion allowance for the
material to be chosen for making the duct. Whereas Stanley Pearce Rader's thesis mentions
corrosion allowance as a key factor to be considered in the design of the duct. The thesis
advices the use of steel sheets of 10 mm thickness. The team however failed to consider this
suggestion owing to weight, costs and fabrication difficulties. In this project work, the team
uses steel sheets of 6 mm thickness; this accounts for the suggestions given by the literature.
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 Chapter - 03

Selection of Materials, Project Budgeting, Materials Procurement and Logistics

3.0 Selection of suitable material based on metallurgical properties

Considering availability of material in the market, acceptable strength, easy weld ability and
machinability and good fatigue characteristics; mild steel [4] was chosen for the fabrication
of the duct. The constituents of mild steel are 2.1 % Carbon, 0.6 % Manganese, 0.4 %
Phosphorous, 0.5 % Sulphur and 96.4 % iron. The Carbon content in the mild steel imparts
strength, the Manganese content in the mild steel imparts capability to deoxidize and
desulphurize ferrous oxide, the phosphorous content imparts brittleness when the steel is
cold, and the sulphur content imparts brittleness while rolling and forging [5]. Mild steel
specimen possess great strength, this is evident by the fact that mild steel specimen always
bends rather than breaking out of cracks.

3.1 Selection of suitable material based on sectional properties

The idea was to create moment resisting frames for the ducts where the frame made out of
channel beams will support the entire weight of the duct. The angle beams were to be welded
in suitable positions to stiffen the steel walls of the duct and prevent any sort of flexure. Since
it was theoretically estimated that MS sheets of 4 mm thickness will have a deflection of
0.47817 mm, using the mathematical equation [6] mentioned below:
𝑊 𝑏
Maximum Deflection: 𝛿 = − 𝜇 𝐸

.
The constant in above equation: = +∝

𝛼 =

Where

b : short side of the sheet

a : long side of the sheet

W : load per unit area acting on the sheet

E : Young's Modulus of mild steel

t : thickness of the sheet

μ : Poisson's ratio

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sheets of this thickness were chosen. To support and stiffen these sheets of mild steel it was
necessary to have angle and channel beams of comparable thickness. The Moment of Inertia,
section modulus, location of shear centre was all estimated to aid this selection.

3.2 Project Weight Estimation

From the above mentioned details, weight of the duct was theoretically estimated to be
around 500 kg. The details of this estimation are mentioned in the spread sheet in Fig1.5.
However to aid the reader, a step by step approach of this calculation given below :

1. Calculation of Cross Sectional Area

2. Calculation of volume

using the equation : 𝑉 = 𝑖 𝐴 ∗ 𝐿 ℎ 𝑖

3. Calculation of mass

using the equation : = 𝑖 𝑖 ∗ 𝑉

3.3 Project Budget Estimation

From the above mentioned details and the estimates of price of steel per kg retrieved after a
thorough market survey. The project's material costs were estimated, the details of the cost
estimation is given in spreadsheets given below:
S.no Product Specification Dealer Dealer's Name Base price p
Total price Contact number
1 CS rod 20X20 mm INDERSON PIPES AND TUBES Harmeet Singh Bhatia 52 61.36 9246877986
2 RK STEEL TRADERS Amith Gupta 54 63.72 9885098410
3 DECCAN STEEL CORPORATION Kailash Agarwal 55 64.9 9246174883
4 SARAOGI ALLOY STEELS S.K.Bagla 58 68.44 9618947487
5 MANGAL TUBE CORPORATION Rajiv Agarwal 58 68.44 27714414
6 SUPER BRIGHT STEELS O.P. Agarwal 60 70.8 23772312
7 PRECISION STEEL AND ALLOYS Aziz S.Khambaty 60 70.8 9246162336
8 ADITYA STEEL TRADERS Niranjan Kumar Chachan 65 76.7 9849032770
9 CS sheet 4 mm thick BHAGYANAGAR STEEL INDUSTRIES Surender Verma 50 59 9866110000
10 Metal works ARUNA ENTERPRISES P.Rajender 0 9849306512

Pno Part Name Area of c/s Volume Mass Base Price Total price
5 Duct Wall1 0.004 0.008 62.8
6 Duct Wall2 0.002 0.004 31.4
7 Cor angle plt 0.0025 0.004375 34.34375 1785.875 2107.3325
8 C sections 0.000738 0.000738 5.7933 301.2516 355.47689
9 L sections 0.0025 0.0025 19.625 1020.5 1204.19

Pno Part Name No of parts Base Price Total Price

5 Duct wall 1 2
6 Duct wall 2 2
7 Cor angle Plt 4 7143.5 8429.33
8 C sections 12 3615.0192 4265.722656
9 L sections 16 16328 19267.04
31962.09266

Fig 1.6 Cost and Weight Estimation Spreadsheet

To cut down costs the team decided to purchase scrap steel sheets to get the work done.
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3.4 Determination of Tensile Strength test of scrap steel

Objective : To perform a tensile strength test on scrap mild steel specimen to determine yield
strength of the given material.

Materials Required : Scrap Mild steel material, hacksaw, rough file, smooth file

Specimen Details : A rectangular specimen of 6 mm thickness, 40 mm width and 200 mm

length is to be prepared

Machine Required : Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with automatic graph and results
recording system

Procedure :

1. The test specimen of scrap mild steel material is to be prepared as per the given
dimensions.
2. The test specimen has to be fixed between the movable jaws of the UTM.
3. The pointer on the UTM is set to zero value.
4. The automatic graph recording system is set.
5. The specimen is gradually loaded till it breaks.
6. The results are recorded.

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Fig 1.7 Cutting of test specimen in power hacksaw

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Fig 1.8 Test specimen preparation

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Fig 1.9 Fixing of test specimen between the movable jaws of the UTM

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Fig 2.0 Universal Test Machine

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Fig 2.1 Tensile Failure of the specimen

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Fig 2.2 Test specimen before and after UTM test

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3.5 Buckling Test on mild steel sheet, square pipe, angle beam and channel beam

Objective : To determine the crippling loads on the specimen given in 2.5.3.

Materials Required : Scrap Mild steel material, hacksaw, rough file, smooth file

Specimen Details :

1. A rectangular specimen of 6 mm thickness, 40 mm width and 200 mm length is to be

prepared.

2. A straight square pipe of 500 mm length is to be prepared.

3. A straight angle beam of 500 mm length is to be prepared.

4. A straight channel beam of 500 mm length is to be prepared.

Machine Required : Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with automatic graph and results
recording system

Procedure :

1. The test specimens are to be prepared as per the given dimensions.

2. The test specimens have to be fixed between the fixed and movable jaw of the UTM.

3. The pointer on the UTM is set to zero value.

4. The automatic graph recording system is set.

5. The specimens are gradually loaded till it breaks.

6. The results are to be recorded.

Results:

Sno Type of Specimen Crippling Load

1 MS sheet of 6 mm thickness, 40 mm width and 200 29 kN
mm length
2 MS square pipe of 500 mm length 48.5 kN
3 Angle Beam of 500 mm length 194 kN
4 Channel Beam of 500 mm length Didn't fail at maximum load
applied by the UTM in the
lab at IARE

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3.6 Procurement, Logistics and Material storage

Fig 2.3 Transportation of materials to the storage site (picture taken on 4th November 2017)

The Materials were weighed on a digital balance and priced according to the market rate then.

Fig 2.4 Route map to storage site

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 Chapter - 04

Marking, Gas Cutting and Selection of Electrodes for Fabrication

The sequence of operations followed in the fabrication of cold PA duct made up of mild steel
are enlisted below :

4.1 Markings on steel sheets

Since a rectangular duct is to be fabricated, apart from the markings along its length and
breadth of the sheet and the length of the diagonal is to be checked. The measured length of
the diagonal must satisfy pythagoras theorem. This is done to ensure that an intended
rectangular marking doesn't end up being a rhombus. The precautions to be adopted while
making the markings on the sheets are enlisted below :

1. Ensure that the steel tape is held straight to make accurate markings.

2. The length of the diagonal must satisfy pythagoras theorem to ensure straightness.

3. Thick markings are to be avoided as it would lead to inaccuracies in cutting.

4. A certain measure of allowance is to be given to account for cutting inaccuracies.

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 Fig 2.5 Markings on steel sheet for gas cutting

4.2 Markings on steel channel, angle beams and square pipes

The following points are to be noted while making the marking on steel square pipes and
channel and angle beams :

1. Ensure that the steel tape is held straight to make accurate markings.

2. Thick markings are to be avoided as it would lead to inaccuracies in cutting.

4.3 Gas cutting of steel sheets

Since gas cutting of steel sheets is a hazardous task, the team requested assistance from
skilled tradesmen to help.

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 Fig 2.6 Gas Cutting of steel sheets

4.4 Selection of Electrodes for Arc Welding

The selection of electrodes was done after a detailled interaction with skilled welders and also
refered from [7]. After due consideration Arc welding electrodes of AWS E 6013 were
selected for the job because of the following reasons :

1. Welding to be done on all positions.

2. Welding for light weight structural works.

For a thorough understanding of AWS classification codes refer [8].

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 Chapter -05

Welding

Fig 2.7 Duct Side Panel

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Fig 2.8 ARC welding

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 Fig 2.9 Three Sides Assembly

Fig 3.0 Positioning of Internal Stiffener

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Fig 3.1 Final Assembly of top side panel

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Fig 3.2 Differences between professional and our welding work

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Fig 3.3 Finished Duct

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 Conclusion

The team successfully fabricated a rectangular steel duct weighing 500 kgs by independent
efforts. Through this exercise the team optimized weight and costs. The team understood the
importance of each and every stage in the product development cycle. Through this major
project, the team understood the importance of design and individual tradesman's skills. The
team realized that inputs from the shop floor are of prime importance for the development of
any design. The team now respects each and every skilled worker's abilities.

Scope for Future Work

1. Development of proper welding strategy and drawings.

2. Design and fabrication of low speed and high speed wind tunnel.

3. Estimation of surface roughness.

4. Boundary layer studies.

5. Design and development of stressed skin structures like fuselages of aircraft.

6. Soap bubble tests to determine leaks.

7. Study of stiffener spacing and sizing.

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 References

[1] Reverse Engineering :- https://en.wikipedia.org/Reverse_engineering.

[2] AFIT/CI/NR 86-153D 'Structural Design of Coal - Fueled Powerplant Ductwork',

Doctoral thesis in Civil Engineering 1986, University of Missouri-Rolla, Author : Stanley
Pearce Rader.

[3] Forced Draught Fan :- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-ID-fan-

and-FD-fan.

[4] Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel :- https://sciencing.com/mechanical-properties-mild-

steel-6618717.html.

[5] Steel and its Alloys, Effect of Individual Elements :- 'Aircraft Materials and Processes',
Fifth Edition, Publishers : Sterling Book House, Mumbai; ISBN : 81-7598-013-3, Author :
Titterton.

[6] Bending of Rectangular Plates :- 'Design Data : Data Book of Engineers' compiled by :
The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering PSG College of Technology, Publishers : Kalaikathir
Achchagam, Coimbatore - 641 037; ISBN 978-81-927355-0-4

[7] Selection of Electrodes (Arc Welding), Mild steel electrodes table, page 11.11, 'Design
Data : Data Book of Engineers' compiled by : the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering PSG
College of Technology, Publishers : Kalaikathir Achchagam, Coimbatore - 641 037; ISBN
978-81-927355-0-4

[8] Explanation of AWS Classification Numbers of Steel Arc Welding Electrodes, page
11.10, 'Design Data : Data Book of Engineers' compiled by : the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering PSG College of Technology, Publishers: Kalaikathir Achchagam, Coimbatore -
641 037; ISBN 978-81-927355-0-4

[9] Permissible Stress Design : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissible_stress_design

[10] Ducting Optimization - A Case Study, C. Hemalatha, T. Radhakrishnan and K.

Sankaranarayanasamy, International Journal of Applied Research in Mechanical Engineering
(IJARME), ISSN : 2231 - 5950, Volume - 1, Issue - 2, 2011

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