See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/251368210

SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION OF A FALLING-FILM EVAPORATOR IN THE DAIRY

INDUSTRY

Conference Paper · August 2006

CITATIONS READS

3 7,947

5 authors, including:

Niel Canty Tom O'Mahony

Cork Institute of Technology Cork Institute of Technology
12 PUBLICATIONS   36 CITATIONS    50 PUBLICATIONS   406 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Barry O'Connor
Cork Institute of Technology
12 PUBLICATIONS   157 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

PID Controller Tuning View project

Modelling the viscosity of dairy protein beverage formulations during thermal processing View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Tom O'Mahony on 05 December 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION OF A FALLING-FILM EVAPORATOR IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

Peter Cunningham1, Niel Canty2, Tom O’Mahony2, Barry O’Connor1, Donal O’Callaghan3

1
AMT - Ireland, Process & Chemical Engineering Department, University College Cork,
Cork, Ireland.
2
Advanced Control Group, Dept. Electronic Engineering, Cork Institute of Technology,
Cork, Ireland.
3
Teagasc, Dairy Products Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.

Abstract: A falling film evaporator is the most commonly used evaporator type in the
dairy industry for the concentration of products such as milk, skim-milk and whey. This
concentration often takes place under vacuum to reduce the boiling point of water and
reduce any heat damage that may be caused to the product. From an economic perspective
the critical operational units are the evaporator effects and the pasteurisation process. In
this paper linear models of these units are identified from experimental data. These
models are shown to be accurate over the standard operating range of the process and will
be considered for PID controller optimisation and model predictive controller design.
Copyright © 2006 USTARTH

Keywords: Industrial Control, System Identification, PID, Pasteurisation, Evaporation

1. INTRODUCTION within the overall process. The performance of the

The industrial process considered in this study is
located at the Teagasc-Moorepark Research Centre,
Fermoy, Co. Cork. Within this centre, one of the
ongoing projects has focused on upgrading the large
pilot scale evaporation and drying facilities to
SCADA level process control operation. The final
stage - moving to the use of model predictive control
- is being carried out in collaboration with AMT-
Ireland, UCC and the Advanced Control Group in
CIT. The objective of this collaboration is to
demonstrate to the indigenous food industry the
benefits of advanced control in terms of energy
saving, waste minimisation and product quality
improvement.
While examples of successful applications of
advanced process control to evaporators are reported
(Crosland, 2003), the details of the models used in
such applications are usually omitted (Quaak et al.,
1994 and Bakker et al., 2006). Typically, they are
just referred to as either white or black-box models.
The main contribution of this paper is the
identification of simple linear models for two critical
loops – the evaporation and pasteurisation units -
identified models is analysed and the models are
validated on real operating data. These models will
be initially used to optimise the existing PI(D)
controllers and subsequently to design a model
predictive control scheme.
Section 2 briefly introduces the reader to evaporator
technology and, subsequently, focuses on the falling
film evaporator - as it is the focus of this study.
Section 3 presents a brief account of the
pasteurisation process that is used while section 4
presents the model structure and the results of the
system identification experiments. Finally, in section
5 some general conclusions and possible avenues for
future work are explored.
2. THE FALLING-FILM EVAPORATOR
Evaporation is used by the dairy industry in the
concentration of products such as milk, skim-milk
and whey (Kessler, 1981 and Písecký, 1997).
Concentration involves the removal of a solvent,
usually water, from a liquid. It is distinguished from
drying by the fact that the final product (the
concentrate) is still a liquid. Some reasons for the
Fig. 1. Piping and instrumentation diagram for the evaporator operating in split effect mode.
concentration of a liquid are
1. to reduce the cost of drying
2. to induce crystallisation
3. to reduce costs of storage and transportation
4. to increase microbiological and chemical
stability
5. to recover by-products from waste streams
If evaporation is performed as a preliminary step to
drying then the milk is normally concentrated from
an initial solids content of 9-13% to a final
concentration of 40-50% total solids before the
product is pumped to the dryer. However, as milk is
heat sensitive it is important to reduce the impact of
the heat treatment process. The solution usually
employed is to perform the evaporation under
vacuum, thereby reducing the boiling point of water.
This method allows temperatures as low as 40oC to
be utilised. Evaporators should also be designed to
minimise product residence time.
A large amount of energy is required to boil water
from a solution. This energy is usually provided in
the form of steam. To minimise cost, evaporation is
normally performed in multiple effect evaporators
where two or more effects operate at progressively
lower pressures and thus progressively lower boiling
points. In this arrangement the vapour produced in
the previous effect can be used as the heating
medium in the next effect. The result is that the
amount of steam required is approximately equal to
the total amount of water evaporated divided by the
number of effects.
The evaporator considered in this study consists of
four falling-film effects and has a water evaporation
capacity of 800 kg/h. The evaporator can be
configured in a number of different modes. One of
the more common modes is called the split effect
mode. In this mode only the third effect and the
finishing effect are used, a schematic diagram of this
mode is shown in Fig. 1. While the split effect mode
is controlled via six single-input single-output
(SISO) PID controllers, only three loops are
considered to be critically (from an economic
perspective) important. These loops are the two PID
controllers that regulate the evaporation temperature
and the PID controller that dictates the pasteurisation
temperature.
In this process, evaporation is performed using a
falling film evaporator (other varieties include
circulation evaporators, tubular type evaporators and
plate type evaporators). For simplicity, a single effect
falling film evaporator (Fig. 2) will be used to outline
the operational principles. A typical single effect
evaporator consists of: a balance tank, a condenser, a
preheater, an evaporator calandria, a separator, and a
vacuum pump. The process can be decomposed into
a product route (steps Pa-Pf), a steam route (steps Sa-
Sc) and a product vapour route (steps Va-Vd).
Firstly, we will consider the path the product takes
through the evaporator.
Pa. From the balance tank the concentrate flows
through the condenser where it gets its first
injection of heat - see (Vc) overleaf.
Pb. The product then flows through the preheater
where it gets a second injection of heat (see Sc).
Pc. The product is then pasteurised via the Direct
Steam Injection (DSI) pasteurisation unit and
passes through the holding tubes.
Pd. From the DSI the product enters the evaporator
calandria. A nozzle and spreader plate form a
distribution system at the top of the evaporator
that ensures a uniform product distribution.
Pe. Upon leaving the distribution plate the product
flows through stainless steel tubes. The product
forms a thin film on the inside of the tube while
the outside of the tube is surrounded by steam.
Pf. The product from the tubes reaches the bottom of
the calandria where it is collected along with
product from the separator (see Va).
 Fig. 3. Simplified illustration of the vapour path
through the evaporator.

Fig. 2. Block diagram of a single effect falling-film

evaporator showing the critical units.

Next, consider the steam’s path through the process.

Sa. Typically, but not always, the steam enters the
Fig. 4. Effect of a decrease in Tw on Q1 and Q2.
calandria at the bottom and surrounds the tubes
through which the product is flowing.
Q1 = U1A1(Ts-T) Eq. (1)
Sb. Heat is then transferred from the steam to the
Q2 = U2A2(T-Tw) Eq. (2)
product. This transfer of heat causes the water in
the product to boil and produce vapour inside the
where U1, U2 are the heat transfer coefficients
tubes.
between (i) steam and product and (ii) vapour and
Sc. Some steam from the calandria shell enters the
cold water, respectively. A1, A2 are the contact areas
preheater and is used as the heating medium in
between (i) steam and product and (ii) vapour and
the preheater (see Pb).
cold water, respectively. Ts, Tw and T are the
temperatures of the steam, cold water and vapour
Finally, consider the route of the product vapour
respectively. P is the pressure in the box
through the process.
(evaporator).
Va. The product vapour exits the bottom of the
calandria and enters the separator where
2.1 The effect of the cold water temperature (Tw) on
product is removed from the vapour and
the vapour temperature (T)
returned to the product stream.
Vb. The vapour then enters the condenser.
Consider the case where initially Q1 = Q2 and,
Vc. In the condenser the vapour acts as a heating
subsequently, Tw decreases. The resulting changes
medium for the product (see Pa).
are described below, while Fig. 4 illustrates the effect
Vd. The vapour then passes the cold water pipes
on Q1 and Q2.
and condenses.
a. When Tw decreases, Q2 will increase according to
Eq. (2).
A vacuum pump sets the initial vacuum pressure in
b. This increase in Q2 results in an increase in the
the evaporator; this determines the initial temperature
volume of vapour that is condensed.
of evaporation. However, when the plant is operating
c. As a consequence, there is less vapour in the box
it is the condenser that plays the key role in
(Fig. 3) and the pressure reduces.
controlling the vacuum. This role of the condenser
d. If P decreases then T also decreases.
can be explained by considering the product vapour
e. The decrease in T causes Q2 to reduce. At the
path (points Va to Vd above). While the product also
same time, according to Eq. (1), Q1 will increase.
helps in condensing the vapour, it will be assumed
f. Q2 decreases and Q1 increases until a new
that this effect is constant. Therefore the path of the
equilibrium is reached.
vapour can be represented by the simple box shown
g. A new evaporation temperature is also achieved.
in Fig. 3.
Consider the case where the plant is operating in
An opposite effect occurs when Tw increases. The
equilibrium; the vapour is at a fixed temperature and
effect of the steam temperature, Ts, on evaporation
therefore the pressure is constant. Then Q1 (the
temperature can also be deduced from equations 1
energy received from the steam) is equal to Q2 (the
and 2, and for brevity, the description will be
energy transferred from the vapour to the cold
omitted.
water). Q1 and Q2 can be defined as follows
 Fig 6: Two-input single-output block diagram for the
evaporation temperature.

Fig. 5. Schematic of the DSI pasteurisation process.

3. PASTEURISATION UNIT

The pasteurisation process, illustrated in Fig. 5, is Fig. 7. Pasteurisation process modelled as a SISO
responsible for the removal of harmful pathogens system with a measurable disturbance input.
from the product by heating the product to 75°C and
maintaining that temperature for a desired length of system with a single (measurable) disturbance
time (Alpha-Laval, 1986). The type of pasteurisation variable, Fig 7.
applied in the evaporator process at Teagasc-
Moorepark is called Direct Steam Injection (DSI).
This method involves heating the product by directly
4.1 Identification from operating data
injecting steam into the product line. Product
Originally, standard operating data was investigated
contamination is avoided since most of the water is
to examine its usefulness for system identification
evaporated instantaneously.
purposes. However, it was found that, under normal
Referring to Fig. 5, the pre-pasteurisation
plant operation, the set-points of all the SISO PID
temperature of the product is measured by sensor
controllers were altered simultaneously. The
2E61 located approximately one meter before the
resulting data sets were highly correlated and it was
DSI injectors. The product temperature after
virtually impossible to extract a model of, for
pasteurisation is recorded by sensor 2E34 located
example, the effect of steam on evaporation
approximately one meter after the DSI injectors. Two
temperature. Fig. 8 presents the %opening of the
PID controllers are used to control the pasteurisation
steam valve and pre-pasteurisation temperature (oC)
process. PID 12 controls the water level in the steam
for the pasteurisation process under normal operating
generator. This is a cylindrical tank containing a
conditions. These two input signals were cross-
heating element in the form of a coil. External steam
correlated using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
is pumped through the coil, heating the water inside.
(Press, et al., 1992). The cross correlation function,
The steam exits the tank and is used to indirectly
Fig. 9, reveals the highly correlated nature of the two
preheat the water supply to the steam generator tank.
signals, and hence it was not possible to reliably
Steam produced inside the steam generator is applied
identify the individual models GP and GD. Similar
directly to the product. PID 13 maintains the product
results were obtained when the two input signals to
at the pasteurisation temperature by controlling the
the evaporation process were analysed.
amount of external steam supplied to the steam
generator.
60
4. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION
Temp (oC)

40
Fig. 6 presents a block diagram representation of the 20
falling film evaporator. As described in section two,
0
the evaporation temperature is primarily dictated by 8 9 10 11 12 13
the steam temperature and cold water temperature
Control Signal (%)

30
and hence represents a two-input single-output
system. At present, the temperatures of both these 20
variables are regulated by two independent single-
10
input single-output (SISO) PI(D) controllers that
manipulate the flow of water and steam pressure
respectively – see Fig. 1. The DSI pasteurisation 8 9 10 11 12 13
process is primarily controlled by regulating the time (hours)
steam flow, though the pre-pasteurisation Fig. 8. Normal operating input data for pasteurisation
temperature obviously has a significant influence. unit.
Hence this process can be modelled by a SISO
 150 55

Temp (oC)
Evaporation Temp
50

Cross Correlation
100 45
40
13 13.5 14 14.5
50 80

Valve (%)
60
0
Water Valve
40
13 13.5 14 14.5
-50 65

Valve (%)
-2 -1 0 1 2 60
Time Shift (samples) 4
x 10 55
Steam Valve
50
Fig. 9. Cross correlation function. 13 13.5 14 14.5
Time (Hours)
80
Fig. 11. System identification data for GW(z) and
70 GS(z).
Temp (oC)

Set Point
60 TPRE
TPAST Further open-loop tests were performed to obtain
50
good models for GW(z) and GS(z). To identify GW(z)
40 the steam valve was held constant at 62% while the
10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5
water valve was changed. Firstly, it was changed
35 from 76.1% to 60%, next, it was changed from 60%
to 45%, then, from 45% to 60% and finally from
Control Signal (%)

30
25
20
15
10 10.5 11
Time (Hours)
Fig. 10. System identification data for GP(z). Pre-
pasteurisation temperature is denoted TPRE and
the pasteurisation temperature by TPAST.
4.2 Improved System Identification Data
The following system identification experiments
were designed in order to obtain valid models for
GP(z), GD(z), GS(z) and GW(z). Referring to the
pasteurisation-loop data presented in Fig. 10, the
process was allowed to start up in the usual manner.
After the process had settled (t ≈ 10Hrs), with the
pasteurisation process tracking the set point of 75°C,
three set point changes were implemented. The first
set point change was from 75°C to 65°C, the second
from 65°C to 70°C and finally from 70°C to 75°C.
All other set-points were maintained constant and
therefore, the pre-pasteurisation temperature is
relatively constant throughout the duration of the
three set point changes.
To obtain an accurate model for GD(z), it is
necessary to ensure that the process output is only
affected by changes in the pre-pasteurisation
temperature. Thus it is required to switch controller
PID_13 to manual (open-loop) to prevent it from
correcting the pasteurisation temperature. The
temperature of the pre-pasteurised product is largely
determined by the amount of steam leaving the pre-
heater of the 3rd effect. Three steam pressure set
point changes were made while the pasteurisation
unit was in open loop mode. The first change was
from 5.5 to 4.5 Bar. The second change was from 6.1
to 3.5 Bar and finally from 3.5 to 5.5 Bar.
60% to 75%. To identify GS(z) the water valve was
held constant at 75% while the steam valve was
changed. Firstly, it was changed from 62% to 57%,
next, it was changed form 57% to 52%, then, from
11.5 12 12.5 52% to 57% and finally from 57% to 62% as shown
in Fig. 11. As the tests were performed in open loop,
the problem of correlation between the two inputs is
removed.
4.3 Estimating the process models for GP(z), GD(z),
GW(z) and GS(z)
Relevant sections of data were chosen for the
estimation of the four transfer functions. The delays
were obtained by visually inspecting the data. The
data was then inserted into MATLAB’s System
Identification Toolbox (Ljung, 2002) and Box-
Jenkins models were identified using the prediction
error algorithm. The identified models are presented
in Table 1 along with their standard deviations and
loss functions. Assuming a Gaussian distribution,
99.73% of the models will therefore lie within the
range (bo − 3σ ) ≤ bo ≤ (bo + 3σ ) where b o is the
identified coefficient. The Loss Function is defined
by Eq. (3).
1
N
V (θ ) =
N ∑ ε 2 (k ) Eq. (3)
i =1
where N is the length of the data set and
ε (k ) = y (k ) − yˆ (k ) ; y (k ) is the actual response and
yˆ (k ) that of the model. The loss function and
standard deviations were utilised to determine the
model order. In all cases it was found that a first-
order lag plus delay (FOLPD) model gave the best
results. Higher-order models resulted in either larger
values of the loss function or standard deviations that
were considered too large (the poles of either the
process or noise models could deviate outside the
unit circle for ± 3σ). The sampling period is ten
seconds.
 49
Table 1 Transfer functions, standard deviations of the
estimated parameters and loss functions for the 48.5
identified models
48

Temp (oC)
σ (x10-3)
Model V(θ) 47.5
b0 a1
0.07828 −16 47
G P ( z) = z ±10.33 ±12.41 0.702
z − 0.91
46.5 Plant
0.04495 −1
G D ( z) = z ±12.57 ±19.95 0.105 Model
z − 0.9328 46
0 200 400 600 800
−0.008819 −1
GW ( z ) = z ±0.2916 ±0.283 0.332 time (seconds)
z − 0.9283
Fig. 14. Model and plant output using estimation
0.01998 −1 data for GW(z).
GS ( z) = z ±2.734 ±14.18 0.017
z − 0.9228
48.5
Due to space constraints, only validation results for Plant
GP(z) and GW(z) will be presented. In the estimation 48 Model
of GP(z) the system is operating in closed loop, the
input to the system is the %opening of the steam 47.5

Tem p (o C)
valve and output is the pasteurisation temperature.
47
The model was estimated from the 70°C to 75°C set-
point change with the means removed. The response 46.5
of the pasteurisation process and model GP(z) are
compared in Fig. 12. The model was then validated 46
on a new data set where the set-point change was
from 75°C to 65°C. The response is shown in Fig. 45.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
13. Better results were obtained for GD(z) (as
time (seconds)
indicated by the loss function V(θ) in table 1).
Fig. 15. Model and plant output for the validation
76 data for GW(z).

74 Of the two models that describe the dynamics of the

Plant
Model
evaporator, the loss function of Table 1 would
Temp (oC)

suggest that the model GW(z) is least accurate (Gw

72 characterises the effect of water temperature on
evaporation temperature). The performance of this
70 model is illustrated in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15. In the
estimation of GW(z), the data was chosen from the
first water valve change (76.1% to 60%). The plant
68 and model responses are shown in Fig. 14 and a very
0 1000 2000 3000
good fit is obtained. A new data set was used to
time (seconds)
validate the model; in this case the change was from
Fig. 12. Response of pasteurisation process and 60% to 75% and the comparison between
model Gp(z). This data was used for evaporation temperature and model response is
identification. presented in Fig. 15. Similar, but slightly better,
results were obtained for model GS(z).
75
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Plant
Model
This paper has presented a detailed description of an
70 industrial evaporation process that is widely used in
Temp (oC)

the dairy industry in the production of products such

as milk, skim-milk and whey. While the process
65 consists of a number of basic units, the falling-film
effects and DSI pasteurisation unit are important
from a quality and economic perspective. Hence, the
work completed by the authors to date has
60 concentrated on understanding the behaviour of, and
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
time (seconds) modelling, these two units. As a unit the evaporation
process is a little unusual in that the variable of
Fig. 13. Validation of model accuracy using new data primary interest, the temperature of the final product
set over 75°C to 65°C set-point change. concentrate, is not used as the CV. Instead, a highly
correlated signal, the evaporation temperature is
 used. This temperature is regulated by the steam
pressure and water temperature entering the
condenser, Fig. 1. The two MV’s are the valves for
steam and cold water.
In this work we have shown that the falling film
evaporator can be modelled as a two-input single-
output system while the DSI pasteurisation unit can
be represented by a SISO process model and a SISO
disturbance model. Relatively simple system
identification experiments were designed and four
first-order lags with delay were estimated. The
standard deviations of the coefficients, the loss
functions and the validation experiments all suggest
that these models are sufficiently accurate for control
purposes. Furthermore, the validation tests, which
were performed about a different set-point range,
indicate the identified models are reasonably
accurate over the typical (steady-state) operating
ranges of the evaporation process.
Písecký, J. (1997). Handbook of Milk Powder
Manufacture. Niro, A/S, Denmark.
Press, W.H., S.A. Teukolsky, W.T. Vetterling and
B.P. Flannery (1992). Numerical Recipes in C:
The Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd Edition, pp.
545-546, Cambridge University Press, New
York.
Quaak, P., M. P. C. M. van Wijck, and J. J. Van
Haren, (1994). Comparison of process
identification and physical modelling for falling-
film evaporators. Food Control, 5, (2), 73–82.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Funding for this research was provided by the Walsh
Fellowship (Teagasc Postgraduate Research Grants)
and The Environmental Protection Agency, under the
Cleaner Greener Production Programme. The authors
wish to gratefully acknowledge this support.

The linearity of these models is an obvious limitation

and over large operating ranges (e.g. during start-up,
shut-down, etc) poor performance can be anticipated.
Future work will explore the potential for estimating
or deriving simple non-linear models to overcome
this limitation. Furthermore, it is likely that the
accuracy of the models could be improved by using
better input test sequences e.g. pseudo-random type
sequences or optimal test sequences. Since the
process response times are all relatively short (less
than 300sec) this option is certainly a possibility,
however, as experimentation time is quite limited it
was initially decided to extract the maximum amount
of useful data as quickly as possible and therefore
simple step inputs were utilised.

Future work will focus on identifying linear models

for the remainder of the loops and then examine the
potential performance improvement that can result
from optimising the existing PID controllers. In
parallel the development of non-linear models will
be pursued and a model predictive controller based
on the linear, or non-linear models, will be designed.

REFERENCES
Alfa-Laval (1986), Dairy Handbook, Alfa-Laval,
Lund, Sweden.
Bakker H.H.C., C. Marsh, S. Paramalingam and H.
Chen. (2006). Cascade controller design for
concentration control in a falling-film evaporator
Food Control, 17, (5), 325-330.
Crosland, A. 2003. Evaporator and Dryer
Optimisation Delivers Significant Benefits for
Abbott Laboratories in Ireland. APV Food and
Drink, March.
http://www.apv.com/us/eng/newsandevents/food
anddrink/march2003/Evaporator+and+dryer+opt
imisation+for+Abbott+Laboratories.htm
Kessler, H.G. (1981). Food Engineering and Dairy
Technology, Verlag A. Kessler, Germany.
Ljung, L. (2002). System Identification Toolbox for
use with MATLAB, The MathWorks, Inc.
www.mathworks.com/products/sysid

View publication stats