PPrt22 Learning Guide (Final) 8-26-2021

PPrt 22
Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology

LEARNING GUIDE
TP-IMD-02 v0 No. ______
STEPHEN Y. SABENORIO
COLLEGE OF TEACHER
EDUCATION, ARTS AND
SCIENCES, AND AGRIBUSINESS
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT 2021
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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No.
For instructional purposes only • 2nd Semester AY 2020-2021
No copies, temporary or permanent, in whole or part of this

IM shall be made without written permission from Visayas
State University.
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iii PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
Vision
A globally competitive university for science, technology,

and environmental conservation
Mission
Development of a highly competitive human resource,

cutting-edge scientific knowledge, and innovative
technologies for sustainable communities and the
environment.
Quality Policy
The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

law to provide excellent instruction, conduct relevant research, and foster
community engagement that produce highly competent graduates necessary
for the country's development. Toward this end, we, at the Visayas State
University, commit to:
1. produce highly competent, quality, and world-class manpower in
science and technology (S&T), especially for agriculture,
environmental management, and industry who are proficient in
communication skills, critical thinking, and analytical abilities,
2. generate and disseminate relevant knowledge and technology that
lead to improved productivity, profitability, and sustainability in
agriculture, environment, and industry,
3. satisfy the needs of the industry, the community, and government
sector who are in need of quality graduates and technology ready for
commercialization through the establishment, operation,
maintenance, and continuous improvement of a Quality Management
System which is aligned with the requirements of ISO 9001:2015.
It shall be the policy of the university that the quality policies and procedures
are communicated to and understood by all faculties, staff, students, and
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other stakeholders and that the system shall be continually improved for their
relevance and effectiveness.
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v PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
Learning Guide in
Title
PPRT 22: Crop
Page
Protection II – Plant
Pathology
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Foreword
People often ask one another when this Covid-19 will end? When will
vaccines be developed and approved for use? When will the lockdowns
terminate? When will face-to-face meetings and classes resume? The list of
questions continues. So many questions, and the future is still very uncertain.
Even the most renowned medical practitioners and the most powerful country
cannot give definite answers.
Given the new normal situation, where everyone wears masks and face
shields, no face-to-face meetings and close interactions, no parties, no
beaches, no outdoor entertainment, the higher education institutions also
adopt so that learning will continue despite the pandemic.
The Learning Guide in PPrt 22: Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology is
introduced to continue learning online or through printed modules. The
learning guide is specially designed to understand the concepts, theories,
applications, and importance of Personnel Management in various
organizations regardless of its form and nature.
The learning guide contains the necessary parts and provides a range
of activities to improve the learners' knowledge, deepen their understanding,
and develop their passion for people management. The guide is specially
devised for independent learning.
Today, the world may be at risk of the Covid-19, but the world will open
again, stronger and fiercer sooner or later.
May you have fun-filled learning as you go through the different
modules in the learning guide.
Stay healthy and keep safe.
The Author
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vii PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
Acknowledgment
I have to start thanking the Almighty Father from whom all blessing
flows the strength and wisdom to finish this learning guide.
The administration of Visayas State University, headed by the president,
Dr. Edgardo E. Tulin, for the opportunity to develop the Learning Guide in
PPrt22; Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology.
Chancellor, Dr. Luzviminda A. Tajos for the unwavering support;
Director of Academic Affairs, Dr. Catherine L. Chan, for the assistance;
College Dean, Dr. Esperanza E. Sumalinog for professional guidance;
Office of the Instructional Materials Development and web team for the
technical guidance;
Immeasurable appreciation and deepest gratitude also go to my
colleagues in the Department of Business Management for the guidance,
constructive comments, and suggestions that made this learning guide
complete.
Members of the Department IMs Review Committee Dr. Marjonnel B.
Abella and Mrs. Lecil N. Managbanag for the suggestions and relevant inputs;
To all who I failed to mention that helped me in the completion of this
learning guide, thank you very much.
Author
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About the Author
STEPHEN YCOY SABENORIO
Mr. Stephen Y. Sabenorio finished

his undergraduate degree in BS in
Animal Science in 2013 in VSU
Main Campus Visca, Baybay City,
Leyte.
He passed the Licensure

Examination for Agriculturists in
the same year held in Tacloban
City.
He is formerly a Coconut
Development Officer assigned in
Palompon, Leyte, under the
Philippine Coconut Authority
Northwestern Leyte/Biliran
Province, PCA R08.
He is currently an Instructor at the

Department of Business
Management in Visayas State
University – Isabel.
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ix PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
Table of Contents
Vision iii
Mission iii
Quality Policy iii
Title Page v
Foreword vi
Acknowledgment vii
About the Author viii
Table of Contents ix
List of Tables x
List of Figures List xi
Module 1: Plant Pathology 12

Module Pretest 12
Lesson 1.1: Impact of Disease on Mankind 13
Module Posttest 19
References and Additional Resources 19
Answers to the Pretest and Posttest 19
Module 2: The Concept of Plant Disease 20

Module Pretest 20
Lesson 2.1: The Disease Triangle 21
Module Posttest 39
Module 3: Plant Disease Diagnosis 42

Module Pretest 42
Lesson 3.1: Disease Diagnosis 43
Module Posttest 56
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List of Tables
1. Virus Symptoms ...................................................................... 34

2. Most important Diseases ....................................................... 54
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xi PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
List of Figures List
1. Rotting of Tuber ....................................................................... 14

2. Leaf Lesion of Potato.............................................................. 14
3. Photo of Heinrich Anton de Bary "Father of Plant
Pathology" ................................................................................ 15
4. Severe symptoms of Rust ...................................................... 16
5. Aspergillus flavus attacking corn .......................................... 18
6. Plant Disease Triangle ............................................................ 23
7. Ozone injury on Potato. .......................................................... 24
8. Morphology of Different Pathogens ...................................... 25
9. Conidia and Conidiophore of Fungi ....................................... 26
10. Sclerotial bodies of Claviceps sp. ......................................... 27
11. Asexual Reproductive structure of Phytophthora infestans
(A. sporangia; B. zoospores; C. chlamydospores; and D.
oospores) ................................................................................. 28
12. The Prokaryote Cell Structure ................................................ 29
13. Pierce's Disease of Grapes .................................................... 30
14. Distorted flower of Coneflower caused by Aster Yellow .... 31
15. Life Cycle of Bulb Nematode ................................................. 32
16. Life Cycle of Pratylenchus ...................................................... 33
17. Tobacco Mosaic Virus ............................................................ 34
18. Abaca Bunchy top showing symptoms ................................ 35
19. Structure of Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid .............................. 36
20. Structure of Flagellated Protozoa ......................................... 37
21. Striga disease cycle ................................................................ 38
22. Clubroot Disease of Cabbage ................................................ 44
23. Chlorosis .................................................................................. 45
24. Banana showing Rosette leaves............................................ 46
25. The color break caused by Tulip breaking Virus .................. 46
26. Root-knot .................................................................................. 47
27. Sexual Reproduction of Fungi ................................................ 50
28. Heterokaryon on Fungal Mitosis ........................................... 51
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For instructional purposes only • 2nd Semester SY 2020-2021
Module 1: Plant Pathology

Module Overview
Plant pathology is a field that investigates plant illnesses and aims to increase
plant survival when confronted with poor environmental circumstances and
disease-causing parasite microbes. As a result, plant pathology is a
challenging, intriguing, relevant, and worthwhile field of study in and of itself. It
is, however, science with the practical and noble purpose of protecting human
and animal food supplies.
In specific locations, plant diseases impede the cultivation and growth of food
plants; in others, food plants may be cultivated and produced, but plant
diseases may attack them, destroying parts or all of the plants and reducing
much of their yield before it will be harvested and consumed. Plant pathology
collaborates with the sciences of entomology and weed science to achieve its
purpose.
Motivation Questions
What is the significance of learning Plant Pathology?
Module Pretest
Instructions: Kindly answer the following questions independently before

reading the discussion in the materials provided. This is not a graded test, but
only to test your pre-existing subject knowledge.
Read every statement below. Write TRUE if you agree to the statement and
FALSE if you disagree. Put your responses in the blank section.
1. Aflatoxin are some of the toxin that fungus produced.__________

2. Insect vectors are one of the probable mechanisms by which
viruses are transmitted to plants.. __________
3. Cadang-cadang, rice tungro, and abaca bunchy top are only a few
of the diseases that affect the Philippines agricultural production
and environment. __________
4. Plant pathology studies plant ailments and attempts to improve
plant survival in adverse environmental conditions and disease-
causing parasite microorganisms.. __________
5. Claviceps purpurea is a fungi that caused Ergotism. __________
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13 PPrt 22: Crop Protection II - Plant Pathology
Lesson 1.1: Impact of Disease on Mankind
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, the students will understand the diseases and causative agents
that cause famine even death in the history of humankind. Several outbreaks
of this disease are Potato late blight that kills more than a million Irish, ergot of
the rye (ergotism), coffee rust, chestnut blight, and southern corn blight. The
nature of disease varies from the causative agent to bacteria, fungi, viruses,
nematodes, and others. Plant disease caused crop production losses globally,
either direct or indirect.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. define Plant Pathology;
2. discuss the important Plant Diseases in the Philippines; and
3. familiarize wisth the basic terms in Plant Pathology.
Motivation Question
How do plant diseases reduce their potential yield?
Discussion
Plant Pathology
Plant pathology is a science that studies plant diseases and aims to increase
plant survival when confronted with unfavorable environmental conditions and
disease-causing parasitic microorganisms.
As a result, plant pathology is a difficult, fascinating, significant, and

worthwhile field of study in and of itself. It is, however, science with the
practical and noble purpose of preserving human and animal food supplies. In
some places, plant diseases prevent the cultivation and growth of food plants;
in others, food plants may be cultivated and grown, but plant diseases can
attack them, destroying parts or all of the plants and reducing much of their
produce, i.e., food, before it can be harvested or eaten. Plant pathology
collaborates with the sciences of entomology and weed science to achieve its
goal.
Plant Pathology comes from the Greek words:

 pytho – plant
 pathos – suffering
 logos – study
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Plant Pathology mainly composed:
 Mycology – the study of fungi and fungi-like oomycetes

 Bacteriology – the study of bacteria
 Nematology – a study that deals on nematodes
 Virology – a study that deals on viruses and virus-like diseases (viroids
and phytoplasma)
Plant Pathologist – a person of expertise in the field of plant disease diagnosis,

whether it is biotic and abiotic. It understands the components of disease and
the mechanism to induce damage to plants. Develop methods in preventing,
controlling, and how to manage to reduce the intensity of the damage.
Impact of Plant Disease on Human
History of Plant Pathology

 700 B.C. - to rid their crops of Rust, the Romans sacrificed red dogs and
cattle to the Gods
 470 B.C. - Pliny said that sprinkling crushed olives on plants prevented
blight.
 1844-1845 - the Irish Potato Famine is the catalyst for the development
of modern plant pathology.
 1855 – Bordeaux Mixture is a fungicide made up of copper(II) sulfate
(CuSO4) and quicklime (CaO). It is used to avoid downy mildew,
powdery mildew, and other fungi infestations in vineyards, fruit farms,
and gardens. It is sprayed on plants as a preventative treatment;
however, once a fungus has developed itself, its mode of action renders
it ineffective. It was founded in the late 19th century in the Bordeaux
region of France.
 1904-1940 – “chestnut blight” in the eastern United States, the disease
wiped out all mature American Chestnuts.
Great Irish Famine: Potato Late Blight
 Europe in 1845 Potato Late Blight Epidemic
 Great Irish Famine in Ireland starve and kill more than a million people
and total destruction of the potato crop.
Symptoms of PLB
 lesions on the leaves
 rotting of leaves and stems
 rotting of tubers
Figure 2. Rotting of Tuber Figure 1. Leaf Lesion of Potato

https://www.apsnet.org/
https://spudsmart.com/disease-watch-late-blight/
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Causative Agent (Pathogens)
M. J. Berkeley called Botrytis infestans the causal pathogen for the first time
in the 1840s. Anton de Bary renamed the pathogen Phytophthora infestans in
1876. The name comes from the Greek words phyto, which means herb, and
plethora, which means destroyer. Phytophthora infestans are a member of the
oomycetes, a group of species sometimes known as "water molds."
Oomycetes are fungi that are more closely related to brown algae than true
fungi.
Figure 3. Photo of Heinrich Anton de Bary "Father of Plant Pathology"

https://www.apsnet.org/
Ergot of Rye
Ergot is a fungal disease caused by the Claviceps genus of fungi. This genus'
species are unusual in that they only infect the host plant's ovaries; no other
parts of the plant are infected. Claviceps is a genus of about 40 species, with
C. purpurea being the most dangerous.
While rye ergot reduces yields, the disease's importance is mainly due to the
toxic alkaloids present in the ergots (sclerotia). Both humans and animals are
susceptible to the alkaloids, which can cause serious health issues. Ergotism
refers to severe poisoning outbreaks caused by ergot fungi.
Ergotism
 earliest recorded mycotoxicosis
 sclerotia/sclerotium hard resting body of fungi
 ergotism was dated back as far as 600 BC
 in ancient Assyria – called as a daughter of the blood
 thousand European died due to the disease
Symptoms to Human
 tingling of extremities
 high fever
 cause hysteric and hallucination
 abortion
 loss of hands, feet, and legs due to restriction of blood flow, which
results in subsequent gangrene and even death
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Coffee Rust
 the intemperate country like in Britain, coffee became the preferred
drink, and coffee houses become as common as pubs
 Nordic countries are the highest coffee consuming nations
 In the year 1870, more than 400 plantations of coffee, comprising at
least 200,000ha were found in Ceylon
 In the same year, coffee rust struck Ceylon resulting in damage to crops
and coffee trading
 In 1880, tea was planted in Ceylon to replaced the 140,000ha of the
coffee trees
Pathogen: Hemileia vastatrix
Figure 4. Severe symptoms of Rust

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemileia_vastatrix
Chestnut Blight
 Caused by fungus Cryphonectria parasitica
 1904-1440 – the disease wiped out all the mature American Chestnuts
in Eastern and the North American States
 Accidentally introduced to North America from East Asia, particularly
Japan, to introduce Japanese chestnut trees for commercial purposes.
 They were first observed in the zoo of New York.
Southern Corn Blight

 1970, disease outbreak
 First appeared in Florida and spread northward, and destroyed
approximately 15 percent of the US corn crop.
 Caused by fungus Bipolaris maydis
 Two races of Pathogen: O Race and T Race
 O Race – attacks typically only the leaves (rectangular, reddish-
brown margin)
 T Race – attacks leaves, husks, stalks, ear, leaf sheath, and
cobs.
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Important Diseases in the Philippines

 Corn Downy Mildew
 Abaca Bunchy Top
 Rice tungro
 Citrus greening
 Coconut Cadang cadang
Corn Downy Mildew
 Caused by fungal-like Peronosclerospora philippinensis
 In the Philippines, where maize losses were projected to be 8 percent
nationally in 1974-75, losses can be as high as 100 percent.
 It destroys as much as 95 percent of produce annually
Abaca Bunchy Top
 In 1915, it was first observed at Silang, Cavite
 Since then, it has spread several provinces throughout the country,
destroying over 8,000 ha (20,000 acres) of abacá plantations in 2002
alone.
 It is transmitted by aphids Pentalonia nigronervosa
 The causal agent is a virus:
 Banana Bunchy Top Virus – BBTV (Musa sp.)
 Abaca Bunchy Top Virus – ABTV (Musa textiles)
Rice tungro
 First described in the Philippines as tungro
 Tungro means degenerative growth
 Rice tungro is one of the Philippines' most economically devastating
virus diseases; Rice tungro bacilliform Virus (RTBV) and Rice tungro
spherical virus cause this disease (RTSV)
 The virus transmitted by the Nephotettix virescens (Green leafhopper)
Citrus greening/Huanglongbing HLB

 First described in the Philippines and attributed to the deficiency of Zinc
 Due to the loss of over a million citrus trees, the country's citrus
production was reduced by 60 percent.
 The disease first arrived in the United States in the 1950s, when the
nation imported citrus seedlings from China, Taiwan, and India. Due to
the use of infected planting materials from infected citrus nurseries in
Batangas, HLB was first detected in Batangas, from where it spread to
the neighboring Bicol region.
 It is transmitted by grafting and Psyllid (Diaphorina citri )
 Causal agent: Candidatus liberibacter
Coconut Cadang-cadang
 Cadangcadang is derived from the Bicol term 'gadang-gadang,' which
means dead or dying.
 Over 30 million coconut trees were killed since CCCVd discovered
 It was first observed in San Miguel Island and dispersed in Samar,
Masbate, Bicol, and Quezon Province.
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 It directly affects the copra production in the country, which is a raw

material for coconut oil and animal feed.
Losses due to Diseases

 Direct
 Indirect
Direct losses due to Diseases

 yield reduction
 crop quality reduce
 deterioration of produce during storage, marketing, and transport
Indirect losses
 pre-dispose plants to attack of another pathogen/pest
 agricultural inputs increase
 the crop per unit area is limited
 some pathogens produced toxins which dangerous to humans and
animals. For example, Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus.
Figure 5. Aspergillus flavus attacking corn

https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/risk-aflatoxin
Learning Tasks/Activities
Your learning task for this lesson is set on VSU E-learning Environment
(VSUEE). If you have queries and clarification, please message your instructor
through Facebook messenger or call or text him on the number written in the
abridged syllabus.
Assessment
 Quiz
Your quiz is set on VSUEE. If you have queries and clarification, please
message your instructor through Facebook messenger or call or text
him on the number written in the abridged syllabus.
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Instructions on how to submit student output

For online modality. VSUEE
For print modality. Your answers/outputs should be written on a piece of yellow

paper or long bond paper. Make sure to indicate your full name, subject, class
schedule, block number, and name of your instructor. Then, submit it to the
VSU – Isabel Guard House.
Module Posttest
Instructions: Kindly answer the following questions independently. This is not

a graded test, but only to test your subject knowledge.
1. Aflatoxin are some of the toxin that fungus produced.__________

2. Insect vectors are one of the probable mechanisms by which
viruses are transmitted to plants.. __________
3. Cadang-cadang, rice tungro, and abaca bunchy top are only a few
of the diseases that affect the Philippines agricultural production
and environment. __________
4. Plant pathology studies plant ailments and attempts to improve
plant survival in adverse environmental conditions and disease-
causing parasite microorganisms.. __________
5. Claviceps purpurea is a fungi that caused Ergotism. __________
References and Additional Resources
AGRIOS, GEORGE N. (2005). Plant Pathology 5th Edition

https://www.britannica.com/plant/parasitic-plant. Retrieved July 13, 2021
Answers to the Pretest and Posttest
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
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Module 2: The Concept of

Plant Disease
Module Overview
Disturbance in the physiological process caused by a pathogen results in
changes in form, function, and integrity of the plant and may lead to partial
impairment or death of the plant part or the entire plant. Plant disease is a
change in a plant's normal state that disrupts or changes its important
processes. Plants of all kinds, wild and cultivated, are susceptible to illness.
Although each species is prone to specific diseases, there are only a few of
them in each situation. Plant diseases vary in occurrence and incidence from
season to season, depending on the pathogen present, environmental
circumstances, and the crops and kinds produced. Some plant kinds are more
susceptible to disease outbreaks, while others are more resistant.
How do we classify plant diseases?
Module Pretest

1. The spread of plant diseases can result in severe crop losses, which
can result in hunger and malnutrition in impoverished countries
where access to disease-control methods is limited.__________
2. Symptoms are the obvious impacts of illness on plants. A symptom
is any visible change in a plant's color, form, or function. __________
3. A saprophyte feeds on disintegrating organic matter. In the absence
of a living host, a parasitic saprophyte might become a
saprophyte.__________
4. Temperature and soil pH are sample of biotic causes of plant
disease. __________
5. Production of toxins of bacteria that disrupts the normal function of
plant cells is the main reason of plant disease. __________
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Lesson 2.1: The Disease Triangle
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, the most common way of defining disease is to name a pathogen
or agent that harms the host organism's health. The environment, which
includes harmful physical and social effects on people, is another presumed
but sometimes disregarded factor of disease. The disease triangle is a
conceptual model that depicts how the environment, the host, and infection
interact. This model can be used to predict epidemiological outcomes in plant
and public health, both locally and globally. The mid-nineteenth-century Irish
potato famine is used as an example to explain how the disease triangle, which
was originally developed to evaluate plant disease outcomes, may be used to
public health.
Learning Outcomes
1. recognize the symptoms and signs of plant disease;
2. explain the nature and causes of plant disease; and
3. discuss the mechanism of plant disease development,
pathogenesis, plant epidemiology, and etiology.
Motivation Question
How do diseases reduce plants’ potential yield?
Discussion
Plant Disease
According to the definition of a plant disease, it is "anything that prevents a
plant from performing to its maximum potential." This is a broad definition that
encompasses both abiotic and biotic plant diseases.
A plant disease is defined as any abnormal condition that causes a plant's
appearance or function to be compromised. It is a physiological process that
has an impact on some or all of the functions of the plant. The disease can
also have a negative impact on the yield and quality of harvested products.
Plant diseases have been discovered as far back as time immemorial.

According to fossil evidence, diseases afflicted plants 250 million years ago.
Many illnesses, such as rusts, mildews, and blights, are mentioned in the Bible
and other early literature, including the fact that they can have significant
impacts on the economy of nations from the dawn of recorded history. These
other recent plant disease outbreaks have had major repercussions in the
present. Late blight of Potato in Ireland began in the mid-1840s; powdery and
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downy mildews of the grape began in France in the mid-1850s; coffee rust
began in Sri Lanka in the late 1870s; Fusarium wilt of cotton and flax was first
noticed in Asia, Australia, and Africa in the mid-1990s; Sigatoka leaf spot and
Panama disease of banana appeared in Central America in the early 1900s;
black stem rust of wheat appeared in Europe in the mid-1910s; and Panama
disease of banana appeared in Central and South America during the latter half
of the 20th century. Due to losses from plant diseases, agricultural producers
and distributors will see a fall in income, while consumers will see higher costs.
Plant diseases can cause significant crop losses, which can lead to famine and
starvation in impoverished nations where the availability of disease-control
technologies is restricted. In some developing countries, annual crop losses of
approximately 30 to 50 percent are not unusual for important crops. If losses
are larger in certain years, crop failures result in total devastation for those who
depend on the crop for food. In the history of agriculture, disease epidemics
and food shortages have led to huge migrations and famines. The Great
Famine caused famine, death, and mass displacement of the Irish due to the
devastating outbreak of late blight of Potato (caused by the water mold
Phytophthora infestans), which began in Europe in 1845. A total of roughly 1
million (12.5% of the population) starved to death or succumbed to famine-
related sickness, while about 1.5 million (19% of the population) departed,
most of whom went to the United States as refugees fleeing the devastation
caused by the famine. Water mold was crucial in the rise of Europe and the
United States' economic, political, and cultural growth. Potato late blight
damage in Germany may have contributed to the end of World War I.
Symptoms are the visible effects of disease on plants that are visible to the
naked eye. A symptom is defined as any detectable change in the color, shape,
and/or functions of a plant as a result of the presence of a pathogen or disease-
causing agent.
The physical evidence of the pathogen, such as fungal fruiting structures,
bacterial ooze, or nematode cysts, is what distinguishes a plant disease from
a healthy plant. Plant disease identification can also be assisted by the use of
signs.
Diseases of plants are caused by living organisms that attack and feed on the
plants they infect, resulting in the development of the disease. A pathogen is a
parasitic organism that is responsible for the development of a disease.
A host is a plant that has been infected by a pathogen and is used as a food
source for the pathogen to feed on.
Components of Plant Disease

 Pathogen
 Host
 Environment
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Figure 6. Plant Disease Triangle

Source: https://www.tangischools.org/Page/35219
The pathogen, host, and environment interact to cause disease.

 the pathogen must be highly virulent
 the plant variety must be susceptible to the pathogen and in a
susceptible stage
 temperature and moisture levels in the environment must be favorable
for disease development
 disease is dynamic
Parasite vs Saphrophyte
A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another living organism and obtains
its food from that organism. An organism that has the ability to grow and
multiply is known as an obligate parasite only on hosts who are still alive.
A saprophyte is an organism that feeds on decomposing organic material. In
the absence of a living host, the facultative saprophyte, which is normally a
parasite, can transform into a saprophyte.
Causes of Plant Disease

The plant's overall well-being, or its health, must be maintained at all times if
the plant's economic value is to be maximized. Plant damage or death is
caused by an external agent, such as a pathogen or environmental stress, and
will affect the structure, function, and integrity of the plant, resulting in a subset
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of impairment or total plant mortality—plants suffering from disease yield less

than a healthy one.
A. Abiotic Causes (Environmental Factor)
Abiotic diseases are the result of long-term interaction between the
plant and one or more factors such as a lack of root space, the presence
of chronic or acute levels of air or water pollutants, or the presence of
moisture, heat, light, soil pH, and nutrients.
The majority of abiotic diseases cause widespread symptoms to
develop across a large portion of the tree or shrub. Wilting, yellowing,
smaller-than-normal leaf development, slower growth, branch death,
water sprout (epicormic shoot) formation, premature autumn leaf
coloration, and heavier-than-normal seed production are some of the
symptoms of abiotic diseases.
Sometimes very similar symptoms appear in the same location on very
different plant species. This is yet another indication that abiotic
factors, rather than living pathogens, are causing plant health problems.
A brief overview of abiotic diseases other than those caused by
pollution is provided below.
Figure 7. Ozone injury on Potato.

Source: https://blogs.cornell.edu/livegpath/gallery/potatoes/ozone-injury-on-potato/
B. Biotic Causes: Cause by Pathogens (Infectious Disease)

Types of Pathogens:
 Fungi
 Bacteria
 Nematodes
 Virus
 Viroids
 Phytoplasma
 Flagellate protozoa
 Parasitic plants
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Figure 8. Morphology of Different Pathogens

Source: https://juniperpublishers.com/arr/ARR.MS.ID.555584.php
Fungi
Fungi are multicellular organisms that can range in complexity from simple
single-celled organisms to extremely complex multicellular organisms. Despite
the fact that they can be found in almost any habitat, the vast majority of them
live on land, primarily in the soil or on plant material rather than in sea or
freshwater. There is a group of organisms known as decomposers that live in
the soil or on dead plant matter and contribute significantly to carbon and other
elements cycling in the environment. A number of them are parasites that
infect plants and cause diseases such as mildews, ruses, scabs, and canker.
Fungal diseases in crops can cause a significant monetary loss for the farmer
if left untreated. Fungi are heterotrophic means that they obtain carbon and
energy from other organisms.
Anamorph – imperfect or asexual stage of fungi
Teleomorph – perfect or sexual stage
Types of Fungi based on habitat:

 Biotrophs – obtain their food from a living host
 Saprotrophs – obtain their nutrients from dead plants or animals
 Nectrotrophs – infect a living host and kill the host cells in order to
obtain their nutrients
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Characteristics of Fungi
 they have true nuclei (eukaryotes) and cellular organelles
 cell wall made up of chitin and glucan
 they have a vegetative structure composed of filamentous threads
called hypha
 masses of hypha are called mycelia
 mycelium may have crossed walls or septa or none (coenocytic)
 spore-bearing
 sexual and asexual reproduction
 asexual spores are called conidia, arise from conidiophore
 some don't produce spores; instead, they produce sclerotial bodies,
which are hardened masses of mycelia
Four Major Phylum of Fungi

 Chytridiomycota
 Zygomycota
 Ascomycota
 Basidiomycota
Figure 9. Conidia and Conidiophore of Fungi

Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:04_03_21a_conidiophores,_Aspergillus,_Penicillium
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Figure 10. Sclerotial bodies of Claviceps sp.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerotium
Fungi-like Oomycetes
There are several hundred species of oomycetes, also known as "water molds,"
in the world, and they include some of the most devastating plant pathogens
on the planet. Among the diseases they can cause are seedling blights,
damping-off, root rot, foliar blight, and downy mildew, among others. Late
blight of Potato, downy mildew of grapevine, sudden oak death, and root and
stem rot of soybean are some of the diseases that have made headlines
recently.
Oomycetes have long been regarded as lower fungi by plant pathologists
because of their filamentous growth habit, ability to obtain nutrition through
absorption, and ability to reproduce through spores. It is now clear, however,
that this group of organisms is not related to the true fungi as our
understanding of evolutionary relationships has progressed. As a matter of
fact, fungi and animals are more closely related than oomycetes, while
oomycetes and algae are more closely related than fungi and algae and green
plants.
Characteristic of Oomycetes
 spore-bearing
 sporangiospores are enclosed in sporangia and borne on a
sporangiophore
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 produce zoospores asexually

 mycelium are coenocytic
 cell walls made up of cellulose and glucan
Figure 11. Sexual Reproductive structure of Phytophthora infestans (A. sporangia; B.

zoospores; C. chlamydospores; and D. oospores)
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycete
Plant Pathogenic Prokaryotes

A prokaryote is a type of organism that is typically unicellular in nature and
does not contain a nucleus that is enclosed by a nuclear membrane. The word
prokaryote is derived from the Greek words “pro” (which means 'before') and
“karyon” (which means 'nut' or 'kernel'). When Édouard Chatton developed his
two-empire system, prokaryotes were classified within the empire Prokaryota,
which was the first empire to be established.
Although prokaryotes are classified into three domains in the three-domain
system based on molecular analysis, prokaryotes are classified into two
domains: Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria) and Archaea (formerly
Archaebacteria). Organisms that contain nuclei are classified as belonging to
the Eukaryota domain. Prokaryotes are thought to have evolved first, before
eukaryotes, according to the study of the origins of life.
I. Bacteria
 define nucleus or double membrane-bound organelles
 rigid cell wall envelope in a slime layer
 mostly present as singular chromosomes
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 additional DNA is found in many bacteria as independently

reproducing plasmids
 plant-infecting bacteria are either rod or filamentous shaped, may
or may not have flagella
 reproduce via binary fission
 nature of bacteria don’t penetrate the host directly
 enter through plant openings like nectaries, hydathodes, and
stoma
 distributed through the air, water, insects, plant parts, and
contaminated equipment
Figure 12. The Prokaryote Cell Structure

Source: https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/bacteriacell.html
Mode of Penetration of Bacteria

 invade tissues intercellularly, although when parts of the cell walls
dissolve, bacteria also grow intercellularly
 invade the vascular system, which results in wilting
Biology and Ecology of Bacteria

 Obligate parasite – an organism that can grow and multiply only in the
living host
 Facultative saprophyte – ordinarily a parasite, but in the absence of a
living host, can become a saprophyte.
 Soil inhabitants
 Moisture and temperature are critical to their survival
How do bacteria cause disease?
 produce enzymes that disrupt normal cell functions
 block the vascular system so that water and nutrients cannot normally
move within the plant
Major General of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria
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 Xanthomonas
 Ralstonia (Pseudomonas)
 Pectobacterium (Erwinia)
 Agrobacterium
 Streptomyces
*more than 20 genera are plant pathogenic bacteria
II. Fastidious Vascular Colonizing Bacteria

 Phloem-inhabiting bacteria
 Xylem-inhabiting bacteria
a) Fastidious Phloem-inhabiting bacteria

 "yellows" type of symptoms (chlorosis, stunting, and death)
 phloem necrosis
 phloem-resident walled bacteria
 formerly called "Rickettsia-like organism."
 sample of disease: Citrus greening
b) Fastidious Xylem-inhabiting bacteria
 Inhabits water-transporting cells of the xylem of their host
 Transmitted by leafhoppers (Homalodisca vitripennis)
 Xylella fastidiosa: Pierce’s disease of grapevines and citrus
variegated chlorosis
 Pierce's disease of grapes resulting in drying and scalding of
the leaf margin area and defoliation of petiole attached
Figure 13. Pierce's Disease of Grapes

Source: https://winesvinesanalytics.com/features/article/138044/Controlling-PD-in-Texas-
and-Missouri
III. Mollicutes: Phytoplasmas

 DNA not bound with nuclear membrane
 lack cell wall (“molli”-soft; “cute” – skin)
 Pleomorphic: variable shape due to the absence of cell wall
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 reproduce via budding and binary fission

 infect phloem sieve tubes
 transmitted bu leafhoppers, psyllids, and planthoppers
 similar characteristics to virus diseases
 produce virus-like symptoms such as yellowing, stunting,
reduction in the size of leaves, and deformation
 need insect vector for transmission to other plants
 some of the diseases caused by phytoplasma are Aster Yellow
Disease, coconut lethal yellowing, and corn stunt
Figure 14. Distorted flower of Coneflower caused by Aster Yellow

Source: https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens-gardening/your-garden/help-for-
the-home-gardener/advice-tips-resources/pests-and-problems/diseases/viruses/aster-
yellows.aspx
 Aster yellows are characterized by chlorosis or

yellowing of the leaves while the veins remain
green. The rate of growth decreases, and the
leaves may be smaller and narrower than typical.
 Curled foliage is a common occurrence.
 Flowers can be distorted, with odd tufts of
malformed leaves appearing inside or outside
the blossom.
 It's possible that flowers will not generate seeds.
Depending on which species is afflicted, the
symptoms of the sickness will vary.
 Carrot roots, for example, can be bitter and hairy,
whereas lettuce can have pink or tan patches
and twisted inner leaves.
IV. Nematodes
 often called roundworms
 a multicellular organism with a smooth and unsegmented body
 “stylet” hollow needle-like spear that is used by puncturing cell
walls
Modes of Penetration to the Host Plant

 Direct penetration
 Through natural openings
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Life Cycle of Nematodes
Figure 15. Life Cycle of Bulb Nematode

Source: Stirling, Graham & Nicol, Julie. (2021). Advisory Services for Nematode Pests.
Parasitic Habits
 Ectoparasitic - they stay outside the plant and only use a small portion
of their bodies to penetrate. Infected roots may stop growing.
 Endoparasitic - enter tissues entirely or with a large portion of their
body.
 Migratory endoparasitic
 root-lesion nematode - Pratylenchus
 stems and bulb – Ditylenchus
 buds and leaves – Aphelenchoides
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Figure 16. Life Cycle of Pratylenchus

Source: “Plant Disease caused by Nematodes” in Plant Pathology, 3rd edition by George N.
Agrios (1987).
 Sessile/sedentary - remain rooted or burrow into roots; remain
sedentary either partly or entirely within the roots.
 Tylenchulus, Rotylenchulus, Meloidogyne, and
Heterodera
Mechanism of Nematode infection

 injured the host cells; necrosis
 the toxic secretions they inject cause cell divisions at the root tip to be
inhibited, resulting in the root ceasing to grow
 cells and tissues are killed
 the breakdown of cell walls results in the formation of giant cells
Symptoms of Nematode Damage

 usually related to malfunctioning of the root system
 necrotic lesions on root, excessive root branching
 wilting
 nutrient deficiencies – chlorosis
 stunting and death of plant host
 galls (hypertrophy and hyperplasia)
V. Viruses and Viroids

 composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) encapsidated by a
protein coat
 replicate only in a suitable host cell using plant host’s
synthesizing machinery
 different shapes
 size ranges from 18-2000nm
 plant virus cannot enter the plant host cell, which means it
needs another way to penetrate the plant protective layer
Ways of Virus Transmission to Plant Host

 Mechanical – tools infected.
 Biological vectors – insects, fungi, and nematodes
 Seed
 Pollen
 Vegetative propagation using infected plant parts
How does the virus cause Disease to Plant?

 A virus needs live plant tissue for their replication
 Plant viruses must battle plant defense mechanisms and usurp the
functions of various host components in order to complete their life
cycle.
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 Viral components must interact and/or interfere with host components,

causing a change in plant physiology and, as a result, the emergence of
symptoms.
Table 1. Virus Symptoms
GENERAL DESCRIPTION SYMPTOMS

stunting
Change in general appearance bunchy
Grassy
Yellowing
Mosaic
Discoloration stripes and streaks
color break
Ringspot
leaf curling
Deformation leaf rolling
shoe-stringing
little leaf
Size reduction
bunchy top
Examples of Diseases caused by a virus

 Tobacco Mosaic Virus
 Abaca Bunchy Top and Banana Bunchy Top
 Color break in Tulips
 Papaya ringspot
 Rice tungro
 Rice Grassy Stunt
Figure 17. Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Source: https://burleytobaccoextension.ca.uky.edu/content/tobacco-mosaic-virus-tmv
 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

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 Symptoms may include mosaic, mottling, necrosis, stunting,

leaf curling, and yellowing of plant tissues.
 Abaca Bunchy top and Banana Bunchy Top
 Abaca bunchy top Virus (ABTV) is a plant disease belonging to

the Nanoviridae family. Both abacá (Musa textilis) and banana
have been found to contain ABTV (Musa sp.). ABTV resembles
banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) in many ways; however, it
differs genetically and serologically in that it lacks two open
reading frames found in BBTV's genome. ATV's genome is
made up of six circular components that are each 1,000-1,500
base pairs long.
 Transmitted through aphids (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
 Yellowing and curling of leaf margins
 Stunted growth
Figure 18. Abaca Bunchy top showing symptoms

Source: https://www.promusa.org/Bunchy+top
 Rice tungro
 Rice tungro spherical virus

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 Rice tungro bacilliform virus

 Transmitted by green leafhoppers (Nephotettix
virescens)
 Yellow or orange discoloration begins from the leaf flip
and extends down to the lower leaf portion
 Rice Grassy Stunt
 Rice grassy stunt virus

 Transmitted by brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens)
VI. Viroids
 small infectious pathogen
 made up of a single-stranded circular RNA strand
 lack of protein coat
 takes control of the host's RNA polymerase II (an enzyme that
synthesizes mRNA in a cell) and uses it for replication; can
replicate independently of any linked virus
Figure 19. Structure of Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_spindle_tuber_viroid
Viroid Transmission
 Mechanical – tools used that is contaminated
 Pollen – PSTVd
 Seed
 Aphid
Example of Disease caused by Viroids

 Potato spindle tuber
 infected potato plants appear erect, spindly, dwarf
 tubers are elongated, smooth, and tapered in the end
 tuber eyes are more and more conspicuous
 Coconut Cadang-cadang
 The healthy coconut of the same age showing yellowing,
 stunting, tapered stem, and reduced crown with no fruit;
 infected coconut showing yellowing, stunting, tapered stem,
and reduce crown with no fruit
 Nonnecrotic, chlorotic spotting on leaflets from a healthy palm
(left) and a palm with late-stage disease (right)
 Avocado sunblotch
 Apple scar skin
VII. Flagellate Protozoa
 one-celled eukaryotic organism

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 move by means of flagella

 known to infect latex bearing plants in Mauritius since the
1900s
 Phytomonas
 sudden wilting of coconut
 ficus, coffee, and oil palm
 Phloem necrosis of coffee
 Hartert disease of coconut
 Martinez sopresiva (sudden wilt) of oil palm
 Transmitted through root grafts and insects
Figure 20. Structure of Flagellated Protozoa

Source: https://water.mecc.edu/courses/ENV108/lesson6_4b.htm
VIII. Parasitic Flowering Plants (Phanerogams)

 the plant that is dependent on another plant (host) that acquires
all or part of its sustenance from the host, with the burden being
on the host and causing serious damage to the host.
 Parasitic plants have a structural characteristic known as the
haustorium, which is a specialized organ that produces a
vascular union between the parasite and its host.
 also known as parasite plants, plants such as climbing vines,
lianas, epiphytes, and aerophytes differ from plants such as
epiphytes, air plants, and orchids, as the latter two use other
plants as support structures but are not parasitic, as they don't
obtain water or nutrients from other plants
Types of Parasitic Flowering Plants

 Hemiparasite – depends on the host for water and minerals but not for
photosynthesis. Ex. Striga Asiatica or Witchweed
 Holoparasites - are nonphotosynthetic and depend on the xylem and
phloem material for sustenance. The entire life cycle of a holoparasite
needs a host in order to be completed, and so the species is an
obligatory parasitic. Ex. Cuscuta sp. or Dodder
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Figure 21. Striga disease cycle

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/haustorium
abridged syllabus.
Assessment
 Quiz


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Module Posttest

1. The spread of plant diseases can result in severe crop losses, which
can result in hunger and malnutrition in impoverished countries where
access to disease-control methods is limited.__________
2. Symptoms are the obvious impacts of illness on plants. A symptom is
any visible change in a plant's color, form, or function. __________
3. A saprophyte feeds on disintegrating organic matter. In the absence of
a living host, a parasitic saprophyte might become a
saprophyte.__________
4. Temperature and soil pH are sample of biotic causes of plant disease.
__________
5. Production of toxins of bacteria that disrupts the normal function of
plant cells is the main reason of plant disease. __________
CHEEKE, PETER R. 1991. Applied Animal Nutrition.McMillan Publishing

Company, New York.
RILEY. M.B., M.R. Williamson, and O. Maloy. (2002). Plant disease diagnosis.
The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2002-1021-01
https://www.britannica.com/science/plant-disease. Retrieved July 13, 2021
https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction-to-biology/fungi-sexual-
reproduction. Retrieved July 13, 2021
Agrios G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. 955p. New York: Academic Press.
Dhingra O. D. 1985. Basic Plant Pathology Methods. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Leboffe M.J. & Pierce B. E. 2012. Exercises for the Microbiology Laboratory.
4th ed. Morton Publishing Company.
Matthew R. E. F. 1991. Plant Virology. 3rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
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Tuite J. 1969. Plant Pathological Methods. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing

Company.
Whitfield, A. E. & D. Rotenberg. 2015. Disruption of insect transmission of plant

viruses. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 8, 79-87.
Trigiano, R.N. 2007. Plant Pathology Concepts and Laboratory Exercises. CRC
Press.
Agrios, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Elsevier Academic Press
Publications. USA. 148 p.
Barnett, H.I. and B.B. Hunter. 1972. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. 3rd
ed. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company.
Crous, P.W., G.J.M. Verkley, J.Z. Groenewald and R.A. Samson. 2009. Fungal
Biodiversity. CBS-Know Fungal Biodiversity Center. Netherlands. 269 p.
De la Cueva, F.M., C.B. Pascual, C.M. Bajet, and T.U. Dalisay (editors). 2015.
Pest and Diseases of Economically Important Crops in the Philippines. Pest
Mgt. Council of the Philippines, Inc., Dept. of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural
Research. 629 pp.
Dugan, F.M. 2008. The Identification of Fungi. An Illustrated Introduction with

Keys, Glossary and Guide to Literature. The American Phytopathological
Society, Minnesota, U.S.A. 175 p.
Eisenbach, J. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University;

http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/
Ilag, L.L. and L.L. Ilag. 2002. Learning the Principles of Plant Pathology. 2nd ed.
College, Laguna: UPLB-CA.
Kirk, P.M., P.F. Cannon, J.C. David, and J.A. Stalpers. 2004. Ainsworth &
Bisby’s Dictionary of Fungi. 9th edition. CABI Bioscience, Surrey, U.K. 655 p.
Ling, K.C. 1972. Rice Virus Diseases. Los Baños, Laguna: International Rice
Research Institute.
Quebral, F.C. 1973. Pictorial Guide to Vegetable Diseases in the Philippines:

Vegetable Res. Ext. Program. Bull. No. 1.
Tangonan, N.G. 1999. Host Index of Plant Diseases in the Philippines. 3rd ed.
DA-PhilRice.
Steered, A. 2012. Diseases of Plantation Crops. Biotech Books, Delhi – 110 035
Ahamad, S., Narain, U. 2007. Ecofriendly Management of Plant Diseases. Daya
Publishing House, Delhi 110 035.
Berg, L. R., 2012. Introduction to Botany. CENGAGE Learning.
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1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
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Module 3: Plant Disease

Diagnosis
Module Overview
Unique functions of plant pathologists include diagnosis of plant
diseases and research on the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors
and on plant-pathogen relationships. Both diagnostics and attempts to keep
plant health can only be successful if they account for all of the biotic
pathogens and environmental variables involved in disease development. A
diagnosis is "the art or act of recognizing the presence of disease from its
symptoms, and deciding as to its character; also the conclusion arrived at
through critical perception or scrutiny, and a diagnosis is "the art or act of
recognizing the presence of disease from its symptoms, and deciding as to its
character; also the conclusion arrived at through critical perception or scrutiny;
and an accurate assessment of appearances.
Diagnosis is an art, but the underlying science of plant pathology, which

is also known as systematized knowledge obtained through observation, study,
and experimentation, must always be considered; it has been stated that the
necessity of field expertise with the crop helps increase and expedite a
research team's ability to diagnose various issues associated with it. This
offers highly specific information about the crop, including how it looks. It's
important to recognize what the many differences are between health and
disease fluctuation in symptoms and their timing over time, and from abilities
to increase the look and see if there are any consequences and repercussions
to the spatial distribution of disease.
What is the role of a plant pathologist in plant disease diagnosis?
Module Pretest

1. Introduction of pathogen into host plant is called

inoculation.__________
2. A disease cycle where only one disease cycle in a growing cycle is
called polycylic disease. __________
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3. A disease cycle where there are multiple disease cycles, and the
primary cycle frequently repeats the phase known as the cycle of
secondary disease is called monocyclic disease. __________
4. Genetic material transfer between compatible bacteria via a pilus or
conjugation bridge is called transformation. __________
5. A type of symptoms which the direct result of pathogen activity on
the invaded tissues is called primary symptoms. __________
Lesson 3.1: Disease Diagnosis
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, the students will learn the importance of plant disease diagnosis
while observing the signs and symptoms. Before you conclude, there is a
problem. It is vital to first understand what the typical appearance of a plant is.
For example, hosta cultivars, herbs like golden oregano, and coleus types
appear to suffer indications of under-fertilization, root stress, or soil pH
problems at first glance because their leaves appear yellow to pale green.
In order to accurately identify the symptoms, the first step is to make sure that
the plant's typical appearance has been determined. Then multiple
comparisons can be made between the problem plants and healthy plants.
This is how to compare the size, shape, and coloration of different qualities.
You should take into consideration the different forms, sizes, and coloration of
leaves, roots, and bark when making this comparison. Normal events, such as
leaf falling, are also crucial to point out. When an example is given, keep in mind
that some holly species have leaves that fall off in the spring.
Learning Outcomes
1. recognize the symptoms and signs of plant disease;
2. explain the nature and causes of plant disease; and
3. discuss the mechanism of plant disease development,
pathogenesis, plant epidemiology, and etiology.
Motivation Question
How does correct plant identification characteristic important in plant
diagnosis?
Discussion
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The course of diseases consists of a progression of symptoms that vary

widely. One of the primary symptoms connected with biotic-agent-related
illnesses is the progression of symptoms. Primary and secondary symptoms
can occur as a result of diseases. To give another example, a root system that
has decomposed on a tree might be considered the primary symptom, while
the toppling over of the tree or windthrow may be considered a secondary
symptom. The manifestations of an earlier stage of a disease may be obscured
by secondary invaders, which results in symptoms seen at a later stage of the
disease not matching those for the initial infection.
In plants that are displaying symptoms of disease, it is necessary to watch for

a gradual progression of disease symptoms. Symptoms may also be
comparable to spots that are caused by an infectious agent if they are caused
by inappropriate use of a herbicide. Unlike herbicide harm, symptoms do not
appear gradually; instead, they are present for a short time and then disappear
without the chance for further progression. Additionally, the patches may
possibly be connected to the herbicide spray patterns. In addition to causing
leaf distortion, some herbicides (2,4-D, for example) may cause leaf distortion
that is misdiagnosed with viral infections. When new leaves form, they will
typically be symptom-free, which indicates that the disease has not
progressed.
Symptoms - the external and internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a

result of the disease.
 Primary symptoms – the direct result of pathogen activity on the
invaded tissues
 Secondary symptom – the physiological effects on distant and
uninvaded organs
Primary Symptom – Clubroot Secondary Symptom – Wilting and Stunted
Figure 22. Clubroot Disease of Cabbage

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/KaviyaR6/clubroot-of-cabbage
 Localized symptom – alteration of the host cell that is limited to a

region of the host plant, such as leaf spots, galls, and cankers, are
considered localized symptoms.
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 Systemic symptoms - such as wilting, yellowing, and dwarfing, are

those that involve the reaction of a larger portion of the entire plant, as
opposed to local symptoms.
 Microscopic - expressions of disease in cell structure or arrangement
that can be studied only under the microscope
 Macroscopic - expressions of the disease in the plant or in its parts
that can be studied with the unaided eye
Symptom Classification
 Necrotic – the death of tissues

 Hypoplastic – underdevelopment
 Hyperplastic – overdevelopment
 Hypertrophy – increase in the size of cells
 Hyperplasia – increase in the number of cells
Necrotic
 characterized as the death of protoplast

 blights and leaf spots
Hypoplastic and Hyperplastic Symptoms
 Hypoplastic - the failure or cessation of differentiation, development,

or growth of the plant or some of its parts
 Hyperplastic or hypertrophic - an over differentiation, overdevelopment,
or overgrowth of tissues or organs
Hypoplastic Symptom
Figure 23. Chlorosis

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Source: https://treesunlimitednj.com/how-to-spot-treat-and-prevent-chlorosis/
Hypoplastic Symptom
Figure 24. Banana showing Rosette leaves

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_banana_and_plantain_diseases
Figure 25. The color break caused by Tulip breaking Virus

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_breaking_virus
Hyperplastic Symptom
Figure 26. Root-knot

Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4531587/
Signs
A physical manifestation of the pathogen is a symptom of plant disease. For

example, fungal fruiting structures are a symptom of a fungus infection. When
you look at powdery mildew on a lilac leaf, you are actually looking at the
parasitic fungal disease organism that is responsible for the disease
(Microsphaera alni). Gummosis is caused by the bacterial canker of stone
fruits, which is a bacterial exudate that emerges from the cankers. However,
the canker itself is formed of plant tissue and is a symptom of the disease, but
the thick, liquid exudate is mostly composed of bacteria and serves as an
indicator of the sickness.
Koch’s Postulate
Originally established by Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch in the late 1800s,

Koch's postulates are a set of observations and experimental conditions meant
to demonstrate the causation of a certain infectious disease by a specific
organism. Standard procedure for proving that a disease is caused by a
bacterium or any kind of pathogen.
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 The pathogen must be found associated with all symptomatic plants.

 the pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture and its
characteristics described.
 the pathogen from pure culture or from the test plant must be
inoculated on the same species or variety as it was originally described,
and it must produce the same symptoms that were seen on the
originally diseased plants.
 the pathogen must be isolated in pure culture again, and its
characteristics described exactly like those observed in Step 2.
Variability of Plant Pathogens
A dynamic and significant component of biology is that people have different

qualities, which are not fixed, which is known as the phenomenon of variation.
This is more prevalent in organisms that reproduce sexually, such as
oomycetes, uradinales, and so on. Variability is low in asexually reproducing
organisms; nevertheless, some exhibit far higher variability.
 Variation beyond the species level

 Formae specialis (f.sp.) in fungi
 Pathovar in bacteria
 Races in bacteria
 Strains in Virus
Forma speciales (special form)

 Species: Fusarium oxysporum
 f. sp. lycopercisi – Tomato
 f. sp. cubense – Banana
 f. sp. vasinfectum – Cotton
Pathovars
Pathovars are bacterial strains or sets of strains characterized by being distinct

at the infrasubspecific level based on the ability to infect distinct plant hosts.
Characteristics that are identical or similar (cell), cultural, morphology, colony
morphology biochemical properties, and so on) but are differentiated
according to host range.
Why are pathogens variable? GENETICS OF HOST-PARASITE INTERACTIONS

GENE-FOR-GENE CONCEPT (H. Flor, 1942) “For each gene in the host that
confers resistance, there is a corresponding gene in the pathogen that confers
virulence, and vice-versa.”
How do pathogens generate diversity in their population?
 General Mechanisms of Variation: Sexual Reproduction and Mutation

 Specialized Mechanism of Variation for Fungi and Bacteria
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Variability through Sexual Reproduction
 Diversity through Gene Segregation and Gene Recombination
Sexual reproduction, a major source of genetic variation, enables the fungus to

adapt to new environments. In many ways, the process of sexual reproduction
among fungi is unique. Whereas in other eukaryotes, such as animals, plants,
and protists, nuclear division involves the dissolution and reformation of the
nuclear membrane. In fungi, the nuclear membrane remains intact throughout
the process, though some species have gaps in its integrity. The fungus's
nucleus becomes pinched at its midpoint, causing the diploid chromosomes to
be pulled apart by spindle fibers formed within the intact nucleus. The
nucleolus is usually retained and divided between the daughter cells, though it
can be expelled from the nucleus or be dispersed but detectable within the
nucleus.
Sexual reproduction in fungi occurs in three stages: plasmogamy, karyogamy,

and meiosis. The diploid chromosomes are separated into two daughter cells,
each of which contains a single set of chromosomes (a haploid state).
Plasmogamy, or the fusion of two protoplasts (the contents of two cells),
brings two compatible haploid nuclei together. Two nuclear types coexist in the
same cell at this point, but the nuclei have not yet fused. Karyogamy causes
the fusion of these haploid nuclei, resulting in the formation of a diploid nucleus
(i.e., a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent).
The zygote is the cell formed by karyogamy. In most fungi, the zygote is the
only diploid cell throughout the entire life cycle. The dikaryotic state caused by
plasmogamy is a common condition in fungi and can last for several
generations. Karyogamy usually follows plasmogamy almost immediately in
the lower fungi. However, in more evolved fungi, karyogamy is distinct from
plasmogamy. After karyogamy, meiosis (cell division that reduces the number
of chromosomes to one set per cell) usually follows and restores the haploid
phase. The haploid nuclei produced by meiosis are usually incorporated into
spores known as meiospores.
Fungi use a variety of methods to join two compatible haploid nuclei

(plasmogamy). Some produce specialized sex cells (gametes) that are
released from gametangia, which are differentiated sex organs. In other fungi,
two gametangia come into contact, and nuclei pass from the male to the
female gametangium, assuming the function of gametes. In some fungi, the
gametangia may fuse in order to bring their nuclei together. Finally, some of
the most advanced fungi produce no gametangia at all; the sexual function is
taken over by somatic (vegetative) hyphae, which come into contact, fuse, and
exchange nuclei.
Hermaphroditic fungi are those in which a single individual bears both male
and female gametangia. Rarely, separate individuals, one male and one female
produce gametangia of different sexes. Such species are known as dioecious.
Dioecious species typically produce sex organs only when an individual of the
opposite sex is present.
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Figure 27. Sexual Reproduction of Fungi

Source: https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction-to-biology/fungi-sexual-
reproduction
Mutation
 heritable change that occurs on a continuous basis in the genetic

information
 arose spontaneously or as a result of the mutagenic agents' action
 during DNA replication, there is a copy error.
 chromosome rearrangement or loss of segments
 abnormalities that occur during meiosis or mitosis
Variation of Fungi
 Heterokaryosis - A heterokaryon is a multinucleate cell with genetically

distinct nuclei. The terms heterokaryotic and heterokaryosis are
derived. This is a subspecies of the syncytium. This can happen
naturally, as in the mycelium of fungi during sexual reproduction, or it
can happen artificially, as in the experimental fusion of two genetically
different cells.
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Figure 28. Heterokaryon on Fungal Mitosis

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokaryon
 Heteroploidy - the number of chromosomes in the nucleus of cells,

tissues, or entire organisms differs from the normal number (n+1 or n-
1) chromosomes.
 Parasexual process - genetic recombination occurs in vegetative
hyphae during mitosis, not in gametes during meiosis, as seen in sexual
reproduction.
Variation of Bacteria
 Conjugation - genetic material transfer between compatible bacteria
via a pilus or conjugation bridge
 Transformation – bacterial cells absorb and incorporate heritable
genetic material released by other bacteria that have ruptured into their
own cells.
 Transduction – transfer of genetic material from one bacterial cell to
another by means of a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria)
DISEASE CYCLE
 Inoculation – introduction of the pathogen in the host

 Penetration – propagule penetrates the cell wall of the host directly or
indirectly through a wound or natural opening
 Infection – interaction with the host and successful establishment of
disease
 Reproduction – pathogen multiply or produce new propagules
 Dissemination – new propagules are dispersed or disseminated by
various means such as wind, rain, within vectors, seed, and
contaminated debris or equipment.
Monocyclic Disease
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 only one disease cycle in a growing cycle

 inoculum that is produced during the disease cycle does not contribute
to or fuel the disease during the current growing season
 propagules produced during the disease cycle overwinter and become
the primary inoculum
Polycyclic Disease
 there are multiple disease cycles, and the primary cycle frequently
repeats the phase known as the cycle of secondary disease
 after the invasion; the inoculum spreads and causes more infections
during the current growing season.
 The inoculum contributes to the secondary disease cycle, which can be
repeated many times.
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Plant diseases have caused significant losses to humans in a variety of ways.

Plant disease management aims to reduce the economic and aesthetic harm
caused by plant diseases. This has traditionally been referred to as plant
disease control, but current social and environmental values regard “control”
as absolute and the term too rigid. However, this shift in attitude has resulted
in more multifaceted approaches to disease management and integrated
disease management. Single, often harsh, measures, such as pesticide
applications, soil fumigation, or burning, are no longer widely used.
Furthermore, rather than being determined on a calendar or prescription basis,

disease management procedures are frequently determined by disease
forecasting or disease modeling. Disease management can be viewed as
proactive, whereas disease control is reactive, though it is often difficult to
distinguish between the two concepts, particularly when specific measures are
implemented.
Four General Principles of Disease Management

 exclusion
 eradication
 protection
 resistance
Exclusion - preventing the introduction of a "new pathogen" into an area where

it is currently unknown.
Methods of Exclusion
 legal measures (quarantine)

 pathogen-free planting materials (tissue culture)
Eradication - pathogens that have become established within the plant or in an

area must be eliminated.
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Methods of Eradication
 Physical
 heat treatment
 irradiation
 drying stored grains
 refrigeration
 Chemical
 systemic chemical
 soil fumigants
 disinfection of warehouse
 control of insect vectors
 Cultural
 roguing or removed and destruction of infected plants
 removal of alternate host
 sanitation
 crop-rotation
 creating unfavorable conditions
 Biological
 parasites
 antagonistic agents
 avirulent strains of the same pathogen
 suppressive soils
Protection - chemical barriers, biological control, and other methods of

infection prevention are used in crop management as well as environmental
manipulation.
Methods of Protection
 putting a chemical barrier between the pathogen and the host

 before inoculation to prevent spore germination and or kill the
germinating spores
 protection through biological control
 fungal antagonist
 bacterial biological control agents
 hypovirulent strains of the same pathogen
 viral parasites of plant pathogens
 crop management practices that prevent or reduce infection
 choice of the planting site
 planting date
 adjustment of soil pH
Resistance - Modifying certain physiological or physical characteristics of the

host in order to repel infection. Resistance refers to a plant's ability to
withstand the effects of a pathogen.
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Methods of Resistance
 improving the growing conditions of plants by cultural management

 use of resistant varieties
 induced resistance
 Plants infected with one pathogen become more resistant to
subsequent infection by another pathogen, which is known as
systemic acquired resistance (SAR).
 cross-protection
 a mild virus strain protecting a plant from infection by another
strain of the same virus that is more virulent and causes more
damage severe signs and symptoms
Table 2. Most important Diseases
Diseases caused by Fungi

Diseases Examples Causal Pathogen
Leaf spots corn leaf spots Bipolaris maydis
peanut leaf spots Cercosporidium personatum
mungbean leafspots Cercospora cruenta
leaf mold okra leaf mold Cercospora abelmoschi
rust corn rust Puccinia polysora
peanut rust Puccinia arachidis
Pyricularia oryzae; Pyricularia
blast rice blast
grisea
Colletotrichum
fruit rot mango anthracnose
gloeosporioides
stem end rot mango stem-end rot Lasiodiplodia theobromae
banana fusarium
wilt Fusarium oxysporum
wilt
blight rice sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani
Sigatoka of Banana Mycosphaerella fijiensis
bean powdery
powdery mildew Oidium sp.
mildew
Diseases caused by Bacteria
Xanthomonas oryzae PV.
blight rice leaf blight
oryzae
Xanthomonas axonopodis PV.
anthurium blight
Dieffenbachia
leaf spot poinsettia leaf spot
Poinsetticola
canker citrus canker
Citri
bacterial wilt of
wilt Ralstonia solanacearum
tomato
bacterial wilt of
Ralstonia solanacearum
eggplant
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soft rot of
soft rot Pectobacterium carotovorum
vegetables
Diseases caused by Fungal-like Oomycetes
seedling damping-off Pythium debaryanum
leaf blight gabi leaf blight Phytophthora colocasia
potato/tomato late
Phytophthora infestans
blight
Peronosclerospora
downy mildew corn downy mildew
philippinensis
cucurbit downy
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
mildew
sugarcane downy
Peronosclerospora sacchari
mildew
grape downy mildew Plasmopara viticola
Diseases caused by a virus
rice tungro Rice tungro bacilliform virus
Rice tungro spherical virus
tobacco mosaic Tobacco mosaic virus
papaya ringspot Papaya ringspot virus
banana bunchy top Banana bunchy top virus
abaca bunchy top Abaca bunchy top virus
Tomato leaf curls Philippines
tomato leaf curl
virus.
Diseases caused by Viroids
Cadang-cadang of
Coconut
Potato spindle tuber
Apple skin scar
Avocado blotch
abridged syllabus.
Assessment
 Quiz
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Module Posttest

1. Introduction of pathogen into host plant is called inoculation.__________

2. A disease cycle where only one disease cycle in a growing cycle is
called polycylic disease. __________
3. A disease cycle where there are multiple disease cycles, and the
primary cycle frequently repeats the phase known as the cycle of
secondary disease is called monocyclic disease. __________
4. Genetic material transfer between compatible bacteria via a pilus or
conjugation bridge is called transformation. __________
5. A type of symptoms which the direct result of pathogen activity on the
invaded tissues is called primary symptoms. __________

RILEY. M.B., M.R. Williamson, and O. Maloy. (2002). Plant disease diagnosis.
The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2002-1021-01
https://www.britannica.com/science/plant-disease. Retrieved July 13, 2021
https://www.chegg.com/learn/biology/introduction-to-biology/fungi-sexual-
reproduction. Retrieved July 13, 2021
Agrios G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. 955p. New York: Academic Press.
Dhingra O. D. 1985. Basic Plant Pathology Methods. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Leboffe M.J. & Pierce B. E. 2012. Exercises for the Microbiology Laboratory.
4th ed. Morton Publishing Company.
Matthew R. E. F. 1991. Plant Virology. 3rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
Tuite J. 1969. Plant Pathological Methods. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing

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No.
Company.
Whitfield, A. E. & D. Rotenberg. 2015. Disruption of insect transmission of plant

viruses. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 8, 79-87.
Trigiano, R.N. 2007. Plant Pathology Concepts and Laboratory Exercises. CRC
Press.
Agrios, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Elsevier Academic Press
Publications. USA. 148 p.
Barnett, H.I. and B.B. Hunter. 1972. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. 3rd
ed. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company.
Crous, P.W., G.J.M. Verkley, J.Z. Groenewald and R.A. Samson. 2009. Fungal
De la Cueva, F.M., C.B. Pascual, C.M. Bajet, and T.U. Dalisay (editors). 2015.
Pest and Diseases of Economically Important Crops in the Philippines. Pest
Mgt. Council of the Philippines, Inc., Dept. of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural
Research. 629 pp.
Dugan, F.M. 2008. The Identification of Fungi. An Illustrated Introduction with

Keys, Glossary and Guide to Literature. The American Phytopathological
Society, Minnesota, U.S.A. 175 p.
Eisenbach, J. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University;
Ilag, L.L. and L.L. Ilag. 2002. Learning the Principles of Plant Pathology. 2nd ed.
College, Laguna: UPLB-CA.
Kirk, P.M., P.F. Cannon, J.C. David, and J.A. Stalpers. 2004. Ainsworth &
Bisby’s Dictionary of Fungi. 9th edition. CABI Bioscience, Surrey, U.K. 655 p.
Ling, K.C. 1972. Rice Virus Diseases. Los Baños, Laguna: International Rice
Research Institute.
Quebral, F.C. 1973. Pictorial Guide to Vegetable Diseases in the Philippines:

Vegetable Res. Ext. Program. Bull. No. 1.
Tangonan, N.G. 1999. Host Index of Plant Diseases in the Philippines. 3rd ed.
DA-PhilRice.
Steered, A. 2012. Diseases of Plantation Crops. Biotech Books, Delhi – 110 035
Ahamad, S., Narain, U. 2007. Ecofriendly Management of Plant Diseases. Daya
Berg, L. R., 2012. Introduction to Botany. CENGAGE Learning.
Page 57 of 72
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No.
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
For inquiries, contact:

DR. MARJONNEL B. ABELLA
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
marjonnel.abella@vsu.edu.ph • dbmisabel2018@gmail.com
+63 919 085 2486/+63 917 112 1259
Use this code when referring to this material:

TP-IMD-02 v0 07-15-20 • No. _________
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte

Philippines 6521
information@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600
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OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION (OBE) COURSE SYLLABUS
PPrt22 – Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology

Second Semester, A.Y. 2020 - 2021
I. UNIVERSITY INFORMATION
1. Vision of the University
A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental

conservation
2. Mission of the University
Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific

knowledge, and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and the
environment.
3. VSU Quality Policy Statement

4. Quality Goals of the College of Teacher Education, Arts and Sciences, and
Agribusiness
a. Produce globally competent graduates by providing students with excellent

instruction through updated curriculum, functional and state-of-the-art facilities,
and qualified, well-trained, and dedicated faculty and staff.
b. Generate new advanced knowledge and technology through the conduct of

relevant researches that can contribute towards sustainable development, climate
change mitigation, food security, and advance knowledge in engineering sciences;
and
c. Engage in relevant need-based community/stakeholder projects that can make the

Philippines and even the world a better place to live in.
5. Quality Objectives of the Department of Department of Business Management
a. Develop the critical thinking skills of the students in order to become techno-
managerially competent in addressing and solving business management-related
problems.
b. Produce Agribusiness graduates who are highly skilled, dedicated, and well-
motivated workforce needed for the industry.
c. Provide a conducive learning environment for the students in carrying out

innovative research related to agribusiness.
d. Reinforce the creativity of the students in conducting agribusiness-related

researches and extension projects for a resilient community and sustainable
livelihood for the people.
e. Develop potential Agripreneurs who are environmentally conscious. Equipped with

ethical values and social responsibilities necessary for a sustainable environment.
f. Strengthen linkages with local, national, and international institutions and

organizations for mutual cooperation.
g. Promote public awareness on trade policies relevant to agribusiness, industries

through regular market monitoring and information dissemination.
II. PROGRAM INFORMATION
1. Name of the Program Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness (BSAB)

2. CHED CMO Reference CMO 24 s. 2007 (BSAB Curriculum)
3. BOR Approval BOR Resolution No. 82, s. 2018
4. Program Educational Objectives and Relationship to Institution Mission

Mission*
Program Educational Objectives
a b c
Page 61 of 72
TP-IMD-08
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge v3 10-02-2020
, and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and the environment.
No.
1. Male and female graduates can be employed in jobs requiring research ∕ ∕ ∕
and analytical skills in the public or corporate sectors
2. Male and female graduates pursue advanced graduate studies in
economics as well as law, management, finance, international relations, ∕ ∕
and other related fields.
3. Male and female graduates can engage in entrepreneurial activities, ∕ ∕
teaching, creative and innovative efforts in economic and allied fields.
4. Male and female graduates participate in community affairs as leaders in
their fields of expertise and activities that support economic and social ∕ ∕ ∕
development.
5. Male and female graduates conduct themselves in a responsible, ∕ ∕
professional and ethical manner.
*a - development of a highly competitive human resource, b - cutting-edge scientific
knowledge, c - innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment
III. COURSE INFORMATION
1. Course Code PPrt22

2. Course Title Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology
3. Pre-requisite PPrt21 – Crop Protection I - Entomology
4. Co-requisite None
5. Credit 3 units
6. Semester Offered Second Semester
7. Number of hours 3 hours per week
8. Course Description The course provides the student with the basic concepts, theories,
and principles, and appropriate plant disease diagnosis that can be
applied to improved crop productivity and sustainability.
9. Program Outcomes (POs) in relation to the Program Educational Objectives (POEs)

Program Educational
Program Outcomes (POs) Objectives
1 2 3 4 5
Specific to the Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness Program

j Engage in crop and animal production, post-
production/post-harvest handling activities and food
processing, and other agri-based value-adding ∕ ∕
activities to help men, women, boys, and girls in
agricultural societies.
k Illustrate a solid understanding of the global and ∕ ∕

national agribusiness sector, specifically in the input
supply, production, processing, and other activities that
bring products to its end market.
Apply fundamental processes, theories, and methods
l to business communication in the workplace and the ∕ ∕ ∕ ∕ ∕
overall writing initiative
m Creative entrepreneurial opportunities through the

invention, development, and exploration of entirely new
ideas, products and services, and/or the creation of ∕ ∕ ∕ ∕
new industries, infrastructures, and ways of doing
business
n Conduct financial analysis, including the influence of
physical, financial, and human resources on ∕ ∕ ∕
agribusiness enterprise
o Apply knowledge of the strategic management process
and an ability to assess industry attractiveness and the ∕ ∕
competitive environment.
p Utilize tools and methodologies needed for planning,
scheduling, controlling, and other aspects of business ∕ ∕
operations and operational performance improvement
q Participate in the formulation and implementation of
inclusive and gender-responsive agribusiness ∕
developments plans and programs.
Common to a horizontal types (CMO No. 46 s. 2012) for universities
r Ability to participate in the generation of new
∕
knowledge or in research and development projects
Additional for graduates of state universities and colleges
s Have a competencies to support “national, regional and
∕
local development plans” (RA 7722)
DBM’s mission-related program outcomes
t Participate in the department's innovative effort in
strengthening the program offerings, research and
∕ ∕
extension activities, scholarships, and facilities
improvement.
10. Course Outcomes (COs) and Relationship to Program Outcomes (POs)

Program Outcomes Code
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t
Program Outcomes (PO)
addressed by the course
Program Outcomes Code
Page 63 of 72
TP-IMD-08
No.
After completing this
course, the student must be a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t
able:
CO1:
Explain the basic concepts,
theories, principles, and
I I I I I I
appropriate practices in
recognizing the signs of
symptoms of plant diseases.
CO2:
Discuss the importance of
identifying the origin, causes, or
reason that cause the disease or
disorder in plants, mechanism
E E E E E E
of disease development, and
interaction between the causal
agent and diseased plants in
relation to environmental
conditions.
CO3:
Develop a management systems to
control and eradicate plant D D D D D D D D
diseases to reduce the losses or
crop yield.
Legend: I – Introductory, E – Enabling, D – Demonstrative
Each letter indicates the expected level of competency that each CO should provide for each
PO.
11. Course Content and Plan
Teaching and
Learning Activities Assessment
Learning
Week Topics Tasks
Outcomes Teaching Learning
Activities Activities
Class Orientation
1 Student Onboarding LO1: Discuss and Virtual Virtual Oral
review the VSU Meeting No. meeting Recitation
VMGO and core 1
Abridged OBTL Course values.
Syllabus Q and A
LO2: Explain the Q and A for for
learning modalities clarification, clarificatio
VMGO Review and used during the setting of ns,
Gender Sensitivity and pandemic. expectations, getting to
values restoration LO3: Discuss the and getting to know
orientation course outline, know each each
class policies, other other,
course sharing of
ideas,
Class and Course requirements, Class feedback
Orientation activities and interaction s,
familiariz
ation of
Overview of the Learning Sharing of the virtual
Guide ideas classroo
m.
Submission of Feedbacks
Requirements
Familiarizatio
n of the
virtual
classroom
CO1: Explain the basic concepts, theories, principles, and appropriate practices in recognizing the
signs of symptoms of plant diseases.
3-7 Module 1. Definition of Module Pre-
Plant Pathology Test
Lesson 1.1. Impact of LO4. Offline Online Quiz 1
Plant Disease on Mankind Define Plant Mode: Mode:
Quiz 2
Pathology Down-
i. Important Lab Exercise
LO5. Printed
loading
1
Diseases in the resource
Discuss the Learning
Philippines materials Assignment 1
important Plant Guide
ii. Losses due to
Disease in the (independent Note- Learning
Diseases
Philippines. study) taking Task 1&2
LO6. Assigned
Familiarize with the readings
basic terms in
Plant Pathology. Watching
a pre-
recorded
discussion
via OBS.
CO2: Discuss the importance of identifying the origin, causes, or reason that cause the disease or
disorder in plants, mechanism of disease development, and interaction between the causal agent
and diseased plants in relation to environmental conditions.
7-12 Module II. The Concept of Module Pre-
Plant Disease Test
Page 65 of 72
TP-IMD-08
No.
Lesson 2.1. Concept of LO7. Offline Online Quiz 3,4 and
Plant Disease Mode: Mode: 5
Recognize the
symptoms and Printed Lab Exercise
 The Disease signs of plant Learning 2
Triangle Down-
disease Guide
 How do Pathogens loading Assignment 2
(independent
Affect the LO8. resource
study) Learning
materials
Physiology of Explain the nature Task 3&4
Plants? and causes of plant Note-
 Plant Disease disease taking
 Causes of Plant Assigned
Diseases LO9. readings
 Abiotic Discuss the
Causes Watching
mechanism of
a pre-
 Biotic plant disease recorded
Causes development, discussion
 Pathogens as pathogenesis, plant via OBS
Causal Agents of epidemiology, and uploaded
Plant Diseases etiology. to
 Fungi Youtube
 Bacteria Channel
 Nematodes
 Phytoplasm
a
 Viruses and
Viroids
 Protozoa
 Weeds
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
CO3: Develop a management systems to control and eradicate plant diseases to reduce the
losses or crop yield.
13-17 Module III. Plant Disease

Diagnosis
Lesson 5.1. Koch’s L10. Offline Online Quiz 6,7 and 8

Postulates Classify the Mode: Mode: Lab Exercise
different strategies Printed 3
 Signs of Nematode according to the Learning Learning
 Signs of Bacteria principles of plant Down- Task 5 and 6
Guide
 Signs of Fungi disease control loading
(independent
 Signs of Viruses L11. resource
study)
and Viroids materials
 Signs of Distinguish the Note-
Phytoplasma different taking
 Isolation of mechanisms of Assigned
Pathogens variability in plant readings
pathogens.
L12. Watching
Identify the signs of a pre-
different recorded
pathogens. discussion
via OBS
uploaded
to
Youtube
Channel.
18 FINAL EXAMINATION
12. Life-long Learning Opportunities

This course aims to introduce to the students the importance of plant pathology in
agriculture and food sustainability. The course would give a basic concept, theories
principles, plant disease diagnosis, classifying disease caused by biotic and abiotic that can
be applied to improved crop productivity nonhazardous to human health and produce
damage free crops.
13. Contribution of Course to Meeting the Professional Component (%)

General Education: 20%
Core Course: 30%
Major Course: 50%
14. References and Other Learning Resources

A. Textbook(s)/ E-Books
 Agrios G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. 955p. New York: Academic Press.
 Dhingra O. D. 1985. Basic Plant Pathology Methods. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
 Leboffe M.J. & Pierce B. E. 2012. Exercises for the Microbiology Laboratory. 4th ed.
Morton Publishing Company.
 Matthew R. E. F. 1991. Plant Virology. 3rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
 Tuite J. 1969. Plant Pathological Methods. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company.
 Whitfield, A. E. & D. Rotenberg. 2015. Disruption of insect transmission of plant viruses.
Current Opinion in Insect Science, 8, 79-87.
 Trigiano, R.N. 2007. Plant Pathology Concepts and Laboratory Exercises. CRC Press.
 Agrios, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Elsevier Academic Press Publications. USA.
148 p.
Page 67 of 72
TP-IMD-08
No.
 Barnett, H.I. and B.B. Hunter. 1972. Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. 3rd ed.
Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company.
 Crous, P.W., G.J.M. Verkley, J.Z. Groenewald and R.A. Samson. 2009. Fungal
 De la Cueva, F.M., C.B. Pascual, C.M. Bajet, and T.U. Dalisay (editors). 2015. Pest and
Diseases of Economically Important Crops in the Philippines. Pest Mgt. Council of the
Philippines, Inc., Dept. of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research. 629 pp.
 Dugan, F.M. 2008. The Identification of Fungi. An Illustrated Introduction with Keys,
Glossary and Guide to Literature. The American Phytopathological Society, Minnesota,
U.S.A. 175 p.
 Eisenbach, J. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University;
 Ilag, L.L. and L.L. Ilag. 2002. Learning the Principles of Plant Pathology. 2nd ed. College,
Laguna: UPLB-CA.
 Kirk, P.M., P.F. Cannon, J.C. David, and J.A. Stalpers. 2004. Ainsworth & Bisby’s
Dictionary of Fungi. 9th edition. CABI Bioscience, Surrey, U.K. 655 p.
 Ling, K.C. 1972. Rice Virus Diseases. Los Baños, Laguna: International Rice Research
Institute.
 Quebral, F.C. 1973. Pictorial Guide to Vegetable Diseases in the Philippines: Vegetable
Res. Ext. Program. Bull. No. 1.
 Tangonan, N.G. 1999. Host Index of Plant Diseases in the Philippines. 3rd ed. DA-
PhilRice.
 Steered, A. 2012. Diseases of Plantation Crops. Biotech Books, Delhi – 110 035
 Ahamad, S., Narain, U. 2007. Ecofriendly Management of Plant Diseases. Daya
 Berg, L. R., 2012. Introduction to Botany. CENGAGE Learning.
B. Other Learning Resources
Videos
Websites
Webinars
Pre Record Discussion
15. Course Assessment and Evaluation

The performance of students will be assessed and evaluated cumulatively based on the
following:
Percentage No. of Times in Individual Task %
Item
Assessment Tasks Contribution the Semester Contribution
No,
(1) (2) (1/2)
1 Quizzes (Q) 15 8 1.88/Q
2 Lab Exercise (Lab) 20 3 6.67/Lab
3 Assignment (As) 10 2 5/As
4 Long Examination (LE) 40 1 40/LE
5 Learning task (Lt) 15 6 2.5/Lt
Minimum
Weight in Average for Target and
COs Assessment Tasks
Percent Satisfactory Standards
Rating
Quiz 1 1.88 At least 70% of the
Quiz 2 1.88 students have at
CO 1 60%
least a 60% score.
Lab Exercise 1 6.67
Assignment 1 5.00
Learning Task 1 2.50
Lab Exercise 2 6.67
Quiz 3 1.88
Quiz 5 1.88 students have at
CO 2 60%
least a 60% score.
Assignment 2 5.00
Quiz 6
Quiz 7 1.88
1.88
CO 3 6.67 60% students have at
Lab Exercise 3
2.50 least a 60% score.
Learning Task 6
Exam At least 70% of the

40 60% students have at
least a 60% score
100.00%
TOTAL
320
Grading System (% Passing: 60% )
Range Grade Range Grade

96.00-100 1.00 69.00-73.49 2.50
91.50-95.99 1.25 64.50-68.99 2.75
87.00-91.49 1.50 60.00-64.49 3.00
82.50-86.99 1.75 52.50-59.99 3.25
78.00-82.49 2.00 45.00-52.49 3.50
73.50-77.99 2.25 30.00-37.49 4.00
16. Course Policies
A. A VSU E-learning Environment will be used for web conferencing and real-time class
meetings. The class codes will be posted in the subject’s group chat. A class
orientation will be done in relation to the use and navigation of the platform.
Attending the virtual meeting is highly encouraged but not compulsory. If you cannot
attend due to internet connection limitations, there is no problem. Just keep up with the
lessons and do all the necessary exercises that are required of you.
Page 69 of 72
TP-IMD-08
No.
The virtual meeting is our avenue for synchronous learning. Class interaction and
participation are encouraged, sharing of ideas, feedbacking of your outputs, and other
related concerns will be done during this time.
B. The Learning Guide will be distributed before the start of the classes.
C. All requirements will be submitted preferably through the google classroom, email, or
Facebook messenger, but if the internet connection is not stable or you do not have an
internet connection, you may drop your exercises through the designated drop box
situated at the lower guardhouse or through a courier.
The address is Department of Business Management, College of Teacher Education,

Arts and Sciences and Agribusiness, Visayas State University-Isabel, Marvel, Isabel,
Leyte, Philippines.
Kindly put your exercises in a sealed brown envelope and write your full name, year,
section, course title, contact number, date of submission, and name of the professor.
JUAN DELA CRUZ

3rd-year BSAB
Sealed
0920 – 1234567
juandelacruz@gmail.com Sealed
Course Title: ___ Submitted through:
Date submitted: ____________ VSU LearningSealed
Dropbox at VSU-Isabel
Course Professor: Guard House
_________
Sealed
Submitted through:
Department ___ , College ___
D. Quizzes are set on the VSU E-learning E.VSUAll

Learning Dropbox at VSU-Isabel
quizzes are announced and will open
Guard House
every after a topic has been
JUAN DELA CRUZ
discussed.
E. The Learning3Guideyear BSAB

rd
in PPrt 22 will be the official instructional
Submitted through: material in this subject. It
will serve as0920
your– guide
1234567for the whole semester whether you have an internet
VSU Learning Dropbox at VSU-Isabel
connection or not, kindly use
juandelacruz@gmail.com
it. Guard House
F. In the submission of exercises, there is no deduction for late submissions.
Course Title: ___
Date submitted: ____________ Submitted through:
G. The term examinations will be done in either of the following:
Course Professor: VSU EE. VSU Learning Dropbox at VSU-Isabel
1. With internet connection: Guard House
2. Without a stable internet connection: you may drop your answers through the
_________
designated drop box situated at the lower guardhouse or through a courier
Department ___ , College ___
H. If you have any inquiries/clarifications, you may contact the course instructor during the
official classJUAN DELA CRUZ
schedule: TTh, 4:00-5:00 pm.
3rd year BSAB
I. 0920 – 1234567
University policies are strictly followed. Please be guided accordingly.
juandelacruz@gmail.com
Course Title: ___
Date submitted: ____________
Course Professor:
_________
J. Lastly, as we embark on this "new normal," let us have an open-minded mind and heart
as we adjust to this new way of delivering the teaching-learning process and still
continue to aim for quality in education.
This class policy serves as our written agreement for the whole semester. If there are
any changes to enhance the class learning opportunity within the semester, they will be
communicated accordingly.
17. Course Materials and Facilities Available

1. Learning Guide
2. VSU E-learning Environment
3. PowerPoint Presentation
4. Supplemental Notes
5. Laboratory Manual
6. Pre Recorded Discussion via OBS
7. FB Messenger and FB Page
18. Revision History

Revision Date of Date of implementation Highlights of Revision
number Revision
01 21 January Second Semester SY Revised OBTL Format
2020 2019-2020
02 March 16, Second Semester SY Updated the syllabus following
the new ISO format
2021 2020-2021
19. Preparation
Name Signature Date Signed
Prepared by
III. INSTRUCTOR/PROFESSOR INFORMATION
1. Name of Instructor/Professor Stephen Y. Sabenorio

2. Office and Department Department of Business Management
3. Telephone/Mobile Numbers +63 945 985 1311
4. Email Address stephen.sabenorio@vsu.edu.ph
5. Consultation Time TTh, 4:00-5:00 PM
20. Department Instructional Materials Review Committee:
Page 71 of 72
TP-IMD-08
No.
Committee Name Signature Date
Signed
Member: LECIL N. MANAGBANAG

Instructor I
Member: MARJONNEL B. ABELLA, Ph.D.

Head, Department of Business
Management
Chairperson: ESPERANZA E. SUMALINOG, Ph.D.

Dean, College of Teacher Education,
Arts and Sciences, and Agribusiness
Name Signature Date Signed

Verified by: CATHERINE L. CHAN, Ph.D.
Director of Academic Affairs
Validated by: NANCY D. ABUNDA, Ph.D.

Head, Instructional Materials
Development
Note:
1) The number of POs will depend on each degree program offered
2) COs and Relationship to POs
a. (I) - Introductory – an Introductory Course to an outcome
b. (E) - Enabling – an Enabling Course or a course that strengthens the
outcome
c. (D) - Demonstrated – a Demonstrative Course or a course demonstrating an
outcome.
_____________
Distribution of copies: OIMD, College, Department, Faculty, and ODQ

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PPrt 22

Crop Protection II – Plant Pathology

No copies, temporary or permanent, in whole or part of this

A globally competitive university for science, technology,

Development of a highly competitive human resource,

The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

About the Author

STEPHEN YCOY SABENORIO

Mr. Stephen Y. Sabenorio finished

He passed the Licensure

He is currently an Instructor at the

Module 1: Plant Pathology 12

Module 2: The Concept of Plant Disease 20

Module 3: Plant Disease Diagnosis 42

1. Virus Symptoms ...................................................................... 34

List of Figures List

1. Rotting of Tuber ....................................................................... 14

Module 1: Plant Pathology

Instructions: Kindly answer the following questions independently before

1. Aflatoxin are some of the toxin that fungus produced.__________

Lesson 1.1: Impact of Disease on Mankind

As a result, plant pathology is a difficult, fascinating, significant, and

Plant Pathology comes from the Greek words:

Plant Pathology mainly composed:

 Mycology – the study of fungi and fungi-like oomycetes

Plant Pathologist – a person of expertise in the field of plant disease diagnosis,

Impact of Plant Disease on Human

History of Plant Pathology

Figure 2. Rotting of Tuber Figure 1. Leaf Lesion of Potato

Causative Agent (Pathogens)

Figure 3. Photo of Heinrich Anton de Bary "Father of Plant Pathology"

Figure 4. Severe symptoms of Rust

Southern Corn Blight

Important Diseases in the Philippines

Citrus greening/Huanglongbing HLB

 It directly affects the copra production in the country, which is a raw

Losses due to Diseases

Direct losses due to Diseases

Figure 5. Aspergillus flavus attacking corn

Instructions on how to submit student output

For print modality. Your answers/outputs should be written on a piece of yellow

Instructions: Kindly answer the following questions independently. This is not

1. Aflatoxin are some of the toxin that fungus produced.__________

References and Additional Resources

AGRIOS, GEORGE N. (2005). Plant Pathology 5th Edition

Answers to the Pretest and Posttest

Module 2: The Concept of

Instructions: Kindly answer the following questions independently before

Lesson 2.1: The Disease Triangle

Plant diseases have been discovered as far back as time immemorial.

Components of Plant Disease

Figure 6. Plant Disease Triangle

The pathogen, host, and environment interact to cause disease.

Causes of Plant Disease

of impairment or total plant mortality—plants suffering from disease yield less

Figure 7. Ozone injury on Potato.

B. Biotic Causes: Cause by Pathogens (Infectious Disease)

Figure 8. Morphology of Different Pathogens

Types of Fungi based on habitat:

Four Major Phylum of Fungi

Figure 9. Conidia and Conidiophore of Fungi

Figure 10. Sclerotial bodies of Claviceps sp.

 produce zoospores asexually