Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Heat Transfer
Spring 2022
Heat Transfer class got you down? Change your process!
Six process steps that WORK!
1. Schedule your priorities
a. Schedule specific times for numbers 2, 4, and 5 below. Other priorities,
like sleep, exercise and activities you enjoy, should also be scheduled.
b. Choose a place where you can work without distraction.
2. Read (study!) the book. Bring your questions to class.
3. Ask the professor.
a. Be active in class (ask questions!).
b. Send e‐mail questions.
c. Come by the office.
4. Tackle the homework early and often to reduce total time spent on homework.
a. Start as soon as you have the assignment.
b. Work often in short bursts.
It only takes a minute to know what questions you want to ask AND to get
your brain working on the problems even while you are doing other things.
5. Group study.
a. Commit to everyone understanding. (Answer on page ≠ understanding.)
b. Teaching OR receiving, either way you benefit.
6. Meta cognate: think about and notice what you do (your custom personal
processes) that work/do not work for you.
and one that HURTS
7. Lking at homework answers withut slving the prblems yurself.
(i.e. seeking answers without understanding – the learning is in the struggle)
a. Solution manual.
b. Answers online.
c. Someone else’s work.
Guaranteed to create the delusion of understanding up to test time, and the
#1 explanation for perfect homework grades followed by an abysmal exam.
1
The end of engineering homework …
the beginning of ENGINEERING DOCUMENTATION.
Good engineering documentation begins with respect for readers. Your goal is
communication that uses facts plus reasoning and math to persuade, especially
peers and decision makers who need to understand and be convinced by the work
supporting answers. Answers alone are not documentation.
Organize your work for each assigned problem
under the headings of section 1.5 in your textbook
1. Documentation is legible and organized. Anything less is disrespectful.
a. Organize your ideas on the page from top‐to‐bottom and from left‐to‐right.
b. Keep related material together on the page.
c. Sometimes you must rough out hand written work first and then recopy the
problem for presentation.
2. Use illustrations, graphs and/or tables to communicate.
a. Whether a hand sketch or a cut‐and‐paste (with citation), figures help you
communicate with greater clarity, fewer words, and less overall effort.
b. NOTE that word processed documents are always legible, and word
processing makes it easy to add figures.
3. When words are needed, they are assembled into complete sentences.
4. When mathematical analysis is needed the presentation:
a. Shows all steps. Answers are meaningless without a supporting solution.
b. Shows all units and unit conversions. Most numbers in engineering are
meaningless without units.
c. Is annotated. Use words to explain your analysis steps ‐ what you are doing
next and why – just like all examples in the textbook!
5. Have you named all assumptions and approximations? This enables others to
know the limitations of your work, and to apply results properly.
6. Have you answered what, why AND how? Before moving on, insist on being
thorough. If your answer is trivial, maybe you did not understood the
question.
7. End with a sanity check.
a. Does the logic add up?
b. Is your numerical value a physical impossibility?
Kudos for identifying unlikely results yourself, even if you cannot find the
error.
2
Symbols
3
xx Symbols
4
Symbols xxi
5
Conversion Factors
Acceleration 1 m/s2 = 4.2520 × 107 ft/h2
Area 1 m2 = 1550.0 in.2
= 10.764 ft2
Density 1 kg/m3 = 0.06243 lbm/ft3
Energy 1 J (0.2388 cal) = 9.4782 × 10−4 Btu
Force 1N = 0.22481 lbf
Heat transfer rate 1W = 3.4121 Btu/h
Heat flux 1 W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/h ⋅ ft2
Heat generation rate 1 W/m3 = 0.09662 Btu/h ⋅ ft3
Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/m2 ⋅ K = 0.17611 Btu/h ⋅ ft2 ⋅ °F
Kinematic viscosity 1 m2/s = 3.875 × 104 ft2/h
and diffusivities
Latent heat 1 J/kg = 4.2992 × 10−4 Btu/lbm
Length 1m = 39.370 in.
= 3.2808 ft
1 km = 0.62137 mile
Mass 1 kg = 2.2046 lbm
Mass density 1 kg/m3 = 0.06243 lbm/ft3
Mass flow rate 1 kg/s = 7936.6 lbm/h
Mass transfer 1 m/s = 1.1811 × 104 ft/h
coefficient
Power 1 kW = 3412.1 Btu/h
= 1.341 hp
Pressure and stress1 1 N/m2 (1 Pa) = 0.020885 lbf /ft2
= 1.4504 × 10−4 lbf /in.2
= 4.015 × 10−3 in. water
= 2.953 × 10−4 in. Hg
1.0133 × 105 N/m2 = 1 standard atmosphere
1 × 105 N/m2 = 1 bar
Specific heat 1 kJ/kg ⋅ K = 0.2388 Btu/lbm ⋅ °F
Temperature K = (5/9)°R
= (5/9)(°F + 459.67)
= °C + 273.15
Temperature difference 1K = 1°C
= (9/5)°R = (9/5)°F
Thermal conductivity 1 W/m ⋅ K = 0.57779 Btu/h ⋅ ft ⋅ °F
Thermal resistance 1 K/W = 0.52753 °F/h ⋅ Btu
Viscosity (dynamic)2 1 N ⋅ s/m2 = 2419.1 lbm/ft ⋅ h
= 5.8015 × 10−6 lbf ⋅ h/ft2
Volume 1 m3 = 6.1023 × 104 in.3
= 35.315 ft3
= 264.17 gal (U.S.)
Volume flow rate 1 m3/s = 1.2713 × 105 ft3/h
= 2.1189 × 103 ft3/min
= 1.5850 × 104 gal/min
1
The SI name for the quantity pressure is pascal (Pa) having units N/m2 or kg/m ⋅ s2.
2
Also expressed in equivalent units of kg/s ⋅ m.
6
Physical Constants
Universal Gas Constant:
ℛ = 8.206 × 10−2 m3 ⋅ atm/kmol ⋅ K
= 8.314 × 10−2 m3 ⋅ bar/kmol ⋅ K
= 8.314 kJ/kmol ⋅ K
= 1545 ft ⋅ lbf /lbmole ⋅ °R
= 1.986 Btu/lbmole ⋅ °R
Avogadro’s Number:
𝒩 = 6.022 × 1023 molecules/mol
Planck’s Constant:
h = 6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
Boltzmann’s Constant:
kB = 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
Speed of Light in Vacuum:
co = 2.998 × 108 m/s
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant:
σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 ⋅ K4
Blackbody Radiation Constants:
C1 = 3.742 × 108 W ⋅ µm4/m2
C2 = 1.439 × 104 µm ⋅ K
C3 = 2898 µm ⋅ K
Solar Constant:
Sc = 1368 W/m2
Gravitational Acceleration (Sea Level):
g = 9.807 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2
Standard Atmospheric Pressure:
p = 101,325 N/m2 = 101.3 kPa
Heat of Fusion of Water at Atmospheric Pressure:
hsf = 333.7 kJ/kg
Heat of Vaporization of Water at Atmospheric Pressure:
hfg = 2257 kJ/kg
7
ENGR 471 #1
Origins, Modes, Rate Equations and
Relationship to Thermodynamics
Overview
_________ ________________, the subject of this course, is the ___________ as
what we called ___________ in the study of Thermodynamics.
A temperature difference can drive as many as three distinct modes of energy
transport: ________________, ________________ and thermal _____________.
We must consider all 3 modes to determine the overall rate of heat transfer.
Conservation of _________________ is a key problem‐solving tool, but in Heat
Transfer, we handle the conservation differently than in Thermodynamics.
Systems and Energy – Define an open system to be a region in space through which
matter may flow:
There are multiple energy _______________ modes in the system, including:
_______________ ______________ is __________________ and possessed
by the system as a whole relative to an outside frame of reference, including:
2
_____________ energy ‐ KE mV (kJ) ke V
2 (kJ/kg)
2
2
_____________ energy ‐ PE mgz (kJ) pe gz (kJ/kg)
_____________ ____________ u (kJ/kg) is the sum of all _________________
forms of energy associated with the ______________ and ______________ of
___________________ and independent of an outside frame of reference.
Microscopic forms of energy include:
________________ internal energy is the _______________ energy of
molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational, electron) and determines
___________________
________________ internal energy is the energy of ___________ between
____________________ that break or form during __________ _________
(e.g. during melting and freezing)
________________ internal energy is the energy of __________ between
___________ that break or form during ______________ ______________
(e.g. during combustion)
________________ internal energy is the energy of _________ _________
that break or form during nuclear reactions
8
Energy may ____________ or ____________ the system (energy transport) by
crossing the system boundary in one of three ways:
1. _________________ is energy transport by _____________ _____________
across the system boundary.
2. _________________ is the energy transport due to a ___________________
_________________ in space.
3. _________________ is energy transport caused neither by moving matter
across the system boundary nor by a temperature difference in space.
Advection (refresher from Thermodynamics)
Consider a system with one inflow and one outflow. _____ _________________
of internal energy plus flow work (h = u + pv) is:
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚 𝑢 𝑝𝑣 𝑢 𝑝𝑣
Since specific heat is defined as __________________1 for __________________
(liquids and solids) and _________ ___________, we can say ________________.
Integrate both sides of the equation:
𝑑ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑐 𝑑𝑇
Substituting into the relation for net advection, we see that:
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚 ℎ ℎ 𝑚 𝑐 𝑑𝑇
In the special case of _____________ ______________ ________ (i.e. if c does
not vary with T):
𝐸 𝐸
NOTE, however, that specific heat cp is never truly constant. When possible, we
therefore use an average constant specific heat 𝑐̅ :
𝑐 𝑇 𝑐 𝑇
𝑐̅ OR 𝑐̅ 𝑐 𝑇 for
2
1
For incompressibles (solids and liquids), cp = cv = c = du/dT, but 𝑝𝑣 𝑝𝑣 0 unless Δp is very
large, so the expression developed here for net advection is a good approximation for incompressibles.
9
The use of 𝑐̅ is equivalent to accounting for the temperature dependence of
cp with a piece‐wise linear approximation of cp(T) between Tin and Tout.
Evaluating 𝑐̅ 𝑐 𝑇 is preferred over averaging cp(T) at the endpoint
temperatures, since using 𝑇 limits the interpolations to one.
Conduction Heat Transfer (also known as thermal __________________)
Conduction is net energy transport through matter due to interactions between
atoms and molecules with different kinetic energy.
As molecules interact, energy is transferred (diffuses) from more energetic
molecules to less energetic molecules.
In a ____________, the mechanisms for energy transport by diffusion are:
particles move through space and carry their kinetic energy with them
high kinetic energy particles transfer energy to low kinetic energy particles
through collisions
In a ____________, the mechanisms for energy transport by diffusion are:
______________ ______________ ‐ free electrons (metals only) move
through the solid lattice to a) carry their kinetic energy with them and b)
transfer energy to lower kinetic energy free electrons through collisions
(like a fluid!)
_____________ ______________ ‐ higher kinetic energy particles transfer
energy to lower kinetic energy particles through lattice vibrations
The rate equation for conduction heat transfer is called ____________ _______:
𝑞" [_________ _________ = energy/(time*area)] is the energy transport in
the x direction per unit area perpendicular to the x direction (W/m2)
𝑘 (________________ ___________________) is a transport property of the
material (W/m K)
𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥 (temperature gradient) is the rate at which temperature changes in
the x direction at location x (K/m)
The _________ _________ q (W = energy/time) is the heat flux multiplied by the
area for heat transfer that is perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer.
10
For the SPECIAL CASE of ____________ (not dependent on time) and _______‐
_________________ conduction in x (i.e. T varies in the x direction only), the
temperature variation is ___________. In this case if T(x = 0) = T1 and T(x = L) = T2
then the heat flux is:
Convection Heat Transfer
Convection is heat transfer between a ___________ and a moving ___________
due to the combined effects of two mechanisms:
(1) Energy transport by __________________ (also known as diffusion)
through the fluid, and
(2) Energy transport due to ________ (macroscopic) ________ ____________.
Transport due to bulk fluid motion is also known as ________________.
Boundary layers of fluid form during convection heat transfer.
The ____________________ (hydrodynamic) boundary layer is a layer of fluid
adjacent to a solid where the velocity is affected by the surface.
The ____________________ (thermal) boundary layer is a fluid layer next to a
solid surface where the temperature is affected by the surface.
Types of convection include:
In _______________ convection, an external driving force (e.g. a fan, pump,
wind, etc.) causes the flow.
In _______________ (free) convection is when the flow is caused by fluid
buoyancy arising from density differences
As temperature rises, density typically decreases, casing the warmer fluid
to be displaced by colder, denser fluid.
Example: recirculating airflow between two panes of glass in a window.
In _________________ convection, combined free and forced effects drive
the fluid flow.
Some convection heat transfer processes, such as boiling and condensation,
transport both ______________ and ______________ internal energy.
11
The rate equation for convection is Newton’s Law of Cooling:
q” (_________ _________) ‐ energy transport between a solid surface and a
fluid (W/m2)
h (____________________ ____________________) ‐ depends on the solid
geometry, fluid motion and thermodynamic properties (W/m2K)
Ts ‐ _________________ temperature
T∞ ‐ __________ _____________ (outside the thermal boundary layer) fluid
temperature
Radiation Heat Transfer
Radiation heat transfer happens in a ___________ __________ process:
1. All matter continuously converts some of its thermal internal energy to
electromagnetic radiation, and ___________ that radiation from the matter.
2. The emitted electromagnetic energy is ___________________ through space.
For transport to occur, the space can be filled with nothing (a vacuum) or a
semi‐transparent material.
3. Electromagnetic radiation is then ________________ by matter in a new
location and stored in the matter as thermal internal energy.
Note that radiation heat transfer is the only mode of heat transfer than does not
require the presence of matter in order to propagate through space, so the total
heat transfer q = qcond + qconv + qrad reduces to q = qrad in a ________________.
__________________ (E) is radiation originating from the thermal energy of
matter and leaving a system (W/m2).
The rate that electromagnetic energy is emitted is called the ______________
______________ (E).
12
An upper limit to emissive power is given by the Stephan‐Boltzmann law:
𝐸 𝜎𝑇
a perfect emitter is called a _________ _________ and emits 𝐸 𝜎𝑇
all _________ materials emit ________________
o 𝜖 𝐸 /𝐸 (0 𝜖 1) is the ___________________, a material
property measuring emission efficiency relative to a perfect emitter.
o σ (W/m2K4) is the _______________‐_______________ constant.
o Ts (K) is the emitting surface temperature. Note: Ts ________ be in K!
___________________ (G) is radiation that is incident on a system from some
source(s) in the surroundings (W/m2).
Some of G is _________________ to increase the internal energy of the
absorbing material.
_________________ where α (no units) is a material property called the
_________________.
α = Gabs/G is a material property with a value 0 𝛼 1.
In an _________________ material, absorption happens at the material
surface. In a ________ ‐ ___________________ material, absorption
happens through the volume.
Absorptivity α is the fraction of all irradiation G falling on a system that is
absorbed by the system.
Some of G is _________________ by the system and therefore is not added to
the energy of the system.
________________ where ρ (no units) is called the __________________.
ρ = Gref/G is a material property with a value 0 𝜌 1.
Reflectivity ρ is the fraction of all irradiation G falling on a system that is
reflected by the system.
13
Some of G is __________________ through the system and therefore is not
added to the energy of the system.
________________ where τ (no units) is called the ___________________.
τ = Gtrans/G is a material property with a value 0 𝜏 1.
Transmissivity τ is the fraction of all irradiation G falling on a surface that is
transmitted through the system.
Note that ______________________.
_________________ of thermal irradiation (G).
A _______________ source can be from a __________ (e.g.
a distant sun) or a __________ (e.g. a LASER).
For a direct source, the ____________ ____
________________ affects the intensity (W/m2) of the
radiation at a surface.
Consider sunlight falling on the earth at sunrise vs. at
mid‐day.
A ___________________ (omni‐directional) source can be
from the radiant _______________ of surroundings or
_______________ from a direct source.
An _________________ can function as a source. Consider radiation entering
a small aperture in an __________________ enclosure with ______________
surfaces:
Even low absorptivity results in
total absorption, since inbound
radiation is reflected many
times before exiting.
Not only does the small opening
absorb as a blackbody, it is
observed to also emit as a
blackbody.
14
→ An isothermal enclosure contains a diffuse blackbody radiation field.
→ Radiant energy escaping from a small opening into an isothermal enclosure
provides an excellent approximation of blackbody radiation.
Most _____________ at most wavelengths are ________ ‐ _________________,
which means they absorb and emit radiation throughout the volume of the gas.
___________________ is _________ and _________________ is __________
for most gasses.
So gasses often do not participate significantly in radiation heat transfer.
Cases when gas emission and/or absorption _____________ _____
________________ include:
Very __________ gas ________________, so radiation path through the
gas is long.
Very __________ gas ________________, so that emission is significant
even if emissivity is low.
So‐called “___________________” gasses, like CO2 and CH4, absorb more
strongly in the infrared than in the visible wavelengths.
o Sunlight passes through these gasses to be absorbed by the earth.
o The earth re‐radiates energy at much longer infrared wavelengths that
greenhouse gasses like CO2 and CH4 absorb.
o Greenhouse gasses thus act as a one‐way thermal valve, allowing solar
energy in but restricting energy flow out.
Now consider the ________ (out – in) radiant ____________ ____________ an
isothermal surface that is at a ____________________ temperature than its
surroundings: _____________________________.
The ___________________ between the surfaces is either evacuated or
contains a gas that does not participate in the radiation heat transfer.
15
Let’s limit ourselves to the special (but common) case of a small surface at Ts
in __________ ______________________ at Tsur.
Large surroundings are ________ ____ ________________, and we know that
irradiation G falling on a small surface in the enclosure must be blackbody
radiation ___________________.
In addition, approximate this surface as ______________, meaning that the
emissivity and absorptivity are the same (__________).
Now substitute for 𝐸 𝑇 , G, and α in the expression for net energy leaving a
small surface in large isothermal surroundings:
𝑞" 𝜖𝐸 𝑇 𝛼𝐺 𝜖𝜎𝑇 𝜖𝜎𝑇 so
One Dimensional Flow
The _____ __________ approximation is useful in many thermodynamic, fluid
mechanic, and heat transfer analyses. The conditions for 1D flow are:
Flow is _______________ to the boundary wherever mass enters or exits the
control volume.
All _______________ properties2, including velocity and density, are __________
(the same everywhere) over each inlet or outlet area.
Conservation of Mass
In Thermodynamics, the conservation of mass in 1D flow reduces to:
𝑑𝑚 𝐴𝑉 𝐴 𝑉
𝑚 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝜈 𝜈
2
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the system.
16
A dot over a variable means a derivative with respect to __________.
Q is energy transport by _________ (joules) while 𝑄 = dQ/dt is the ______
______ of energy transport (joules/sec = watts).
E is the system ____________ (joules) while dE/dt = 𝐸total storage is the rate
of _____________ _____________ in a system.
Recall that enthalpy h = u + pv, where
u is the _______________ ________________ stored in the system’s mass.
pv is energy crossing the system boundary as the __________ __________
done to push fluid in or out across the system boundary.
We see that in ____________________, E is the ___________ energy stored, and
the First Law simply says that _________ system energy is __________________.
𝐸 𝐸 , 𝐸 , where:
𝑉
𝐸 , 𝑄 𝑊 𝑚 𝑢, 𝑢, 𝑢, 𝑢, 𝑝𝑣 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑉
𝐸 , 𝑄 𝑊 𝑚 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑝 𝑣 𝑔𝑧
2
Conservation of Energy – The approach in __________ _________________.
What is different in heat transfer?
The symbol _____ means the same as _____ from Thermodynamics.
The symbol _____ accounts only for ________________ and ________________
energy in a system.
This allows us in heat transfer analysis to ___________ ____________ to
______________________, which is helpful because temperature is relatively
easy to measure.
PROBLEM: thermal and mechanical energy alone are _____ ______________!
How are these differences handled?
Consider means of energy transport across system boundaries: (1) Heat q ( = 𝑄 ),
(2) Work 𝑊 , and/or (3) Advection (with 𝑚).
_________ q entering or leaving a system is always _______________ energy.
17
Differentiate between __________________ ________, such as work Tω
transmitted by a rotating shaft, and _______________________ _______,
such as electric work VI.
Differentiate between the _________________ (with 𝑚) of ______________
and __________ _____________ ______________ across system boundaries:
_________________ internal energy includes _______________________.
_________________ internal energy includes _______________________.
Separate the _______, __________________ work and _______________ energy
contributors to energy transport at system boundaries from ______ contributors.
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐸 accounts for the net thermal and mechanical energy transport across
system boundaries. Consulting the First Law we see that:
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑉
𝐸 𝑞 𝑊, 𝑚 𝑢, 𝑝𝑣 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑉
𝐸 𝑞 𝑊 , 𝑚 𝑢 , 𝑝 𝑣 𝑔𝑧
2
𝐸 must now account for all of the remaining contributors to energy
transport in the First Law:
𝐸 𝑊, 𝑚 𝑢, 𝑢, 𝑢,
𝑊 , 𝑚 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 ,
Now we can attempt a Heat Transfer version of the conservation of energy
statement in terms of only the thermal and mechanical energy:
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The _________________ term must account for the fact that thermal and
mechanical energy alone are ______ ______________.
If 𝐸 0 then 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 and correction = 0.
18
Note that 𝐸 0 whenever:
non‐mechanical work has a net conversion to/from mechanical work or
thermal energy within the control volume.
non‐thermal internal energy has a net conversion to/from mechanical
work and/or thermal energy within the control volume.
Define a “_____________________” term 𝐸 to account for conversions
between thermal/mechanical and non‐thermal/non‐mechanical energy in the
system.
We can now write the Heat Transfer conservation of energy as:
19
Conversions take place throughout the volume of the system, so generation is
____________________ and has units of energy/volume (W/m3).
In the ________ ____ ____ ___________ ___________ (dUlatent/dt = 0), the
concept of specific heat may be used to relate change in internal energy to
change in temperature:
𝑑𝑈 𝑑
𝐸 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is valid for _________________ (solids and liquids) and for _______ ______.
If you also _________________ density (ρ), volume (V), and specific heat (c)
as _____________ ______________ (i.e. independent of temperature), then
Energy is also conserved at a _______________ ______________. A surface has
zero volume, so:
1. The storage 𝐸 = 0 at a control surface because storage requires mass
and there is no mass when volume is zero.
2. The generation 𝐸 = 0 at a control surface because generation is volumetric.
Process for Problem Solving
1. ______________ and document your work using #1‐7 in the format of section 1.5
in your text. For examples, see the solution to every sample problem in the text.
2. Identify the time basis: ______________ or _______________.
3. Define and sketch a ______________ for analysis. The system may be a volume
or a surface.
4. Identify the relevant transport processes: ________________, ______________,
_________________, __________, _________________, and/or _____________.
5. ______________ your system sketch with arrows showing the location and
direction of each relevant transport process.
6. Look up the values of the thermophysical _____________________ needed for
your analysis.
a. ________________ ‐ Properties depend on temperature.
b. Accounting for the temperature dependence of properties is difficult.
20
c. ________________ ‐ If the range of temperature variation is small and/or
the dependence of a property on temperature is weak, then a constant
property assumption is reasonable.
d. Q. – Your “constant properties” really depend on T. At what T do you
_______________ __________________? A. An average temperature __.
7. Write the appropriate _______________ ____________________ equation.
a. ______________ or ________________
b. ______________ or ________________
8. Substitute __________ ______________ for each term (from step 4) in your
energy conservation equation.
21
ENGR 374 Chapter #1
SUMMARY
Model Equation1 Approximations
Conservation of Energy
𝐸 𝐸 0
(Control Surface)
Conservation of Energy
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
(Control Volume)
𝑑𝑇 Cartesian coordinates
Fourier’s Law 𝑞 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥 conduction in the x‐direction only
Cartesian coordinates
∆𝑇
Conduction Heat Rate 𝑞 𝑘𝐴 steady state
𝐿 one‐dimensional conduction
Convection Heat Rate
qconv = hA (Ts ‐ T∞)
(Newton’s Law of Cooling)
Radiation Absorbed A*αG
Radiation Emitted2 𝐴∗𝐸 𝜖𝜎𝐴𝑇
Surroundings are large and isothermal
Net Radiation Emitted 𝐴∗𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝛼𝐺 𝜖𝜎𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 ) surface small (relative to surroundings)
gray surface (α = 𝜖)
Net Advection Incompressible OR ideal gas
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚𝑐̅ 𝑇 𝑇
(Steady Flow, 1 Inlet and Exit) specific heat 𝑐̅ 𝑓 𝑇
Incompressible OR ideal gas
𝑑𝑇
Storage 𝐸 𝜌𝑉𝑐 constant specific heat 𝑐̅ 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 constant mass m = ρV ≠ f(t)
𝐸 = transformation of non‐mechanical and/or non‐
Generation
thermal energy to mechanical and/or thermal energy
1
All units are watts (W). Remember, energy E (J) or energy rate 𝐸 (W) = dE/dt is conserved. Energy flux (W/m2) is not conserved.
2
When E stands for Emission (rather than for Energy), its units are energy flux (W/m2), so it is necessary to multiply by area A to get an energy rate (W).
22
23
24
Recorder: _____________________ Team Members: ____________________________________
At 9 PM on a mid‐October evening, the outdoor temperature in Grantham falls below the dew point
and blankets Messiah College with moisture (liquid water). Later that night, there is only a little
wind and not a cloud in the sky. In the morning, you learn that overnight air temperatures never
dropped below 35 oF, so you are surprised to see frost on the ground!
a) Sketch a surface energy balance for the ground. Illustrate all energy interactions between
moisture on the ground and the surroundings.
b) If conduction into the ground is negligible, perform an energy balance on the surface of the
ground to derive an equation that could be used to determine the ground temperature.
c) Explain to how frost could form on the ground while air temperatures are still above freezing.
25
Recorder: _____________________ Team Members: ____________________________________
The temperature of a hand warmer increases when it is “activated”. Let the package boundaries be
system boundaries. Consider the time immediately following activation when the temperature has
increased but the package has not yet begun to cool.
1. Is the system energy immediately following activation greater than, less than or the same as
immediately preceding activation? Please explain. (Recall, the first law of Thermodynamics for a
closed system is ΔE = Q – W = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE.)
2. Consider a Heat Transfer energy balance for the system.
a. Which term in 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 accounts for the temperature rise in the hand
warmer? Please explain.
b. Has any other term in the energy balance increased or decreased due to activating the
hand warmer? Please explain.
3. The temperature rise indicates an increase in thermal energy in the system. Since the total
internal energy is unchanged, which form of internal energy storage has decreased to account
for the increase in thermal energy? Please explain.
26
ENGR 471 #2
Introduction to Conduction
Conduction Rate Equation
The general conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law) for __________________
materials – when conductivity k is independent of co‐ordinate direction – is:
𝑞⃗" 𝑘∇𝑇
𝑞⃗" is the heat flux vector.
k is the thermal conductivity.
T(x,y,z) is the scalar temperature field.
is the 3D del (grad) operator, where in:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Cartesian Coordinates ∇T 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Cylidrical Coordinates ∇T 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
Spherical Coordinates ∇T 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙
_____________: heat flux _____ is proportional to the rate of temperature
_____ change with location. Thermal conductivity _____ is the constant of
proportionality.
______________: many composit materials are NOT isotropic.
Fourier’s law is __________________________.
A phenomenological law is descriptive of observed behavior rather than
derived from first principles1.
Fourier’s law is the first principel from which other results are derived!
The heat flow direction is always normal to a surface of constant temperature
called an ______________. Therefore, an alternative form of Fourier’s law is:
T
q n k
n
n is the direction normal to an isotherm
q”n is the heat flux normal to an isotherm
Newton’s second law 𝐹⃗
1
𝑚𝑎⃗ is another well known phenominoligical law.
27
Thermal Conductivity
Conductivity k is a ____________________ _________________ of a material.
Conductivity is the sum of _______________ (ke) and _______________
(phonon) (kl) components: k = ke + kl
In pure _____________ ke is much larger than kl.
poor electrical conductors also tend to be poor thermal conductors
it is difficult to conduct heat without also permitting current flow
impurities (alloying!) lower conductivity by impeding electron transport
In ____‐_____________ (ionic, covalent and mixed bonding) kl is much
larger than ke.
lattice conductivity kl increases with molecular order in solids
crystals (e.g. quartz) are more ordered and therefore have higher
thermal conductivity than amorphous materials (e.g. glass)
Temperature Dependence
The conductivity of __________
can increase or decrease with temperature
is a weak function of temperature for many (but not all) solids
The conductivity of ___________ tends to
increase with increasing temperature
decrease with molecular weight
vary little with pressure
The conductivity of _______________ often decreases with increasing
temperature, although there are important exceptions (water, glycerin).
Additional Thermophysical Properties
___________________ properties include: (a) (density), (b) cp (specific heat)
___________________ properties include the diffusion rate coefficients: (a) k
for heat transfer, (b) v (kinematic viscosity) for momentum transfer.
Volumetric _________ ______________ ‐‐ cp (measures ability to store
thermal energy)
_________________ _________________ ‐‐ α = k/ρcp (ratio of the ability to
conduct energy / ability to store energy)
28
Thermal Insulators
Engineered thermal _______________ materials typically comprise a solid and
small dispersed air (or other gas) pockets (i.e. a _____________ material)
and/or ____________________ layers bound by a solid barrier
NOTE: Gasses are generally less conductive than solids, but unlike solids, gasses
can also aid heat transfer by convection.
The solid in an insulator is often a dielectric (non‐metal) fiber, power or flake
Heat transfer through an insulator is via combined
____________________ through the solid
____________________ and ____________________ across the voids
An ____________________ conductivity keff is often defined to permit an
approximate analysis of heat flow through an insulator as pure conduction
caution: keff can be a strong function of temperature, because across the
voids qrad ~ T4
Heat Diffusion Equation
The goal of the diffusion equation is to determine the ____________________
_______ T(x,y,z,t) in a region bound by conditions imposed on it’s boundaries.
At any point in the computation domain, once the temperature field is known:
Fourier’s law may be applied to find the _________ ________, and
thermal __________, _________________ and ___________________ may
be computed.
Problems of this type are called __________________ __________ problems.
The heat diffusion equation is derived by conserving energy on a differential
control volume. In Cartesian coordinates:
1. Conserve energy on a control volume dxdydz:
2. We have already shown that storage may be evaluated as:
𝜕𝑇
𝐸 𝜌𝑉𝑐
𝜕𝑡
where in this case the volume is V = dxdydz, so
𝐸
29
3. We also know that generaton may be evaluated in terms of 𝑞 (W/m3):
𝐸 𝑞𝑉
4. The inflow and outflow of energy by conduction in from each face of the
control volume is:
𝐸
𝐸
Performing a Taylor Series expansion of qx about location x one finds that:
Higher order terms are multiplied by dx2, dx3, etc., which are vanishingly
small, so we drop the higher order terms. This might be interpreted as:
Resulting expressions for heat couduction exiting the control volume are:
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞
𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
5. Substitute the results of steps 2, 3 and 4 into the energy balance on our
differential control volume from step 1 (𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 ).
𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑦 𝑞 𝑑𝑧 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡
30
and simplifying we see that the result so far is
𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
6. Recall Fourier’s law to find qx, qy, and qz:
Substitute these expressions into the result from step 5:
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑧 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡
7. Note that the area A will be the area in each face of the differential control
volume through which heat flows.
for qx heat flows through A =
for qy heat flows through A =
for qz heat flows through A =
Substituting for the value of A in each term of the heat equation
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡
Notice that __________________________________ outside of ∂/∂x
because _________________________________________. Similarly, dxdz
may be moved outside of ∂/∂y and dxdy may be moved outside of ∂/∂z.
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡
31
Conductivity ________________________ outside of the derivatives in
front of each k value because in general ___________________________
and T depends on location and time, so k = k(T) = k(x,y,z,t).
8. Divide through by dxdydz to simplify. The heat equation is:
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑞 𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Each term has a clear meaning that can help us know when the value of a
term is negligible. Negligible terms may be dropped to simplify the math.
T T T
k k k = ___________________ in and out
x x y y z z
𝑞 = volumetric rate of thermal energy __________________
T
c p = rate of change of energy ___________ in the control volume
t
So the plain meaning of the differential heat equation is:
(Net Conduction) + (Generation) = (Change in Storage over Time)
Examples of simplifications:
IF ____________ ____________ (no change with time):
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑞 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
IF _____________________________:
𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
∇ 𝑇
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
IF ___________ AND ____________________ AND ___________________:
2T 0
Conditions
To solve the heat equation for the temperature field, one _________________
is needed for each differential in the final form of the equation.
32
The storage term requires _________________ conditions.
Initial conditions are knowledge of the temperature at a moment in time.
Since the storage term contains _______ ___________________ it requires
_______ ___________________ condition.
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑡
In the terms that account for net conduction, each of the length derivatives
requires one ________________________ condition.
A boundary condition is knowledge of the ______________________ or
_________ ________ at a boundary of the computational domain at all
moments in time.
For example, since the net conduction in x (below) contains _____
_______________ it would require _____ _______________ conditions.
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
We see that the heat equation can require _____________________ condition
and up to _____________________ conditions.
Initial Condition
The initial condition is the temperature field ______________________ within
the control volume at some moment in time t = to.
A common initial condition is a ___________________ (constant) temperature
at time t = 0.
T(x,y,z,t=0) = Ti
Boundary Conditions
Types of boundary conditions for a ______________________ between the
computational domain (system) and the surroundings include the following
(see Table 2.2):
1st Kind (Dirichlet) – Fixed surface _____________________ (approximated
by phase change). Example: if T = Ts at the surface x = 0 the boundary
condition is:
T = Ts @ x = 0
33
2nd Kind (Neumann)
Fixed surface ___________ ___________ (approximated by area electric
heaters). Example: if the heat flux is qs” at surface x = 0 then the
boundary condition is:
𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑞"
𝜕𝑥
An ____________________ (well‐insulated) surface has a fixed surface
heat flux of zero. Example: if surface at x = 0 is well insulated then the
boundary condition is:
𝜕𝑇
0
𝜕𝑥
3rd Kind – ________________________ heating or cooling at the surface.
Example: if the surface at x = 0 is exposed to convective cooling by fluid at
T∞ on the x+ side then then boundary condition is:
𝜕𝑇
𝑘 ℎ 𝑇 𝑇
𝜕𝑥
If x=L is a surface _____________________________________, the boundary
conditions are:
To satisfy _____________________ _____________________, the
temperature must be the same on each side of the interface surface. We
write this as:
Tsolid 1 = Tsolid 2 @ x = L.
To satisfy ____________________________________, the heat flux must
be the same on each side of the interface surface. We write this as:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
The temperature field will be the same on either side of a plane of ___________,
so the heat flux across a plane of symmetry is zero. The boundary condition is
therefore _______ ___________________ _____________ normal to the plane
of symmetry.
𝜕𝑇
0
𝜕𝑛
34
Recorder: ____________________ Team Members: ___________________________________
You measure the temperature distribution in a 0.3 m thick wall at an instant in time and fit the
data to a quadratic equation:
T(x) = a + bx + cx2
T oC, x m, a = 200 oC, b = ‐200 oC/m, c = 30 oC/m2
Thermal conductivity of the wall material is 1 W/m K.
a) Find the rate of heat transfer (per unit surface area) into the wall, out of the wall, and the
rate of change in energy stored in the wall.
b) Determine the convection coefficient? (4.3 W/m2 K)
35
36
Recorder: ______________________ Team Members: _________________________________
Radii in the illustration below are such that r = ro ‐ ri is much smaller than ri. As a result we
may approximate heat conduction as one‐dimensional in the direction. Temperature
variations in the r and z directions are negligible. Denote length in the z direction (normal to
the page) as L.
i) Sketch and label features on a differential control volume that can be used to derive a heat
diffusion equation for the problem.
ii) What is the volume (V) of this differential control volume? What is the area (A) for heat
flow?
iii) Derive a differential equation (heat diffusion equation) that describes T(). Include terms
for energy generation and storage.
37
38
ENGR 471 #3A
One‐Dimensional, Steady‐State Conduction
Introduction
Conduction may be modeled as one‐dimensional when temperature
________________ exist in ______ ___________________ and temperature is
uniform in the other directions.
Heat transfer in real systems is never perfectly 1D, so __________________
is needed to make the one‐dimensional approximation.
Heat transfer in many real systems may be approximated as 1D when:
EITHER ______________ or _______________ eliminates heat flow in
other directions
OR __________________ to heat flow in other directions is so _______
that temperatures are uniform in all directions except one
Since 1D heat flow is an approximation, it must be listed among the
approximations or _____________________ in the record of analysis.
Steady State ‐ Temperature at each location in a system is independent of
___________.
If a conduction is both __________ AND _____, then the heat rate _____ (NOT
q”) is the same (________________) everywhere along the path of heat flow.
___ ________ Conduction with _____ _____ in _________________Coordinates
STEP 1 – Solve the Heat Equation
1) Simplify the __________ ____________________ for conduction that is
steady and 1D in the “x” direction through a material with k independent of
T and no generation.
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑞 𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
We see in the simplified heat equation that temperature now depends only on
x, so this is now an ____________________ (vs. partial) differential equation.
2) Let the __________________ __________________ be known temperatures
at x = 0 and x = L.
AND
39
3) Multiply both sides of the heat equation by dx.
𝑑 𝑑𝑇
0 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4) Now we are able to perform an indefinite integration on the heat equation.
𝑑𝑇
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
5) Multiply both sides of this result by dx.
𝑑𝑇
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
6) Now we are again able to perform an indefinite integration on the result:
𝑑𝑇 𝐶 𝑑𝑥
7) Apply the boundary conditions to solve for constants of integration C1 and C2.
At x=0 use the condition T(x=0) = T1 resulting in:
T1 + C2 = 0 so
At x=L use the condition T(x=L) = T2 resulting in:
T2 + C1L + C2 = T2 +C1L – T1 = 0
rearrange to show that
8) Substitute the values for C1 and C2 back into the solution to the heat equation.
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑥 𝑥 𝑇 0
𝐿
rearrange to show that
STEP 2 – Apply Fourier’s Law to fine the Heat Rate
dT
q x kA
dx
40
We see that the chapter 1 equation for conduction is the solution to the heat
equation in the case of 1D, steady conduction with no generation in Cartesian
coordinates with constant temperature boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L.
____________ any of these ____________________ and you will _____________
the __________________ to the heat equation!
1D Steady Conduction with No Generation in __________________ Coordinates
The ________ __________________ ________ for conduction heat transfer is
not always constant.
In Cartesian coordinates, the cross‐sectional area for heat flow is the _____
______________ value of ____.
In radial and spherical coordinates the cross sectional area for heat flow in
the r direction ________________ ____ ___ _________________.
The heat rate ___________________ at _______________ for 1D steady state
conduction without generation, but ________ depends on area and therefore
______________ ____ ____.
Therefore, Fourier’s law and the heat equation depend on the coordinate
system.
In _______________ coordinates, Fourier’s law and the heat equation are:
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑞" k∇T k 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑟 𝑘 𝑘 𝑞 𝜌𝑐
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
In ________________ coordinates, Fourier’s law and the heat equation are:
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑞" k∇T k 𝚤̂𝑘 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑟 𝑘 𝑘 sin 𝜃 𝑞 𝜌𝑐
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑡
The steps applied to 1D, steady conduction with 𝑞 = 0 in Cartesian coordinates
may also be applied to cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Solutions for
constant temperature boundary conditions are tabulated in the next section.
41
Thermal Resistance
Resistance to 1‐dimensional heat flow is __________________________ to
resistance to 1‐dimensional current flow in an electrical circuit.
Compare to
Notice that just as a voltage difference ΔV drives ________________ flow
through Relectrical, a temperature difference ΔT drives _____________ flow
through Rthermal.
Considering the solution above for 1D steady heat flow with no generation
in Cartesian coordinates, we see that ________________________ and
therefore _______________________.
Here are solutions to the heat equation in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
coordinates for steady 1‐dimensional conduction with no generation and
constant temperature boundary conditions:
Plane Wall Cylindrical Wall Spherical Wall
𝑑 𝑇 1𝑑 𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
Heat Equation 0 𝑟 0 𝑟 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
__________ the Heat Equation to find the ___________________ _______:
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟 𝑇, 𝑇 𝑟 𝑇
Temperature
𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟 1 𝑟 /𝑟
Field 𝑇 𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑇 𝑇
𝐿 ln 𝑟 /𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑟 /𝑟
Now apply ___________________ to find an expression for the heat rate q.
Be sure to use the appropriate form of Fourier’s law for your ____________
______________:
𝑇1 𝑇2 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 𝑇1 𝑇2 4𝜋𝑘 𝑇1 𝑇2
Heat Rate 𝑞 𝐾𝐴 𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 ln 𝑟 /𝑟 1/𝑟 1/𝑟
Rearrange the expression for the heat rate q such that _________________
to reveal the appropriate form of Rth.
42
Similarly, we can rewrite qconvection = hA(Ts ‐ T∞) as qconvection = ΔT/(1/hA), so the
thermal resistance for _____________________ heat transfer is:
Rt,conv = 1/hA
Composite Wall – A composite wall can have multiple thermal resistances, which
can be arranged such heat flows through the resistances in series or in parallel.
Thermal resistance combine by the same rules as electrical resistances.
Thermal resistances in _______________________ combine to give an
effective resistance as:
1/Reff = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . .
Thermal resistances in _______________ combine to give an effective
resistance as:
Rtot = R1 + R2 + . . .
Once the total thermal resistance in a composite wall is known, the heat rate
may be found as:
∆𝑇
𝑞
𝑅
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Instead of Rtot, it is sometimes convenient to define an overall heat transfer
coefficient U such that __________________.
Comparing to the composite wall result, we see that q = _______________,
from which we conclude that ________________.
If area ____ _________ in the direction of heat flow, qradial for example, the
value of U must also vary such that the product ____ ____ _____________.
43
Contact Resistance ‐ Resistance to conduction heat flow at the _______________
between materials.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐾
𝑅 ,
𝑞 𝑊/𝑚
𝑅, 𝐾
𝑅 ,
𝐴 𝑊
Surface roughness at an interface results in _________________ __________
interspersed with ________.
heat flows by conduction across the contacts
heat flows by combined convection and radiation across the gaps
Contact resistance can be ____________________ by:
adding a high conductivity __________________ ___________________ ‐‐
enhances heat flow across the gaps
increasing __________________ ‐‐ increases direct contact area
______________ surface _______________ ‐‐ increases direct contact area
Note that contact resistance is affected by many variables: material, surface
roughness, pressure, interfacial fill.
Thermal contact resistance can be the _________________________ single
resistance to heat flow in a system.
temperature changes abruptly across
contacting surfaces
avoid contacting surfaces where efficient
heat dissipation is critical
1D Steady Conduction __________________
1) For a steady, 1D, constant conductivity system,
_________________ the heat equation to:
𝑑 𝑇 𝑞
0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
44
2) _____________________ _________ to show that the general solution to the
heat equation is:
Rewrite the
2nd Order Term
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞
Multiply by dx 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑑𝑇 𝑞
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Integrate
𝑑𝑇 𝑞𝑥
Multiply by dx 𝐶 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑞𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝐶 𝑑𝑥
𝑘
Integrate
3) Consider constant temperature boundary conditions. ______________ _____
_________________ to solve for the constants of integration C1 and C2.
Apply BC T(x = ‐L) = T1
45
𝑞𝐿
Solve for C2 𝐶 𝑇 𝐶 𝐿
2𝑘
Apply BC T(x = +L) = T2
1 𝑞𝐿
Solve for C1 𝐶 𝑇 𝐶
𝐿 2𝑘
1 𝑞𝐿
𝐶 𝑇
𝐿 2𝑘
Substitute for C2 into the
expression for C1
𝑇 𝑇
𝐶
2𝐿
Substitute C1 into the
expression for C2
𝑞 𝑇 𝑇
𝐶 𝐿
2𝑘 2
4) __________________ for C1 and C2 in the solution for T(x) and ____________
to generate a final solution specific to these boundary conditions.
𝑞𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 𝐶𝑥 𝐶
2𝑘
𝑇 𝑥
𝑞 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑘 2𝐿 2
46
Multiply the first term on the right side by L2/L2 and simplify:
𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑥 1
2𝑘 𝐿 2 𝐿 2
5) Use _______________ ______ to determine the heat transfer rate.
𝑑𝑇 2𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 1
𝑞 " 𝑘 𝑘
𝑑𝑥 2𝑘𝐿 2 𝐿
𝑘
𝑞 " 𝑞𝑥 𝑇 𝑇
2𝐿
See ________________ ___ of your text for solutions found by applying this same
method to the heat equation in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates
with various boundary conditions.
Quasi‐One‐Dimensional Conduction
Imagine ___________________ to conduction that is ________________ in all
directions except one.
Since Rcond = L/kA, we see that __________ will be __________ if ________
_________ or ______________.
Heat transfer is quasi‐1D in the direction of non‐negligible resistance.
Temperature will ___________ in the direction of non‐negligible resistance
and be ________________ in the directions of negligible resistance.
____________________: conduction in a thin plate with constant end
temperatures will be quasi‐one‐dimensional even if there is heat transfer
from the surfaces.
A differential ________ ________________ can be derived for ____________
heat conduction by conserving energy on a ______ ______________________
control volume. This would have:
Differential length in the direction of resistance to heat flow.
Finite length in the direction(s) of negligible resistance to heat flow.
47
Tips for Analyzing
Thermal Circuits
Define a thermal resistance for each unique path through which energy may flow by
heat.
Identify resistances in series.
Identify resistances in parallel.
Define a node for each temperatures that bounds heat flow between resistances.
Assign a unique variable (q1, q2, q3, etc.) for the heat rate in each branch ‐ one or
more resistances in series ‐ of the circuit.1 Heat rate q is the same in all resistances of
a branch.
A node in a circuit represents a surface, so an energy balance performed:
Between nodes is on a volume.
On a single node is on a surface.
You do not need to know the temperature at every node.
You can find q by applying q = ΔT/Rtot between any two nodes of known
temperature.
When q is known, you can find T of a node of unknown temperature by applying
q = ΔT/Rtot between the nodes.
You may propose a direction for q even if you do not know the end node
temperatures.
Guess or arbitrarily assign a direction for q.
Assume the higher temperature is upstream of your assumed direction for q.
If your assumed direction is wrong, the solution will give a negative value for q.
Plane Wall Cylindrical Wall Spherical Wall
𝑑 𝑇 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
Heat Equation 0 𝑟 0 𝑟 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟 𝑇, 𝑇 𝑟 𝑇
Temperature
𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟 1 𝑟 /𝑟
Field 𝑇 𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑇 𝑇
𝐿 ln 𝑟 /𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑟 /𝑟
𝑇1 𝑇2 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 𝑇1 𝑇2 4𝜋𝑘 𝑇1 𝑇2
Heat Rate 𝑞 𝐾𝐴 𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 ln 𝑟 /𝑟 1/𝑟 1/𝑟
1
A branch is one or more resistances in series.
48
49
KNOWN: Composite wall with known dimensions and thermal conductivities.
FIND: Heat rate per unit wall depth, and which of three cases yields the largest and smallest
heat rates.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Surfaces normal to heat flow direction are isothermal or surfaces
parallel to the heat flow direction are adiabatic, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Negligible
contact resistance.
ANALYSIS:
50
(8) Gray surface at r3.
51
52
ENGR 374 #3B
Extended Surfaces
Extended Surfaces (Fins) – Extended surfaces protrude away from a base surface
to _____________ heat transfer (lower Rthermal) from the base surface.
Consider conduction through a flat solid base followed by convection to a
fluid. Total resistance to heat transfer is Rtotal = Rcond + Rconv.
_______________ ____ __________________ _____________ to this base:
_______________ _____ since the path length L for conduction
increases.
_______________ _____ since the area A for convection increases.
If the addition of a fin causes Rconv to decrease more than Rcond increases,
then the fin has been effective in enhancing heat transfer.
Advantages and disadvantages of extended surfaces:
The benefit of an extended surface is a ______________ _______ _______
and/or _______________ _____________________ at the base
The downsides of adding extended surfaces include:
Greater manufacturing and maintenance ___________
Increased system ___________
Increased pumping _________________ for forced convection (more
pressure drop)
Increased system ____________ as pressure drop increases
Types of extended surfaces include:
Straight (constant cross‐section) Straight (variable cross‐section)
Annular Pin (or Spine)
53
Derivation of the Fin Equation
Conduction in a fin is typically modelled as
_________‐____ in the longitudinal direction (i.e.
along the fin length). This model assumes that
the:
_______________________ (lengthwise)
resistance to heat flow is primarily due to
____________________.
_____________ resistance to heat flow is
primarily due to _________________ and/or
____________________.
For the quasi‐1D approximation to be valid:
The distance through the ___________‐_________________ of a fin must be
__________ compared to the length of the fin (i.e. the longitudinal distance).
The _____________________ k of the fin material must be __________.
As the cross‐section becomes small, the requirement for high k may be relaxed.
As k becomes large, the requirement for small cross‐section may be relaxed.
The diffusion equation for a fin is derived by applying the conservation of
energy equation to a __________‐_______________________ control volume.
1. ______________ ______________ on a control volume Ac(x)dx, where Ac(x)
is the cross sectional area of the fin at a distance x measured from the base.
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
2. Assume _____________ state and _____
_____________________ so that:
𝐸 𝐸 0
3. Recall that ____________________________
so that:
54
4. Substitute ___________________________, where _________ is the cross‐
sectional area at x AND substitute _________________________________,
where __________ is the differential ________________ area.
5. Assume __________________ ______________________ [k ≠ f(T)]. Pull k
out from under the d/dx operator and divide through by kdx:
Note that since the cross section can vary, ___________________________.
This general heat equation may be solved _____________________ for fins
of non‐constant area (i.e. tapered fins) so long as the conditions of steady
state, no generation and constant k are satisfied.
6. To aid with the solution, make the additional assumptions of a constant
cross sectional area along the fin (i.e. a straight fin). Assume:
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
in which case
where the perimeter ____ is also ________________ since Ac is constant.
7. Now Ac is not dependent on x so it may be pulled out from under the d/dx
operator, and Pdx may be substituted for dAs.
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
This leaves dx/dx = 1. Dividing by the constant Ac, the heat equation is:
𝑑 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
55
8. Define an ______________________________________________ and let
__________________. Use the ___________ ___________ to affect a unit
transformation from T to θ:
but so and we see that
𝑑 𝑇
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑥
9. The heat equation for a fin in ________ state and with ___ _____________,
_______________ ___, and ____________ cross‐section Ac is:
10.Our partial differential equation is ____________________ to a _________,
___________________________, ________________ differential equation
whose _________________ __________________ is known to be:
𝜃 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶𝑒
11. Apply boundary conditions to solve for C1 and C2.
1𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜃 𝑥 0
2nd boundary condition (4 possibilities)
A) ________________ at the tip 𝑘
B) ________________ tip 𝑘
12. The ____________________ to the heat equation for ________ and to
applying Fourier’s law to find the fin heat rate _______ are tabulated in
__________ ____ in your text for tip boundary conditions A, B, C and D.
56
Single Fin Analysis Process
(See Separate Resource)
Fin Performance ‐‐ How can we quantify the benefit of adding fins to a heat transfer
system? Remember: the purpose of fins is to ___________________ heat transfer.
______ ____________________ (f) ‐‐ ratio of the heat dissipated by one fin to
the heat rate that would have existed at the fin location in the absence of a fin:
𝜀
Ac,b is the cross‐sectional __________ of the fin at the _________, which is
also the area of the base that has been covered by a fin. __________ Ac,b =
Ac for constant cross section.
______ _____________________ (f) – ratio of heat dissipated by one fin to the
maximum possible heat that could be dissipated if the whole fin were at the base
temperature:
𝑞
𝜂
𝑞
Af is the total surface ________ of a single fin exposed to _______________.
If a _________________ ______ has width ____ much _______________
than thickness _____, the edge contribution to Af may be ignored and the
perimeter is approximately ____________.
__________________ __________________ for a single fin may be defined as:
Rt,b = 1/hAc,b is the thermal resistance that would exist at the base of a fin if
there were no fin. We see the fin effectiveness is the ratio of Rt,b to Rt,f.
𝜀
Non‐Uniform Cross‐Section
_________________ fins of rectangular profile are common on tubes but have
non‐uniform cross‐sectional area that must be accounted for.
_________________ the cross sectional ______ with distance from the base of
a straight fin can reduce pin volume (and weight) with little loss of performance.
57
Effective Length Approximation
Can __________________ be shown between a real fin with a ______________
_____ and a hypothetical longer fin with an _______________ _____?
Yes. The adiabatic tip solution for an effective fin length
____________________ has been shown to approximate the more complex
convective fin tip solution. For example:
The length correction for a rectangular fin of thickness t is Lc = L + ______
The length correction for a pin fin of diameter D is Lc = L + ______
Fin efficiencies f in terms of length Lc for a variety of fins are given in _________
and __________________ and _________.
Errors associated with these approximations are negligible if ________ (for plate
fins) or ________ (for pin fins) ___________.
NOTE: If the fin tips ____________ are _______________ then ____________
the correction to L!
Performance of Fin Arrays
58
59
The parameter C1 = 1 if there is no ______________ _____________
between the fin and base.
When contact resistance is non‐zero:
R
C1 1 f hA f t ,c
Ac ,b
𝑹"𝒕,𝒄 is thermal contect resistance per unit area (m2K/W) between a fin and
the base
________________ _____________ ________________ (Rt,o) for an array of
fins and their exposed base area
b 1
Rt ,o
qt o hAt
Fin Array Analysis
(See Separate Resource)
60
61
62
Single Fin
Nomenclature
θ The excess temperature _____________________, where:
T(x) is the temperature at location x measured from the base of the fin
T∞ is the free stream temperature of fluid surrounding the fin.
θb The maximum excess temperature _________________________________
is the driving temperature difference for heat transfer through the fin.
qf The total ___________ into the fin at the base. This energy is then conducted
longitudinally along the fin and exits by convection through the fin surface.
P The ______________________ length of the fin cross‐section.
Perimeter times fin length is the total area for __________________
The hP term in the solutions is related to the convective resistance to heat
flow from the fin.
Af __________________________of ______________ exposed to convection.
NOTE: Af = PL for a fin of constant cross‐section and adiabatic tip.
Ac The __________________________________ through which heat flows by
_______________________ along the length of the fin.1
k The _________________________ of the _______________________.
(NOTE: Not the conductivity of the fluid.)
Units
m = (hP/kAc)1/2 This group in the solution for temperature distribution θ/θb has
units of ___________________________ (1/m for example).
M = (hPkAc)1/2 θb This group in the solution for qf has units of ______________
(Watts for example).
h/mk This group in the solution for θ/θb and qf for the convective tip
boundary condition is _____________________.
mL This group in the solution for θ/θb and qf for three of the four
tip boundary conditions is ______________________.
You must take care of the units of the inputs to each of these groups of variables
so that the units of the group and of the solution as a whole are as they should be.
1
EXAMPLE: A round pin fin of diameter D will have cross sectional area Ac = 𝜋D2/4 and P = πD.
63
Single Fin
Analysis Process
Process for finding _______________________ ______________________ θ/θb
and ____________________ qf for a one fin.
1. What is the _________________ ________________ at the tip of the fin?
2. Look up the _____________________ (θ/θb and qf in Table 3.4) to the fin
equation for your tip boundary condition?
3. What is the fin ____________________ P = ?
4. What is the ______________________________ of the fin Ac = ?
5. What is the _______________________ of the fin material k = ?
6. What does θb = ?
7. What is m = (hP/kAc)1/2 = . Have you verified the units of m?
8. What is M = (hPkAc)1/2 θb = . Have you verified the units of M?
9. What is h/mk = (if the tip boundary condition is convective). Have
you verified the units of h/mk?
10.What is mL = . Have you verified the units of mL?
11.Apply the values and units you found for m, M, h/mk and mL to the solution to
the fin equation for the proper tip boundary condition.
64
Fin Array
Nomenclature
h Convection coefficient on the fin and base. The same value of h is usually assumed
to prevail everywhere on the fin, but this is an approximation.
k The conductivity of the fin material.
qf The total heat rate into a fin at the base. This energy is then conducted
longitudinally along the fin and exits by convection through the fin surface.
qmax The maximum possible heat rate for a fin or a fin array occurring if the entire fin
were at temperature Tb.
qt The total heat rate from an array of fins plus the base area still exposed to
convection.
T The temperature T(x) at location x measured from the base of the fin.
Tb The temperature at the base of a fin or fin array.
T∞ The free stream temperature of fluid surrounding a fin or fin array.
θ The excess temperature θ = T(x) – T∞.
θb The maximum excess temperature θb = T(0) – T∞ = Tb – T∞ is the driving
temperature difference for heat transfer through a fin or fin array.
L The length of a fin measured from the base to the tip.
Lc Corrected (effective) fin length Lc = L + correction to account for heat transfer from
a convective tip when the adiabatic tip solution to the fin equation is used. NOTE2
P The perimeter length of the fin cross‐section.
Dh The hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/P is an effective diameter defined for non‐round
pin‐fins and USED ONLY for computing Lc and the parameter m.
Af Surface area of a single fin exposed to convection. NOTE: Af = PL for a fin of
constant cross‐section and adiabatic tip.
Ac The cross sectional area for heat flow by conduction along the length of a fin.
Ac,b The cross‐sectional area of a fin at the base, which also equals the area of the base
that has been covered by a fin. Note Ac,b = Ac for constant cross section.
Ab The base area still exposed to convection after fins cover some of the base area.
Ab = (Total Base Area) – NAc,b
2
NOTE: Use Lc only if the fin tips really are adiabatic! If the fin tip condition is adiabatic then use fin length L, and if
the fin tip condition is convective then use Lc
65
At The total area of an array of N fins plus the exposed base area At = NAf + Ab.
N The total number of fins in the fin array.
f Fin effectiveness is the ratio of the heat dissipated by one fin to the heat rate that
would have existed at the fin location in the absence of a fin.
qf Rt ,b
f
hAc ,b b Rt , f
f Fin efficiency is the ratio of heat dissipated by one fin to the maximum possible
heat that could be dissipated if the whole fin were at the base temperature.
qf qf
f
q max hA f b
o The overall efficiency for an array of N fins plus the area of the base that is still
exposed to convection.
qt qt NAf f
o 1 (1 )
qmax hAt b At C1
Rt,f Thermal resistance for a single fin.
b
Rt , f
qf
Rt,b The thermal resistance that would exist at the base of a fin if there were no fin.
Rt,o Overall thermal resistance for an array of fins plus their exposed base area.
b 1
Rt ,o
qt o hAt
𝑹"𝒕,𝒄 The thermal contact resistance per unit area (m2K/W) between a fin and base
C1 Term appearing in the overall fin efficiency to account for contact resistance
between each fin in an array and the base. C1 = 1 if there is no contact resistance.
When contact resistance is non‐zero:
R
C1 1 f hA f t ,c
Ac ,b
66
Fin Array
Analysis Process
Finding overall thermal resistance ______ and total heat rate _____ for an array.
1. Determine the total ________________ of fins N = in your array.
2. Locate the ___________ of fin in your array among the single‐fin solutions for ηf with
adiabatic fin tips (see Table 3.5).
3. Is there convection from the ___________ of the fins in your array?
a. Yes → Correct the fin length to account for convec on from the fin ps. Use Lc = L
+ correction = , where the correction is provided in Table 3.5.
Hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/P is an effective diameter defined for non‐round pin‐
fins to be USED ONLY for computing Lc and the parameter m.
b. No → Do not add a correc on to the fin length.
4. Compute the efficiency of onee fin using the expression for _____ = that
you found in Table 3.5.
5. Compute the area of a one fin _____ = from the array based on L if the tips is
adiabatic or Lc if tips are convective. Do NOT add the area of the fin tip.
6. Compute the area of the base _____ = (Total Base Area) – NAc,b = that
remains uncovered by fins and is therefore still exposed to heat transfer by
convection.
7. Compute the total area of all fins plus the base area that remains exposed to
convection ______ = NAf + Ab = .
8. Is there contact resistance between the base and each fin?
a. Yes → Compute the value of the parameter ______ = .
R
C1 1 f hA f t ,c
Ac ,b
b. No → Set C1 = 1.
9. Compute the ________________ ________________ of the fin array :
𝑁𝐴 𝜂
𝜂 1 1
𝐴 𝐶
10. Compute ________________ thermal ________________ of the fin array ______ =
1/(ηohAt) = .
11. Compute the total _________ _________ for the array. Do you know θb?
a. Yes → Compute ______ = θb/Rt,o = .
b. No → Use the circuit analogy to compute qt = ΔT/ΣR = , where Rt,o is one of
several resistances between two known temperatures.
67
68
69
ENGR 471 #4
Multi‐Dimensional, Steady‐State Conduction:
Introduction to Numerical Methods
Solving the Conduction Equation
Analytic Solutions of Conduction Boundary Value Problems (Closed Form
Solutions)
yield ______________ results at _______ __________ in the computational
domain
solution applies to all specific boundary values
mostly exist only for _________ ____ ______________ and simple
boundary conditions
have been published for many geometries and boundary conditions
are usually expressed in terms of _________________ mathematical
__________
Numerical (Computational) Methods
solve for ___________ 2D and 3D _______________ with complex
boundary conditions
work for ___________________ ________________ material properties
and for generation
provide only _________________ results at ______________ _________
within the computational domain
solution applies only to specific boundary values
require computing equipment
Shape Factors and Dimensionless Heat Rates
Analytic solutions to 2D and 3D conduction equations are often in the form of
an infinite series, and therefore can be ________ ________________ to apply.
The results of analytic solutions may be used to find the value of a _______
_________________ or dimensionless_______________________.
The shape factor or dimensionless heat rate can then be used to _________
find ______________________ solutions to 2D and 3D problems.
70
Shape factors S may be used to find heat transfer q in a 2D or 3D domain
bounded by isothermal surfaces at T1 and T2:
Shape factors and restrictions for _________ ________ conduction through
several 2D and 3D geometries are given in _______________.
Since q = ΔT/R, it follows that a thermal resistance may be expressed as:
Dimensionless heat rates 𝑞∗ may be used to find 2D or 3D heat transfer q
from an _________________ _________ at temperature T1 and with surface
area As to an ______________ _____________ at temperature T2:
Dimensionless heat rates for several geometries are given in ___________.
Notice that 𝑞∗ values are _______________ (≈ 1) for all cases tabulated, so
values for similar cuboid shapes may also be assumed ≈ 1.
Numerical Methods
Numerical methods for solving the conduction equation include the _______
_____________ ____________ method (FCV), _______ ___________
___________ (FEM) and ___________ ________________ method (FD).
The _____ and _____ methods yield the same algebraic equations for
conduction in _______, but often do not yield the same equations for heat
transfer in flowing ______.
The ______ method guarantees ________ energy conservation in each
finite control volume (or element); ______ and ____ do NOT guarantee
local energy conservation in each element.
______ and ______ guarantee ____________ energy conservation; _____
does NOT guarantee global energy conservation across the computational
domain.
This is generally not an issue in solids, but can cause problems in fluids.
Even so, _____ has been widely used in modelling supersonic flows.
71
_____ more readily permits discretization with ____ _____ ____________
(control volumes), and thereby more readily accommodating domains of
complex geometry.
FCV Method Summary1
1) ______________ the computational domain ‐‐ divide the bounded region you
are analyzing into a number of smaller but finite control volumes (FCVs).
2) Assign a reference point called a __________ at the center of each region. The
collection of all nodes is called the __________ or _________.
3) Complete an energy balance on each control
volume.
When computing heat rates, let the change
in temperatures across each region be
_____________________ ____________.
Base properties and generation in each
region on a ________________
_____________ average temperature for
each region (node).
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
1
This course will introduce the Finite Control Volume (FCV) and Finite Element Method (FEM) approaches to heat
transfer and fluid flow analysis. The Finite Difference (FD) approach uses Taylor series expansions to reduce the
PDE to an algebraic equation.
72
𝑞 𝑞
𝑞 𝑞
𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 0
4) Solve the resulting ______________ of linear algebraic equations for the
temperature field.
Each FCV yields a linear algebraic equation in temperature.
The governing partial differential equation (PDE) and boundary conditions
reduce to a system of simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
This procedure transforms the problem of solving a partial differential equation
and boundary conditions to that of solving a large system of simultaneous linear
algebraic equations.
Solving the System of Equations
Direct Solution by Matrix Inversion
fixed (known) number of computations
suitable for ___________ systems of equations
large systems of equations
require very large amounts of computer _________________
solution _________ can be measured large
_________________ Numerical Methods
exact number of computations required is not known
computer requirements are less than those of direct methods
very ____________ systems of equations may be solved
73
__________ ___________ Iteration
1) Generate an initial _____________ of the temperature at each node and
store these temperatures in computer memory.
2) Visit each node one at a time. Use the governing energy equation for that
control volume to compute a _________ nodal temperature
a m ,n Tm ,n a neighbor Tneighbor b
Replace the __________ value of Tm,n in computer memory with the new
value. One iteration is complete when all nodes have been visited once.
3) Identify the largest value of R Tm ,n new Tm ,n old for any node.
If Rmax , where is the largest acceptable temperature error, then
the procedure has __________________ to a solution.
If Rmax then return to Step 2.
Convergence
A ___________________ _____ _____ ___________________ condition
for convergence is:
a neighbor
1 for all equations
a m ,n 1 for at least one equation
Convergence is aided by ___________________________
a neighbor Tneighbor b
Tnew value Told value Told value
a m ,n
where 0 1 is the ________________ factor.
Precautions
Verify your problem setup and solution procedure by
first solving a simple problem whose ________________ ____
__________.
verifying ____________ ________________ ________________ over
the computational domain.
74
Finite Control Volume solutions become more accurate as x and y (and
z if 3D) are reduced. This is called __________ _____________________.
A good solution will not change much with further grid refinement.
_____________ _______________ must be completed to demonstrate
that the grid is sufficiently fine and the solution is insensitive to further
refinement.
Computational requirements (solution time) increase as the grid is
refined. The best grid is one that delivers valid results while minimizing
computation time.
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
KNOWN: Steady-state temperatures (K) at three nodes of a long rectangular bar.
FIND: (a) Temperatures at remaining nodes and (b) heat transfer per unit length from the bar using
&
nodal temperatures; compare with result calculated using knowledge of q.
SCHEMATIC:
82
ENGR 471 #5A
Transient Conduction – Analytic
When ___________________________ temperatures within the boundaries also
begin to change until a new steady‐state temperature distribution is reached. This
process is ________________ (______________) heat transfer.
(1 of 3) Lumped Capacitance Method
The essence of this method is the assumption that ___________________
within a solid are ________________________ at every instant in time during
a transient process.
Conservation of energy requires 𝐸 𝑞 0
Introduce = T ‐ T and note that d/dt = dT/dt:
______________________ the governing differential equation:
Vc i T T hA
ln t ‐ OR ‐ exp s t
hAs i Ti T Vc
Significance of Vc / hAs
1/hAs is the thermal __________________ Rt to convection.
Vc is the thermal __________________ Ct of the lump.
Increasing (decreasing) t = RtCt _________ (______________) the lump
response time.
83
Total energy transfer between time 0 and t is:
hA
Q ( Vc) i 1 exp s t
Vc
Validity of Lumped Capacitance
Consider steady, 1D conduction through a
plane wall of thickness 2L with a convection
boundary condition:
Rearrange to find the ratio of Tconduction to
Tconvection:
T Ts 2 ( L / kA)
s1
Ts 2 T (1 / hA)
Define the __________ number Bi hL/k. This is a _____________________
number that provides a measure of the ratio of Tconduction to Tconvection. IF Bi
<< 1 THEN:
temperature variations in the solid are much smaller than the temperature
difference across the thermal boundary layer, so
the _______________________________ within the solid is much less than
the _______________________________ across the fluid boundary, and
the LUMPED CAPACITANCE approximation is ______________!
84
Generalized ______________ for lumped capacitance to accommodate any
geometry:
hL
Bi c 0.1
k
where Lc is a characteristic length scale.
Some values for Lc:
If the customary definition of Lc = V/As is applied then (1) Lc = L for plane
_______ of thickness 2L, (2) Lc = ro/2 for a long ___________, and (3) Lc =
ro/3 for a __________.
A more ______________________ criteria associates Lc with the maximum
spatial temperature difference in the solid, so for a plane wall of thickness
2L (case 1) then Lc = L and for a long cylinder or a sphere (cases 2,3) Lc = ro.
Conclusion !
Lumped capacitance greatly simplifies transient analysis. When solving a
transient problem, FIRST _______________________________________ to learn
if lumped capacitance may be assumed.
Dimensionless Time
In the case of Lc = V/As then
hAs t ht hL k t hLc t
c
Vc cLc k c Lc 2 k Lc 2
The far right‐hand parameter above is dimensionless time called the
__________ number:
This permits the solution to the lumped capacitance problem to be rewritten
as follows:
T T
exp( Bi Fo )
i Ti T
85
General Lumped Capacitance
If the Biot number is small but the energy interactions include ____________
______, _____________ and _____________ in addition to surface
convection, then the governing energy equation is:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞" 𝐴 𝐸 ℎ 𝑇 𝑇 𝜖𝜎 𝑇 𝑇 𝐴 , 𝜌𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡
This equation can not be solved by direct integration.
Numerical methods, such as the ______________________________ scheme,
are easy to implement and very effective for solving the above equation.
(2 of 3) Spatial Effects (Heisler Problem)
Consider the case of a plane wall of thickness 2L (x = 0
at the midplane). The wall is initially at temperature Ti
and beginning at time t = 0 is symmetrically heated or
cooled by convection.
The governing PDE is:
2 T 1 T
x 2 t
with ____________ conditions
and _____________ condition
86
New variables scaled to order of magnitude one are:
𝜃
𝜃∗ ≡ 𝑥∗ ≡ 𝑡∗ ≡ ≡ 𝐹𝑜
𝜃
Apply the _________ _________ to write the ___________________
___________________ in terms of the new variables.
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑇
𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Evaluate the transformational derivatives.
𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 ∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝜃 ∗
∗
𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ∗
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐿 𝜕𝑥
𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝐹𝑜
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐿 𝜕𝑡
Substitute for 𝜕𝑇/𝜕𝜃 ∗ and 𝜕𝑥 ∗ /𝜕𝑥 in the chain rule for 𝜕 𝑇/𝜕𝑥 .
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝜃 ∗ 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿
Substitute for 𝜕𝐹𝑜/𝜕𝑡 in the chain rule for 𝜕𝑇/𝜕𝑡.
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝛼 𝜕𝐹𝑜
87
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝜃 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑥 ∗
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝐶 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝜃 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗
𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝑠𝑜 0
𝜕𝑥 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝑇
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶 𝑘
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜃 ∗ ℎ𝐿 𝑇 𝐿, 𝑡 𝑇
𝑠𝑜
𝜕𝑥 ∗ ∗ 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇
Express the ______________ ______________ in terms of the new variables.
so T(x,0) ‐ T∞ = Ti - T∞
Divide both sides by (Ti ‐ T∞)
𝑇 𝑥, 0 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑠𝑜
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
SUMMARY results of the transformation to new dimensionless variables having
an order‐of‐magnitude of one:
𝜕 𝜃∗ 𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝐹𝑜
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜃∗ 𝑥 ∗, 0 1
𝜕𝜃 ∗
1𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0
𝜕𝑥 ∗ ∗
𝜕𝜃 ∗
2𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑖𝜃 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 1, 𝑡 ∗
𝜕𝑥 ∗ ∗
the number of independent variables from eight to __________!
88
Heisler Solutions
Separation of variables, and other mathematical techniques, have been used to
develop exact analytic solutions for several simple geometries and conditions.
The solutions take the form an _______________ _________.
1. ____________ _______ of thickness 2L (x = 0 at the midplane) initially at
temperature Ti. At time t = 0 the wall is symmetrically heated or cooled by
convection. (Eq. 5.42a,b,c)
2. ____________ _______ of radius ro (or real cylinder of L/ro > 10) initially at
temperature Ti. At time t = 0 the cylinder is uniformly heated or cooled by
convection. (Eq. 5.50a,b,c)
3. __________ of radius ro initially at temperature Ti. At time t = 0 the sphere
is uniformly heated or cooled by convection. (Eq. 5.51a,b,c)
Approximate ________________ solutions (consisting of only the first term in
the infinite series) are accurate when Fo > 0.2.
1. Plane Wall ‐‐ Eqs. 5.43a,b & 5.44 (Bi = hL/k where L is the half thickness)
2. Infinite Cylinder ‐‐ Eq. 5.52a,b,c (Bi = hro/k where ro is the radius)
3. Sphere ‐‐ Eq. 5.53a,b,c (Bi = hro/k where ro is the radius)
The Heisler solutions may also be used to model ____________ ____________
______________________ boundary conditions.
Since Rconv = 1/hA, as ____________ then ____________ and ____________.
Therefore, setting __________ is the __________ _____ a constant surface
temperature boundary condition of ____________.
Total Energy Transferred
Energy transferred to or from the system by heat is equal to the energy storage.
Q E st
To nondimensionalize divide by Qo cV (Ti T )
Q T Ti dV 1
(1 * ) dV
Qo V Ti T V VV
Solve this integral using the _________________ approximate solution to the
energy equation (Fo > 0.2).
1. Plane Wall ‐‐ Eq. 5.49
2. Infinite Cylinder ‐‐ Eq. 5.54
3. Sphere ‐‐ Eq. 5.55
89
(3 of 3) Semi‐Infinite Solid
A semi‐infinite solid extends to infinity in all but
one direction. They are characterized by a
____________ identifiable _____________.
A sudden change in the boundary conditions at the
surface causes _______________, _____
__________________ conduction in the solid.
The depth to which the effects of a change in surface
boundary conditions are felt is called the
_______________ _______. Penetration depth
increases with _______ and grows more rapidly in
materials with high ____________ _____________.
The semi‐infinite solid model can often be used to
approximate real solids that are _______ relative to
________ and ______________________________
since onset of the transient.
Some solids, such as the ____________, are infinite relative to lengths and
time scales of interest.
Other ___________ solids are approximately semi‐infinite in the early
portion of a transient, when interior temperatures are not yet affected by
the change in surface boundary conditions (i.e. thick relative to the
penetration depth).
The governing PDE is reduced to an ODE by introducing a _____________
____________ . The purpose of a similarity variable is to collapse (reduce) the
number of independent variables.
If the shape (not magnitude) of T(x,t*) is ______________ at every fixed time
t* then we might look for variable transformation that collapses all curves
T(x,t*) onto a single curve.
If such a variable could be found, then the number of independent variables
would be reduced from 2 (t and x) to a single similarity variable.
A similarity variable that works for semi‐infinite solids is
x / (4t ) 1/ 2
90
Introducing the similarity variable transforms terms of the heat equation:
T 1 dT
x ( 4t ) 1/ 2 d
2T 1 d 2T
x 2 4t d 2
T x dT
t 2 t (4t ) 1/ 2
d
so the heat equation becomes [T() is independent of x and t!]
d 2T dT
2
d 2
d
with a constant surface temperature ______________ condition
T ( 0) Ts
and uniform temperature ______________ condition
T ( ) Ti
Integrating the governing ODE and applying the conditions to find the constants
of integration
T Ts
( 2 / 1/ 2 ) exp( u 2 )du erf ( )
Ti Ts 0
Apply Fourier’s law to compute the heat rate at the surface:
k (Ts Ti )
qs
(t )1/ 2
The problem is also solved for two other boundary conditions and the results
are compiled in your text book.
Constant Surface Temperature ‐‐ Eq. 5.60 & 5.61
Constant Surface Heat Flux ‐‐ Eq. 5.62
Convection at the Free Surface ‐‐ Eq. 5.63
91
Solids with Interior and Exterior Heat Transfer
A dimensionless _____________ heat flux q* = 𝑞 𝐿 /𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 may be found
from the transient conduction solutions for semi‐infinite solids, plane walls and
spheres1
Solutions are in terms of the _____________ number Fo = t/Lc2 so q* = f(Fo)
Solutions include solids with a constant _____________ boundary condition
Solutions include solids with a constant ______ ______ boundary condition
Define two types of heat transfer that are applicable to q*(Fo):
______________ Heat Transfer – q*(Fo) is heat transfer into an object of
initial uniform temperature Ti and constant surface temperature Ts or heat
flux qs” (i.e. lumped capacitance and Heisler problems).
______________ Heat Transfer – q*(Fo) is heat transfer from a constant
temperature Ts or heat flux qs” at the surface of a solid that is immersed in
an infinite surrounding medium of uniform initial temperature Ti (i.e. Table
4.1 cases 12‐15).
Examine the exact solutions to q*(Fo) as plotted in Figure 5.10.
Heat flow – both interior and exterior – from from _______ solids behaves
as semi‐infinite for small values of Fo.
For constant surface ___________________ boundary condition (Fig. 5.10a):
A uniform temperature solid sees a sudden change in surface
temperature Ts heat flux q* to the interior __________ precipitously
as the solid temperature approaches Ts. (______________)
1
Lc is a characteristic length defined for each geometry.
92
A solid at uniform temperature Ts is immersed in an infinite media of
initial temperature Ti heat flux q* to the surroundings __________ to
a steady state value. (______________)
Constant surface _________ _________ boundary condition (Fig. 5.10b):
With constant qs” the surface ______________ Ts becomes the unknown.
Note that Ts must increase ____________________, so unlike the
constant temperature case, q* will neither go to zero or a constant.
However, like the constant Ts case, as Fo increases:
o q* to the _________________ eventually falls below the semi‐infinite
solid solution
o q* to an _________________ media falls above the semi‐infinite
solution.
Exact and approximate solutions to q*(Fo) are tabulated in Tables 5.2a,b.
Approximations are accurate to within 5% or less of the exact infinite series
solution.
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
ENGR 471 #5B
Transient Conduction – Numerical1
Finite Control Volume Method
Begin with the governing 1D transient conduction equation. This following approach
is readily extended to 2D and 3D.
T T
c k
t x x
Previously (for 2D steady conduction) we assumed the spacing between control
surfaces equals the spacing between nodes. This assumption is easily relaxed.
Define the following:
Notice that the __________ case subscripts refer to control _______________ while
the __________ case subscripts refer to control ________________.
Integrate both sides of this equation over a FCV and over the time interval t:
e t t T t t e T
c dtdx w x k x dxdt
w t t t
Analyze the storage term on the LHS.
To analyze the inner integral, assume a ________ ________ _______________
temperature variation of the FCV with respect to time.
∆ ∆
𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑇
𝜕𝑡
where superscript “0” refers to the condition at the ____________ _________
t and no superscript refers to the condition at the _________ _________ t+t.
Since the result of the inner integral is independent of x, the outer integral is
now readily analyzed:
∆
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑐 𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑐 𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡
1
The Finite Control Volume analysis and assisting figures appearing here are taken from Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid
Flow by Suhas V. Patankar, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1980.
102
Therefore, the LHS is
∆
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡
Analyze the net conduction term on the RHS.
To analyze the inner integral, assume a _________ _________ __________
temperature variation between nodes.
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
We may now consider the outer integral.
∆ ∆
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
To analyze the outer integral, we must make an assumption about how
temperatures TP, TE, and TW vary over the time interval t. Let’s propose that
T(t) is such that
∆
𝑇𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑇 1 𝑓 𝑇 ∆𝑡
where variable f is a ______________ ______________ such that 0 <= f <= 1.
103
We are now ready to complete the analysis by setting LHS and RHS equal.
∆
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝜌𝑐∆𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
Applying our assumed variation of TP, TE, and TW over the time interval t and
simplifying the algebra yields a linear equation of the form:
a p Tp a E fTE (1 f )TE 0 aW fTW (1 f )TW 0 a P 0 (1 f )a E (1 f )aW TP 0
where
ke cx
aE aP0
x e t
aW
kw
a P fa E faW a P 0
x w
Accuracy is improved by ___________________ both _______ and _______. This,
however, increases computation time.
x is chosen based on compromise between accuracy and computational‐time
limitations.
t is chosen to satisfy ___________________ _________________ requirements,
without which the problem will not converge (by Gauss‐Seidel or any method).
In the Fully _________________ ____________ (f = 0), new temperatures are
evaluated entirely in terms of known temperatures at the previous time step. The
solution at each time step is more easily computed.
A ________________ must be satisfied for the Explicit Scheme to be __________:
The coefficients associated with the node of interest at the previous time must be
greater than or equal to zero
Each different type of node will have a different stability criterion. _______ nodes
must be stable or the solution will not converge.
In the Fully __________________ _____________ (f = 1), new temperatures are
evaluated entirely in terms of unknown temperatures at the next time step. The
solution at each time step is computed with greater difficulty.
This scheme is unconditionally _____________.
Stability only guarantees the solution will converge. It does not guarantee a
solution that is physically realistic. __________ __________________ (Time and
Space!) studies are still required.
104
The _________ ________________ __________ (f = 1/2) assumes a piece‐wise linear
variation of temperature over time. The solution at each time step is computed with
greater difficulty, since it depends both on the known previous and unknown future
temperatures.
This scheme is unconditionally stable.
Stability only guarantees the solution will converge. It does not guarantee a
solution that is physically realistic. Grid sensitivity (Time and Space!) studies are
still required.
To use any of these methods you make several approximations related to the
numerical method that MUST be listed in your engineering model. These are:
1. ________________ ___________ variation of temperature between nodes for
computing _____________ heat exchange between neighboring FCVs.
2. ________________ _____________ temperature within each FCV for computing:
a. Energy _______________.
b. Temperature dependent ________________ and/or ________________.4
3. One of three possible paths is assumed for the variation of node temperatures
over _____________:
a. The ______________ form lets T remain at the temperature from the previous
time step until the very end of a time step. OR
b. The ______________ form lets T change to the value of the new time step at
the very beginning of the time step. OR
c. The __________ ________________ form lets T vary linear from the old to the
new value over the course of the time step.
NOTE that 1 and 2b are the same approximations made for Steady State FCV
analysis, while 2a and 3 are unique to Transient FCV analysis.
Governing equations for 2D, 3D and boundary FCVs may be found by:
following the procedure outlined here OR
RECOMMENDED: by conserving energy on a FCV
Selected results are provided in Table 5.3 in your textbook.
2
If you assume properties are independent of temperature, then instead of 2b you must list “constant properties” as an
assumption in your engineering model.
105
106
107
ENGR 471 #6
Introduction to Convection
Convection is energy (species) transport by combined (1) _______ _______ __________
and (2) _______________ normal to a temperature (concentration) gradient. Bulk
motion transport often dominates.
q h (Ts T )
But how can I predict the convection coefficient?
Objectives
__________________ physical mechanisms of convection energy transport.
Develop methods that can be used to _____________ the convection coefficient.
Average Convection Coefficient
Local convection heat transfer is 𝑞" 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇
where h(x) is the _______ convection coefficient.
Consider an isothermal surface.
Because flow conditions are typically NOT uniform, h
and q can vary from location to location.
Total heat transfer is computed by integrating dq” =
q”dAs over the entire area.
When fluid flows parallel to an isothermal flat plat, q”(x) and h(x) vary on the
plate surface in the x direction such that:
𝑞 𝑞"𝑑𝐴 ℎ 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝐴
For convenience, let’s define an average convection coefficient
1
As As
h hdAs so that 𝑞
Mass Transfer
N A hm (CA,s CA, ) where
hm (m/s) is the _____________ convection mass
transfer coefficient
CA,s , CA, (kmole/m3) are molar concentrations of
species A
NA (kmol/m2s) is the _____________ molar flux of species A
108
1
As As
Define hm hmdAs so that N A hm As (C A,s C A, ) where
hm (m/s) is the _________________ convection mass transfer coefficient
As (m2) is the surface area
NA (kmol/s) is the _______________ molar transport of species A
To work instead on a mass flux basis, multiply _____________________________.
This converts concentration ____ to density __________ and molar flux __________
to mass flux ________________.
n "A hm ( A, s A, ) and n A hm As ( A,s A, )
Consider a solid or liquid mass of species ___ that is _____________ ______ gas ___.
At the ________________ between A and B, thermodynamic equilibrium requires:
The ___________________ of species A and B must be the _________.
The _______________ A,s of species ____ molecules present ____ ____ at the
interface must be Asat(Ts), the density of _______________ A __________ at the
interface temperature Ts.
How may A,s and A,∞ be found?
There are two ways to find A,s in gas B at the surface of diffusing species A.
Becuase A,s = Asat(Ts), we may find A,s in the __________________________
thermodynamic ____________ for species A (A,s = 1/vA,s).
Because the partial pressure of species A in the dominant species B is very low,
we may estimate A,s using the ________ ____ equation of state1:
𝑃 𝑇 𝜌 ,
𝜌 , and 𝐶 ,
𝑅𝑇 𝑀
Use the free stream _______________ ______________ φ∞ to find A,∞. Humidity
is “relative” to the maximum possible amount of diffusing species A.
The maximum amount of species A than can be present is for A to be saturated
vapor at T∞, so φ∞ = A,∞/Asat(T∞).
1
An ideal gas is a gas for which the particles are so far apart they never interact with each other. No gas satisfies this
requirement perfectly, but when the pressure is low enough and/or the temperature is high enough the frequency and
effect of collisions between atoms and molecules becomes negligible and we can treat that gas as ideal. The larger and/or
more polar a molecule the lower P needs to be and/or higher T needs to be for the gas to behave as ideal. This can be
quantified by the requirement that reduced pressure be P/Pc < 0.1 and reduced temperature be T/Tc > 2.
Because we have limited ourselves to the diffusion in dilute binary mixtures, the partial pressure of diffusing species A is
very low. That means even if the pressure of species B is atmospheric or higher, the contribution to that total pressure of
the diffusing species A is very low, so species A behaves as an ideal gas.
109
Use the saturation tables or the ideal gas equation to find Asat(T∞), just as you
found A,s = Asat(Ts) at the surface, only now the temperature is T∞.
Now compute A,∞ = φ∞Asat,∞.
We see now that the expression for the convection mass transfer nA (kg/s) for dilute
species A diffusing into species B becomes
n A hm As [ Asat (Ts ) Asat (T )]
Velocity (Momentum) Boundary Layer
_________________ (Momentum) Boundary Layer ‐‐ Fluid particles adjacent to a
surface come into _______________ ____________________ with the surface and
thus assume ____________ velocity relative to the surface.
Zero velocity particles at the surface (i.e. the wall) _____________ _______________
with particles in the adjacent fluid layer by ___________________ their motion.
Each layer of fluid near the wall retards the motion of the next layer out, and so on
until at some distance ____ from the wall the fluid velocity approaches the ______
___________ velocity.
Thickness is the velocity boundary layer thickness. It is typically defined as the
value of y (distance from the surface) where _______________.
Velocity __________________ and shear ___________ are _________ inside the
boundary layer.
Velocity gradients and stresses are _______________ outside the boundary layer.
______________________ transport at the solid‐fluid interface is
u
s
y y 0
Thermal Boundary Layer
Fluid particles adjacent to a surface come into _____________ __________________
with the surface and thus assume the _____________ temperature as the surface.
Particles at the wall temperature exchange energy by _________ ________________
with the adjacent cooler or hotter fluid layer.
110
Each layer of fluid near the wall exchanges energy by heat transfer with the next layer
out, and so on, until at some distance _______ from the surface the fluid temperature
approaches the __________ ____________ temperature.
Thickness t is the thermal boundary layer thickness. It is typically defined as the
value of y (distance from the surface) where _________________________
Temperature __________________ and ________ ________________ are large
inside the thermal boundary layer.
Temperature gradients and heat transfer are _______________ outside the
thermal boundary layer.
Conservation of energy requires that ___________________ in the layer of fluid
adjacent to the solid (where u = 0) be equal to __________________ to the free
stream. (NOTE: This must also equal conduction in the solid.)
Consequently, the convection coefficient may be computed as:
Concentration Boundary Layer
When there is mass transfer a concentration boundary layer develops adjacent to the
convection surface.
111
Concentration gradients in this layer are ___________________ to velocity gradients
in a velocity boundary layer and temperature gradients in a thermal boundary layer.
C A A
On a molar basis: N A D AB On a mass basis: n A D AB
y y 0
y y0
D AB C A / y y 0 D AB A / y y 0
hm hm
C A ,s C A , A ,s A ,
Laminar / Turbulent Flow
_________________ Boundary Layers
___________________ along which particles of fluid move are readily identified in
a laminar boundary layer.
_________ of the boundary layer indicates the existence of ______________ ___
normal the surface, which contributes significantly to transport in the boundary
layer.
____________________ Boundary Layers
Irregular local ________________ __________________ in a turbulent boundary
layer further _________________ momentum, energy and species transport.
Turbulence enhances both surface friction and convection coefficients.
Fluid mixing causes turbulent boundary layers to be ______________ and have
________________ profiles (velocity, temperature and species) than a laminar
boundary layer.
Transition to turbulence begins at a critical Reynolds number Rex,c that depends
on _______ ___________ __________________ and ___________ ___________.
A typical value for flow over a __________ __________ is:
u xc
Re x ,c 5x105
112
Convection Transport Equations are derived for momentum, energy, and species by
conserving these quantities in a differential volume. This is the same approach we used
to derive the energy equation for a solid, only there are additional terms to account for
the physics of fluids.
The solution to these equations yields a _______________, ___________________,
and/or _______________________ __________ over the computational domain.
____________________ solutions for these equations exist for certain geometries
and boundary conditions.
Finite Control Volume (______), Finite Element Method (______) and Finite
Difference (______) numerical solution schemes have been developed to solve
more complex geometries and boundary conditions.
From a solution to the V, T and/or C fields one may then compute _______________,
_________ and __________________ __________________.
Experimental methods are generally still required to verify and calibrate numerical
analytic methods for determining heat (h) and species (hm) convection coefficients.
Boundary Layer Approximations simplify the governing __________________,
______________, _______________ and ______________ boundary value problems.
The x coordinate is an arclength along the solid boundary surface.
The y coordinate is perpendicular to the solid boundary surface.
Note that x‐y could be but is not necessarily a Cartesian coordinate system.
The following are boundary layer _______________________:
Fluid velocity (advection) is much greater in the ___________________ than in the
______________________.
u v
Diffusion of momentum is much greater in the ____________________ than in the
______________________.
u u v v
, ,
y x y x
113
Thermal and species diffusion are much greater in the __________________ than
in the ______________________.
T T C A C A
and
y x y x
Because boundary layers are so thin:
_______________ is assumed to be ______________ in the ___‐direction in
the boundary layer.
The ___‐direction pressure ________________ is assumed to be imposed on
the boundary layer by the inviscid _________ _________.
𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The following are boundary layer _______________________:
___________________________ ( constant )
___________________________ ( X Y 0 )
___________________________ (𝑛 0)
___________________________ (𝑞 0)
These approximations and assumptions are used to simplify the governing continuity,
momentum, energy and species conservation equations to the following forms:
u v
Continuity ‐‐ 0
x y
u u 1 p 2 u
x‐Momentum ‐‐ u v
x y x y 2
p
y‐Momentum ‐‐ 0
y
2
T T 2T u
Energy ‐‐ u v 2
x y y c p y
C A C A 2 CA
Species ‐‐ u v D AB
x y y 2
Use of the Boundary Layer Equations
1. Solve for velocity, temperature and species fields using either ________________
or _____________________ (FCV or FEM) methods.
2. Identify the important transport ____________________ in boundary layers and
recognize which terms in the boundary layer equations model these mechanisms.
Diffusion Pressure
Advection Viscous Dissipation
114
3. Identify important _______________________ ________ in the boundary layer.
4. Identify momentum, heat and mass transfer _________________.
Dimensionless Groups (Similarity Parameters)
________________ ______ ____________________ in the governing equation to be
_________________________ and have order of _______________ of _______. The
objectives of this 3‐step exercise are to:
reduce the number of independent variables
reveal the relative importance of each term in the governing equation to learn if
any terms are negligibly small
1. Scale the independent variables derivatives so that they are _________________
and have an order of ________________ ____ _______.
x y
x* y*
L L
u v
u* v *
V V
T Ts C C A ,s
T* CA * A
T Ts C A , C A , s
2. Rewrite the conservation equations in terms of the scaled variables. Neglect
viscous dissipation.
u * v *
Continuity ‐‐ 0
x * y *
u * u * dp * 1 d 2u *
x‐Momentum ‐‐ u* v*
x * y * dx * Re L dy *2
T * T * 1 2T *
Energy ‐‐ u* v*
x * y * Re L Pr y *2
C * A C * A 1 2C *A
Species ‐‐ u * v*
x * y * Re L Sc y *2
3. The relative magnitudes of the coefficients indicate the importance of each term
in the equation and the attendant transport mechanism.
Physical Significance of Dimensionless Groups in the Boundary Layer (NOTE = /):
inertia forces
_______________________ ReL = VL/
viscous forces
Predicts turbulence transition.
momentum transport by diffusion
_______________________ Pr = /
energy transport by diffusion
Predicts relative growth of velocity and thermal boundary layers.
115
momentum transport by diffusion
_______________________ Sc = /DAB
species transport by diffusion
Predicts relative growth of velocity and species boundary layers.
Considering the physical significance of the Pr and Sc numbers we expect
Pr n and Sc n
t c
Additional dimensionless groups are needed to correlate momentum, heat and mass
transfer in the _________ _________ adjacent to a _____________.
_____________ _______________ Cf (dimensionless shear stress at y = 0)
We do not know the solution to the momentum equation, but the governing
boundary layer equation tells us that:
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑑𝑃∗
𝑢 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑅𝑒 , ∗
𝑑𝑥
The dimensionless pressure gradient is determined by the geometry, so for
two solids having the ________ _______________ dP*/dx* drops out and:
𝑢∗ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑦 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒
Let’s write the shear stress in terms of the scaled variables:
𝜕𝑢 𝜇𝑉 𝜕𝑢∗
𝜏 𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
Now consider the Friction Coefficient, defined in fluid mechanics as:
𝜏 𝜇𝑉 2 𝜕𝑢∗ 𝜇 𝜕𝑢∗
𝐶 2
𝜌𝑉 /2 𝐿 𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗ 𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
Finally, given the dependencies of u*, for a prescribed geometry we see that:
𝜕𝑢∗
𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒
𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
and therefore
116
and for an average shear stress 𝜏̅ from x = 0 to L, the average Friection
Coefficident is
𝐶
Two solids with the same geometry and the _________ ______ will therefore
have the __________ average friction coefficient ________!
_________________ ________________ NuL (resistance to heat conduction:
resistance to heat convection at y = 0)
We do not know the solution to the energy equation, but the governing
boundary layer equation tells us that:
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑑𝑃∗
𝑇 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟, ∗
𝑑𝑥
The dimensionless pressure gradient is determined by the geometry, so for
two solids having the _________ _________________ dP*/dx* drops out and:
𝑇∗ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑦 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟
Let’s write the convection coefficient in terms of the scaled varaibles:
𝑘 𝜕𝑇/𝜕𝑦| 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 ∗
ℎ
𝑇 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
Multiplying both sides of this equation by x/kf yields a dimensionless group
called the _________________ number:
resistance to conduction of energy
𝑁𝑢
resistance to convection of energy
Finally, given the dependencies of T*, for a prescribed geometry we see that:
ℎ𝑥 𝜕𝑇 ∗
𝑁𝑢
𝑘 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
and for an average convection coefficient ℎ from x = 0 to L, the average
Nusselt number is
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢
𝑘
Two solids with the same geometry and the __________ _______ and ______
will therefore have the __________ average Nusselt Number _________!
117
_________________ _____________ Sh (resistance to mass diffusion : resistance
to mass convection at y = 0)
Applying to mass transfer the same procedure used to develop the Nusselt
Number, we discover a dimensionless group called the Sherwood Number:
ℎ 𝑥 𝜕𝐶 ∗ resistance to diffusion of mass
𝑆ℎ
𝐷 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗ resistance to convection of mass
Finally, given the dependencies of C*, for a prescribed geometry we see that:
ℎ 𝑥 𝜕𝐶 ∗
𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆𝑐
𝐷 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗
and for an average mass convection coefficient ℎ from x = 0 to L, the average
Sherwood number is
ℎ 𝐿
𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆𝑐
𝐷
Two solids with the same geometry and the _________ _______ and ______
will therefore have the ___________ average Sherwood Number ________!
Dimensionless groups provide the following benefits:
Reduces the number of __________________ variables.
Functional forms identified to aid empirical __________________.
Spatial and temporal _________________ possible.
Similitude
Consider flow over 2 objects of ____________ ______ but the ______ ______________:
We see that the same x‐momentum equation applies so long as Re1 = Re2.
When ______________ we say that ________________ ___________________
has been achieved.
The average friction coefficient for a prescribed geometry with a characteristic
length scale of L is:
𝜏 2
𝐶̅ ≡ 𝑓 𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑢 /2 𝑅𝑒
Therefore, when dynamic similitude is achieved then ____________________.
We see that the same energy equation applies so long as Re1 = Re2 AND Pr1 = Pr2.
When _______________ AND _______________ we say that _______________
___________________ has been achieved.
The average Nusselt number for a prescribed geometry with a characteristic
length scale of L is 𝑁𝑢 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟 .
Therefore, when thermal similitude is achived then _____________________.
118
We see that the same species equation applies so long as Re1 = Re2 AND Sc1 = Sc2.
When ______________ AND _____________ we say that _________________
______________________ has been achieved.
The average Sherwood number for a prescribed geometry with a characteristic
length scale of L is 𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆𝑐 .
Therefore, when thermal similitude is achived then ___________________.
Heat‐Mass Transfer Analogy (Conditions: valid in all boundary layers.)
1. The governing equations for energy and species are mathematically identical.
2. Consequently, the temperature (T*) and concentration (C*A) profiles must have the
same functional form.
(heat‐mass transfer analogy)
The 4 dimensionless groups in the analogy are:
Nu = hL/kf, Pr = / = cp/kf, Sh = hmL/DAB, Sc = /DAB = /DAB
Substitute the definitions of the dimensionless groups and rearrange to show that:
(heat‐mass transfer analogy)
where Le = /DAB is the __________ _________.
Reynolds Analogy (Conditions: boundary layer, dp*/dx*= 0, Pr = Sc = 1)
1. When ____________ and ____________ the momentum, energy and species
conservation equations are all mathematically identical.
2. Consequently, the velocity (u*), temperature (T*), and concentration (C*A) profiles
must have the same functional form.
Re L Cf
Cf Nu Sh ‐OR‐ St St m
2 2
Where the Stanton number is ________________________ and the mass Stanton
number is __________________________.
Chilton‐Colburn Analogy (Modified Reynolds)
Conditions: dp*/dx* 0, 0.6 < Sc < 3000, 0.6 < Pr < 60
This is the Reynolds Analogy modified to relax the restrictions on Pr and Sc, and is
valid when ________________________.
AND
119
The parameters jH and jm are the ______________ ____ ______________.
Substituting the definitions of each dimensionless group and rearranging
1 𝜏 ℎ /
1 𝜏 ℎ /
𝑃𝑟 AND 𝑆𝑐
2 𝜌𝑢 /2 𝜌𝑢 𝑐 2 𝜌𝑢 /2 𝑢
Evaporative Cooling – Consider a convective _______ stream flowing over the surface of
a ______________.
Energy equal to the __________________________ (hfg) is required to sustain
evaporation of the liquid. This energy comes from the ______________
____________ of the liquid.
If no energy is added to the liquid from the surroundings then the system is
__________ and the liquid is ___________.
As the liquid cools, heat will begin to flow into the liquid from the air stream,
which is now warmer than the liquid.
Eventually ________ ________ is reached, for which the latent energy lost from
the liquid must be exactly replenished by energy added from the surroundings.
Let convection be the only energy exchange with surroundings in a steady system:
q evap
qconv
h(T Ts )
qconv
n A h fg h fg hm [ A , sat (Ts ) A , (T )]
q evap
h
T Ts h fg m [ A,sat (Ts ) A, (T )]
h
This is the steady state reduction in the liquid temperature that can be achieved by
means of _________________ __________________.
120
Define free stream ______________ _____________ ∞ = A,∞(T∞)/A,sat(T∞) and
rearrange to show that A,∞(T∞) = ∞ * A,sat(T∞).
h
T Ts h fg m [ A,sat (Ts ) A,sat (T )]
h
Convection Coefficients ‐‐ The problem of convection is to determine h and hm. The
governing boundary layer equations may only be solved for certain geometries and
boundary conditions. A _______________________ approach is often required.
1. Use qualitative knowledge of the governing transport mechanisms and the
conservation equations to design your system.
2. Evaluate system performance experimentally. Iterate to improve the design.
3. Collapse results for a wide range of geometry, fluid and flow conditions into a single
function using the dimensionless groups revealed by the dimensionless conservation
equations. This function is called a _____________________ of the data.
𝜏 2 𝜏̅ 2
𝐶 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒 𝐶 𝑓 𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑉 /2 𝑅𝑒 𝜌𝑉 /2 𝑅𝑒
ℎ𝑥 𝜕𝑇 ∗ ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟 𝑁𝑢 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟
𝑘 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗ 𝑘
ℎ 𝑥 𝜕𝐶 ∗ ℎ 𝐿
𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆𝑐 𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆𝑐
𝐷 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ∗ 𝐷
121
122
123
Using the Heat‐Mass Transfer Analogy
When you apply the Heat‐Mass transfer analogy, how can you know what the material is for each
property needed? The Heat‐Mass transfer analogy says that because the governing conservation
equations for energy and species concentration take the same form, the resulting temperature (T*) and
concentration (C*A) profiles must have the same functional form, which is:
Nu Sh
f ( x *, Re L ) n (heat‐mass transfer analogy)
Pr n
Sc
Consider species A diffusing through species B. That means you have a lot of B (air for example) and a
little of A (water vapor for example) diffusing through B. The analogy is between heat diffusing
through species B AND species A diffusing through species B. The constant in the analogy is species
B, so properties for species B are going to show up more often in the analogy, but how to know
when? Demanding that you understand the underlying physics rather than blindly plugging‐and‐
chugging is always a good idea and can answer many questions.
Here are the 4 dimensionless groups in the Heat‐Mass transfer analogy. You can tell what material
each property is for by considering the physical interpretation of each dimensionless group.
Nu = hL/k Nu is the ratio of convection to conduction heat transfer. Both
conduction and convection occur in species B, so k is the conductivity of
species B. Species B is the air in evaporative cooling.
Pr = / = cp/kf Pr is the ratio of the momentum and thermal diffusivity. Both
momentum and thermal transport are happening in species B, so all
these properties are for species B.
Sh = hmL/DAB Sh is the dimensionless concentration gradient at the surface. DAB is the
diffusion coefficient for species A diffusing through species B
Sc = /DAB = /DAB Sc is the ratio of the momentum to mass diffusivity. Momentum
diffusion happens in species B, so property = / is for species B.
In the book and notes we substituted these definitions of the dimensionless groups into Nu/Prn =
Sh/Scn to get the following. Note that Le = /DAB is the Lewis number.
1 n
h
c p Le 1 n c p (heat‐mass transfer analogy)
hm D AB
The problem with this is that the physical significance of the various dimensionless groups becomes
invisible, and that makes it harder to know what materials each property is for, but the bottom line
that all properties are for species B (the air in an evaporative cooling problem), except that DAB is the
coefficient of diffusion for species A diffusing through B.
124
125
126
127
128
ENGR 471 #7
External Flow
Empirical Method
Dimensional analysis of governing conservation equations revealed the following
(Chapter 6):
Nu x f ( x * , Re x , Pr) and N u x f (Re x , Pr)
Shx f ( x * , Re x , Sc ) and S h x f (Re x , Sc )
The empirical method attempts to collapse measured convection data for a variety of
_______ and _________ conditions into a single function of the above form. This
function is called a __________________________.
Correlating functions of the following form work for flow over a flat plate:
There are two ways to handle variations in fluid properties with temperature in the
thermal boundary layer:
Ts T
Evaluate properties at the ________ ____________________ ‐‐ Tf
2
Evaluate all properties at temperature T, but multiply the result (i.e. the
correlating function) by a correcting parameter
( / s ) r or (Pr / Prs ) r
Flat Plate – Similarity Solutions
Assuming (1) ____________, (2) _____________________, (3) ______________ flow
with (4) _________ _______________, (5) negligible viscous dissipation and (6)
____________, the governing conservation equations are:
u v
Continuity ‐‐ 0
x y
u u 2 u
x‐Momentum ‐‐ u v
x y y 2
T T 2T
Energy ‐‐ u v 2
x y y
A A 2 A
Species ‐‐ u v D AB
x y y 2
129
Mathematical strategies for solving the conservation equations make use of the
stream function 𝜓 from fluid mechanics.
The continuity (conservation of mass) equation for a 2D external flow is:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Continuity will be satisfied by a function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 if:
𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
By inspection we see that the function 𝜓 is related to velocities u and v by:
𝑢 and v
The stream function possesses helpful physical significance.
In laminar flow, particles of fluid follow lines of ______________ ____ called
__________________.
Because streamlines (lines of constant 𝜓) are tangent to the flow velocity
vector, the volumetric flowrate Q normal to a streamline is _________.
The change in the value of ∆𝜓 𝜓 𝜓 between two arbitrary points in a 2D
laminar flow field equals the _____________ ______ Q between those points.
Introducing the stream function is also a mathematical “trick” that aids in the
solution of mass, momentum and energy equations for 2D laminar fluid flow.
Replaces the ______ _______________ u and v with _______ higher order
variable 𝜓 in the mass and momentum equations.
Enables the definition of ________________ variables that are key to solving
the energy equation for 2D flow over a flat plate.
Similarity variables exist for _____ ______________ of momentum, energy and
species to parallel flow over _________ _________.
The boundary layers grow in the flow direction, but the profiles of velocity (u/u)
temperature [(T‐Ts)/(T ‐Ts)] and concentration [(A‐A,s)/( A,‐A,s)] are ________
at every x location downstream of the leading edge.
This suggest the possibility of _________________ ________________ to the
conservation equations.
If similarity variables can be identified, their introduction equations will enable
a solution by _______________ the total number of ________________.
130
For 2D flow over a flat plat, the _________ solution identifies similarity variables:
𝑓 𝜂 and 𝜂
Note that multiplying the RHS of the expression for f(η) by y/y reveals that the
expression for f(η) is indeed a function of η
𝜓 𝑦 𝜓𝑦 𝑢 /𝑣𝑥 𝜓𝜂
𝑓 𝜂 ≡
𝑢 𝑣𝑥/𝑢 𝑦 𝑢 𝑦 𝑢 𝑦
Blasius solution for __________________ diffusion.
By introducing the similarity variables to the PDE for conservation of momentum,
one may transform the PDE to a third‐order ODE:
d3f d2 f
2 f 0
d 3 d 2
with boundary conditions (df/dη)|η=0 = f(0) = 0 and (df/dη)|η∞ = 1.
This ODE and boundary conditions may be solved by series expansion or
numerical integration. Results are given in ______________ in your text.
131
We may use these results to find the velocity boundary layer thickness δ and the
friction coefficient Cf,x.
Define δ to be where u/u∞ = 0.99.
Recall that the friction coefficient is:
𝜏, 𝜕𝑢 𝑑 𝑓
𝐶 , where 𝜏 , 𝜇 𝜇𝑢 𝑢 /𝑣𝑥
𝜌𝑢 /2 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝜂
With the results in Table 7.1 and a bit of algebra we can show that:
5𝑥 / /
𝛿 and 𝐶 , 0.664𝑅𝑒 and 𝐶 , 1.328𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒
Blasius solution for _________ diffusion.
Define a dimensionless temperature ______________________.
By introducing T* and the similarity variables to the PDE for conservation of
energy, one may transform the PDE to a second‐order ODE:
d 2 T * Pr dT *
f 0
d 2
2 d
with conditions T*(η = 0) = 0 and T*(η → ∞) = 1
This ODE and boundary conditions may be solved
for T* = T*() by series expansion or numerical
integration. Results for select Pr values are given
in ______________ ______ in your text.
These functions correlate the results Figure 7.4b
for _____________:
/ /
𝑁𝑢 0.332𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 and
/ / /
𝑁𝑢 0.664𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 and 𝛿/𝛿 𝑃𝑟
Blasius solution for _____________ diffusion.
Define a dimensionless temperature _____________________________.
By introducing A* and the similarity variables to the PDE for conservation of
species, one may transform the PDE to a second‐order ODE:
d 2 A * Sc d A *
f 0
d 2 2 d
with boundary conditions ρ*A(η = 0) = 0 and ρ*A (η → ∞) = 1
132
The heat and mass transfer _________________ is applicable, since the governing
equation and boundary conditions for species diffusion and heat transfer are
mathematically equivalent. Therefore, if _____________:
/ / / / /
𝑆ℎ 0.332𝑅𝑒 𝑆𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆ℎ 0.664𝑅𝑒 𝑆𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿/𝛿 𝑆𝑐
Flat Plate – Empirical Solutions
See pages 313‐317 and Table 7.7 pg. 354‐355 for correlations that address:
Small Prandtl number (liquid metal).
Fully turbulent flow.
Mixed laminar/turbulent flow.
Unheated starting length.
Constant heat flux.
Cylinder in Cross Flow
Separation (See Figures 7.6‐7.8)
Fluid decelerates to zero at the forward __________________ _________ with
an accompanying rise in pressure (i.e. this is the __________________
_____________).
A favorable pressure gradient _________________ drives the flow around the
cylinder to a maximum velocity at the circumferential location where p / x 0 .
133
Further downstream fluid the unfavorable pressure gradient _______________
causes the fluid velocity gradient at the surface to decelerate to zero
u / y y 0 0 .
At this location, the fluid lacks the momentum required to overcome the pressure
gradient, so the ______________________________ and a __________ forms
behind the cylinder.
The larger momentum of turbulent flows _________________ separation.
Drag
____________ ______ is caused by viscous ________ stress 𝜏 due to momentum
transfer between the solid and fluid, and is therefore higher for _________ flows.
____________ ______ is caused by the difference in higher stagnation and lower
wake pressures, and is therefore higher for ____________ flows.
The larger momentum in turbulent flows moves boundary layer separation
downstream.
Boundary layer separation near the back of the cylinder means a smaller wake,
so less area is exposed to the lower wake pressure.
________ ________ is the sum forces due to friction and pressure drag.
Total drag coefficients CD = f(ReD) are plotted in Figure 7.9 in your text.
Convection
Convection heat transfer is affected by __________________ from laminar to
turbulent to wake flow, and by boundary layer growth.
134
The _______ convection coefficient can therefore depend strongly on the angular
position θ measured from the forward stagnation point.
See pages 327‐329 and Table 7.7 for data correlations of 𝑁𝑢 for:
Round cylinders.
Non‐round cylinders.
Sphere in Cross Flow ‐‐ Boundary layer effects are similar to those of the cylinder.
See page 335 and Table 7.7 for data correlations of 𝑁𝑢 for:
Sphere in cross flow.
Falling liquid drops.
Correlations for Mass Transfer
Recall the heat and mass transfer analogy, which says the Nusselt number 𝑁𝑢
𝑓 𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟 and Sherwood number 𝑆ℎ 𝑓 𝑅𝑒, 𝑆𝑐 have the same functional form.
This means you can turn any correlation for 𝑁𝑢 into a correlation for 𝑆ℎ by replacing
𝑁𝑢 with 𝑆ℎ and replacing Pr with Sc, and vice versa.
Tube Banks in Cross Flow
Heat transfer to or from a bank (bundle) of tubes in cross‐flow is important to many
engineering applications. Examples include:
High (evaporator) and low (condenser) temperature _______ ________________
for power generation or heat pumping. Energy exchange is between fluid streams
inside and flowing over the tubes.
135
______________ ______________ of a fluid stream for space heating or as part
of a manufacturing process. The cylinders are cartridge heaters that dissipate I2R
heating to the surrounding fluid.
Geometry of the tube bank will strongly affect heat transfer and pressure drop.
Geometric parameters that define a tube bank are:
__________________ ________ ST
_____________ ________ SD
(perpendicular to the flow)
__________________ ________ SL
_______ ______________ D
(parallel to the flow)
Tubes in the first transverse rows – rows aligned normal to the flow – increase
__________________, thereby increasing heat transfer for downstream tubes.
After the ________ or ________ transverse row the flow is fully turbulent, so
there is little change in the convection coefficient for subsequent rows.
Wake interactions increase heat transfer in ________________ tube banks. The
pressure drop will also be higher.
136
Pressure drop is lower for an ____________ tube bank, although heat transfer is
also lower.
Reynolds number and temperature difference must be correctly defined when
computing the heat rate.
Reynolds number is based on the maximum fluid velocity ReD,max = VmaxD/v.
For aligned tube banks:
For staggered tube banks:
1/ 2
ST 2 ST 2 ST D
Vmax V if SD = S L
ST D 2 2
1/ 2
2 ST 2 ST D
if SD = S L
2 2
Since the fluid temperature rises as it flows over successive transverse rows of
tubes, ______ is ______ _______________! What then is the driving temperature
difference for heat transfer? In Chapter 8 we will learn that heat rates are correctly
computed by the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Ts is the tube surface temperature
Ti is the average (bulk) temperature of fluid entering the tube bank
To is the average (bulk) temperature of fluid leaving the tube bank
137
Discharge temperature To is needed to compute the LMTD. Estimate To as:
N is the ____________ number of tubes
NT is the number of tubes in a __________________ row
ρ must be evaluated at the ___________ temperature T∞
Find the Nusselt number using a data correlation for tube banks.
Zukauskas (_______________ with ______________) provides a correlation:
/
ℎ𝐷 .
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑃𝑟
𝑘 𝑃𝑟
The correlation is valid for 1000 < ReD,max < 2x106, and 0.7Pr500.
C1 and m depend on ReD,max = VmaxD/v and may be found in Table 7.5.
C2 = 1 unless NL > 20 ______________ tubes. If NL < 20 then find C2 in Table 7.6.
Evaluate Prs at the tube surface temperature Ts. Evaluate all other properties at
temperature (Ti + To)/2.
PROBLEM: to estimate an unknown To you need ℎ from the correlation!
Use Ti or a reasonable ____________ of To to evaluate properties.
Once To based on the value of ℎ from your correlation is known, see if the
properties change enough at your new (Ti + To)/2 to warrant _______________
to solve again for Re, 𝑁𝑢, ℎ, and To.
The heat transfer rate for a tube bank is computed from Newton’s Law of Cooling,
but using LMTD as the driving temperature difference for heat transfer:
𝑞 ℎ𝐴 ∆𝑇 where 𝐴 and 𝐴
𝑊 𝑞
so 𝑞 W ℎ𝑁𝜋𝐷𝐿 ∆𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 ℎ𝑁𝜋𝐷 ∆𝑇
𝑚 𝐿
Power to pump fluid across a tube bank is proportion to the pressure drop
𝜌𝑉
∆𝑝 𝑁 𝜒 𝑓
2
where _________________ factor f and ____________________ χ are plotted in
Figures 7.14 and 7.15.
SEE NEXT PAGE
138
139
140
Selecting a Convection Correlation
1. Identify the geometry of the solid object that is interacting with fluid flow in
convection heat transfer.
For external flow, is the fluid flowing over a ________ ________, _____________
in cross flow, _____________, or _____________?
The form of the correlation will depend on the solid geometry, so you may rule
out all correlations for geometries other than your geometry.
2. Determine if the ___________________ of fluid _________ relative to the solid agrees
with any of the correlations known to you (Table 7.7 for example). For example:
If the geometry is a _________ plate then you have correlations from our text for
flow ______________ to the plate and for ________ directed normal to the plate.
If the geometry is a ____________________ then you have correlations from our
text for flow perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder (i.e. cylinder in
____________________).
Other sources may provide a correlation for flow geometry‐flow combinations that
are not included in our text for the course.
3. Specify the _____________________ _____________________ required by candidate
correlations for your solid geometry and flow direction. _____________________
___________ ______________________ at that reference temperature.
When the difference between Ts and T∞ is moderate, many correlations evaluate
fluid properties at a fluid ___________ temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2.
Some correlations require:
properties evaluated at the free stream temperature ________, plus
a __________________ in the correlation for temperature effects that appears
as a property ratio evaluated at the surface and free stream temperatures.
NOTE: For _________ _________________ of a dilute amount of species A diffusing
through species B, you will need the properties of _____________ ____1 ________
the coefficient of diffusion _______ for species A diffusing through species B.
NOTE: Sometimes you need the answer to the problem you are solving to find the
reference temperature. For example, if you need a convection coefficient to find Ts,
then you will need to ______________.
First make an educated ___________ (estimate) of Ts (i.e. guess the answer).
1
In this course, we are limiting ourselves to diffusion in dilute binary mixtures. Although the properties of a mixture of
species A and B are determined by the properties of both species, when the molar concentration of species A is much less
than the molar concentration of species B (XA << XB) then the properties of the mixture are nearly the same as the
properties of species A alone.
141
Use the guess to evaluate fluid ____________________.
Proceed: choose a correlation, solve for h, and _____________________.
___________________ if you need to iterate to find a better value of Ts.
To iterate, reevaluate properties based on your new better value of Ts, then
resolve for Nu, h and Ts.
Repeat until the value of Ts you are using to evaluate properties agrees with
the Ts output of your heat transfer analysis
NOTE: ___________________________ if there is a need to iterate?
If your fluid properties are strongly sensitive to T and/or the discrepancy is large
between your guess and the actual value of Ts, then you will need to iterate.
If fluid properties do not strongly depend on temperature and/or the discrepancy
is small between your guess and the actual Ts, then you will not need to iterate.
In this course, unless you are specifically directed to iterate, please simply note at the
end of a problem if you recommend iteration or not, and why.
4. Calculate the ____________________ number using the appropriate length scale for
your geometry and as required by candidate correlations.
5. If your geometry is a ____________ ___________, determine your flow conditions and
correlation requirements.
Is the flow laminar, turbulent or mixed?
Do you require a local or average Nusselt Number?
6. Identify ___________________ ____________________ and read the text to learn the
_____________________ and ___________________ of each.
Which correlations ____________ your geometry and flow conditions?
Which correlations are ____________ _______ because the Reynolds number,
Prandtl number, or other factors are out of bounds for that correlation?
Which correlations offer the lowest ___________________?
7. ___________ the correlation that best suits your needs and proceed with the analysis.
142
143
144
145
ENGR 471 #8
Internal Flow
Internal & External Flow
Characteristics of an external flow are:
A viscous boundary layer that may grow _______________ ________________.
An _________________ (free of viscous effects) __________ ___________ flow.
_________________ in the boundary layer _________________ by conditions in
the inviscid __________ ___________.1
Characteristics of an internal flow are:
______________ _____________ that limit growth of the velocity boundary layer.
______________ _____________ flows exist, for which the entire flow field is
influenced by viscosity.
Streamwise ______________ variations are affected by viscous ______________
in addition to kinetic‐potential energy interactions.
Hydrodynamic Effects
Hydrodynamic Entry (Figure 8.1)
An ________________ (potential) _________ of fluid exists near the entrance to
an internal flow.
When velocity boundary layers from adjacent interior surfaces merge at the
center of a confined flow passage
the velocity profile no longer changes in the flow direction,
the flow is said to be ____________ _________________.
Between the inlet to the flow passage and the location where the flow becomes
fully developed is the _____________________ ___________ region.
1
The free stream pressure is found by conserving kinetic (velocity) and potential (pressure and gravity) energy in the free
stream.
146
The distance from the inlet to fully developed conditions is the hydrodynamic
_____________ ____________ (xfd,h).
The critical Reynolds number for fully developed flow in a tube is ReD,C 2300. The
entry lengths are as follows:
𝑥 , 𝑥 ,
≲ ≲ 60
𝐷 𝐷
Since there is no well‐defined free stream velocity to characterize the flow, work with
a mean velocity for internal flows defined such that
𝑚
Solving the momentum equation for fully ________________, _________________,
_____________________, ______________ _______________ flow in a circular tube:
1 dp 2 r
2 2
ro dp
u (r ) ro 1 and u m
4 dx ro 8 dx
The velocity profile in terms of the mean velocity um is parabolic:
u (r ) r 2
2 1
um ro
The fully developed velocity profile is ________________ in a ______________ flow
due to turbulence enhanced momentum transport in the boundary layer.
The pressure gradient is the critical parameter for determining pumping power
required to push fluid through an internal flow system.
The _____________ _______________ _______________ is a dimensionless
pressure gradient:
( dp / dx ) D
f 2
u m / 2
Rearrange and integrate to solve for pressure drop:
𝑓𝜌𝑢 𝑓𝜌𝑢 𝐿
∆𝑃 𝑥 𝑥
2𝐷 2𝐷
The _________________ _______________ (a.k.a. the Fanning friction factor) is a
dimensionless shear stress:
s
C f
u m 2 / 2
147
Using u(r) for fully developed, laminar, incompressible, constant property flow in
a tube to evaluate s (du/ dr)r0 we can show that the friction factor and
friction coefficient are related by _____________.
The friction factor depends on the __________________ number (laminar or
turbulent flow) and the __________________ of surfaces in the flow conduit.
For fully developed laminar flow in a smooth surface conduit:
f 64/ ReD
For turbulent flow in a smooth surface conduit:
f (0.790 ln Re D 1.64) 2 for 3000 Re D 5 x10 6
For turbulent flow in a conduit with rough interior surfaces, use the Moody
______________ ____________ (Fig. 8.3).
Pumping ________________ is computed from the pressure drop as
Power = GΔP
where G is the volumetric flow rate (G = VAc = 𝑚/𝜌).
Thermal Effects
Thermal Entry
A core of fluid at the inlet temperature continues to exist throughout the entry.
The flow is ____________ ________ ___________ when thermal boundary layers
from adjacent interior surfaces merge at the center of a confined flow passage.
Between the inlet to the flow passage and the location where the flow becomes
thermally fully developed is the ______________ __________ region.
The distance from the inlet to fully developed conditions is the thermal ________
___________ (xfd,t).
148
The critical Reynolds number for fully developed flow in a tube is ReD 2300 . The
entry lengths are as follows:
𝑥 , 𝑥 ,
0.05𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 10 ≲ ≲ 60
𝐷 𝐷
𝜈 momentum diffusion 𝛿
where 𝑃𝑟 ~
𝛼 thermal diffusion 𝛿
When ___________ the thermal boundary layer develops more rapidly than the
hydrodynamic boundary layer (_____________ and xfd,t<xfd,h).
When ___________ the hydrodynamic boundary layer develops more rapidly
than the thermal boundary layer (_____________ and xfd,h<xfd,t).
In the absence of a fixed free stream temperature, define a _________ (_________)
temperature in terms of the thermal energy transported by the fluid at a given flow
cross section:
Total energy flow through flow cross section Ac is
𝐸 𝜌𝑢𝑐 𝑇𝑑𝐴
Seek a mean temperature such that
Set the energy integral equal to the defining equation for Tm
𝜌𝑢𝑐 𝑇𝑑𝐴
𝑇
𝑚𝑐
Newton’s Law of Cooling for the local __________ __________ to an internal flow is
qs h(Ts Tm ) where h and Tm are __________ values.
Note that if there is heat transfer then dTm/dx is non‐zero. Is there a __________
_______________ condition for heat transfer to an internal flow?
1. Define a dimensionless temperature (Ts ‐ T)/(Ts ‐ Tm).
2. The condition for a fully developed thermal flow is zero change of the
dimensionless temperature in the flow direction:
Ts ( x) T (r, x)
0
x Ts ( x) Tm ( x) fd ,t
149
3. Two surface conditions yield fully developed thermal conditions:
____________ Surface Heat Flux ____. Examples include electrically heated
and uniformly irradiated surfaces.
____________ Surface Temperature _____. Examples include systems heated
or cooled by phase change, such as melting‐freezing and condensation‐boiling.
4. The convection coefficient is
_______ at the ____________ where the thermal
boundary layer thickness is zero,
decays to a smaller ___________ where ________
_____________ conditions are reached.
Energy Balances – Consider a _________ __________ energy
balance on a fluid element dx of an internal flow with
_______________ ______________ ___________:
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑞" 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑃𝑞"
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑐
Case #1 – ________________ heat flux 𝑞" boundary condition.
𝑃𝑞"
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 , 𝑥 so 𝑇 𝑥 increases linearly with x
𝑚𝑐
150
"
𝑞"
Since 𝑞 ℎ 𝑇 𝑇 then 𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑥
ℎ 𝑥
Notice that Ts(x) ‐ Tm(x) = 𝑞" /ℎ 𝑥 . Recalling that h(x) is very large near the entry
and declines to a constant hfd at xfd, we are now able to plot Tm(x) and Ts(x).
Case #2 – _____________ temperature _____ boundary condition.
𝑑𝑇 𝑃𝑞"
Recall that
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑐
Define 𝑇 𝑇 𝑥 ∆𝑇 𝑠𝑜 𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
Apply the chain rule since 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑∆𝑇
𝑑∆𝑇 𝑃
ℎ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑐
This may be rearranged for integration, with limits of integration from ____________
and from _____________________, where ∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 , and ∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 , .
151
L 1
Multiply the RHS by and recall that ℎ𝑑𝑥 ℎ
L 𝐿
∆
𝑑∆𝑇 𝐿 𝑃 𝑃𝐿 1
ℎ𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑑𝑥
∆ ∆𝑇 𝐿 𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑐 𝐿
∆𝑇 𝑃𝐿
𝑙𝑛 ℎ
∆𝑇 𝑚𝑐
∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 , 𝑃𝐿
exp ℎ so 𝑇 𝑇 decays exponentially
∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 , 𝑚𝑐
Now we are able to plot ∆𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑇 𝑥
Finally, we need to find the heat rate q.
,
𝑑𝑞 𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑇
,
Express q in terms of ∆𝑇 𝑞 𝑚𝑐 𝑇 𝑇 , 𝑇 𝑇 , 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
∆𝑇 𝑃𝐿
Now rearrange 𝑙𝑛 ℎ to solve for 𝑚
∆𝑇 𝑚𝑐
𝑃𝐿ℎ𝑐 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝑞
𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇 /∆𝑇
152
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
so 𝑞 ℎ𝐴 ∆𝑇 where 𝐴 𝑃𝐿 and ∆𝑇
𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇 /∆𝑇
for ∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 , and ∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 ,
We see that the ______ __________ ________________ ∆𝑇 is the appropriate
average temperature difference for Newton’s law of convective cooling for ________
_______ in _________ __________ with _____________ _______________ and
______________ ______________ __________________ Ts.
Sometimes the temperature of a fluid external to the tube is fixed rather than the tube
wall temperature.
where Rtot is the sum of _______________ and ________________ resistance to
convection, plus tube wall __________________ resistance. For a round tube:
1 ln 𝐷 /𝐷 1
𝑅 and
ℎ 𝜋𝐷 𝐿 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 ℎ 𝜋𝐷 𝐿
Correlations based on analysis and (mostly) experimental data are available for a variety
of conditions in sections 8.4‐8.7 and summarized in Table 8.4.
Correlations are available to account for:
Constant _____ versus Constant _____
_____________ Flow versus ______________ Flow
153
__________ Flow versus Fully ______________ Flow
__________ Tubes versus Non‐__________ Tubes
Special Case = Liquid Metals (__________)
Special Case = ____________ Flow
Special Case = ____________ Tube
Special Case = _________________ Inserts
Special Case = _________ Scale Convection
TO STAY OUT OF TROUBLE :
Locate the applicable section in your text and _________ the fine print! Overlooking
restrictions and limitations will result in misuse.
Consult your “Process for Convection Analysis” supplement to these notes.
154
Process for Convection Analysis
1. Identify the ___________ and ________________________ of the flow:
a. External flow
i. over a flat plate iii. over a sphere
ii. over a cylinder in cross flow iv. other
b. Internal flow
i. circular cross section iii. other
ii. rectangular cross section
2. Estimate a reasonable ___________ ______________ for evaluating fluid properties.
a. External flow
i. when Ts is constant the reference for many correlations is (Ts + T∞)/2
ii. some correlations require you to know some properties at Ts and T∞.
b. Internal flow
i. arithmetic mean temperature (Tm,i + Tm,o)/2 is a good first estimate of
the reference temperature, since many correlations evaluate properties
at this temperature
ii. you may not know Tm,i or Tm,o, in which case you must estimate one or
both based on upper and lower limits on temperatures that are known
3. Evaluate _________________ at your reference temperature.
a. In heat transfer problems, you typically work with one fluid.
b. In mass transfer problems, species A diffuses into species B and you need
some properties for species A and B
i. to a good approximation, the properties of the bulk mixture are those of
species B, since the concentration of A is usually dilute
ii. the exceptions are that DAB is the diffusion coefficient for species A
diffusing through species B and ρA,s and ρA,∞ are the density (inverse of
specific volume) at the surface and in the free stream
4. Does your internal flow passage have a ______ __________ cross section? If yes:
a. Look to see if there are correlations available for your cross section.
i. For _____________ flow, it is important to use correlations that account
for your specific geometry. See Table 8.1 for example.
ii. The characteristic length in such cases is usually based on an equivalent
hydraulic diameter ________________.
b. For _____________ flow, if your cross section is not too far removed from
round 1, you can try using a correlation for a round flow passage with an
equivalent hydraulic diameter Dh.
i. Hydraulic diameter is used ONLY as a length scale for non-round flow
passages to find dimensionless numbers such as ReD or NuD.
1
For example: a square duct is NOT FAR from round, while a rectangular duct with a large aspect ratio is FAR from round.
155
ii. The hydraulic diameter is NOT used in the calculation of other
parameters. For example, you would not base the flow cross sectional
area Ac on Dh if you needed to find 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 .
5. Calculate the Reynolds Number (_______). For Heat Transfer find the Prandtl
Number (_______) and for Mass Transfer find the Schmidt Number (_______).
6. Determine turbulence and boundary layer development flow conditions.
a. Is the flow ____________________, ____________________ or
____________ (external flow only)?
i. If the non-turbulent region of an external flow is small relative to the
whole, then model it as turbulent.
ii. If the laminar and non-turbulent regions of an external flow are of
similar proportions then model the flow as mixed.
b. Find xfd,h. Is the flow ________________________________ fully
______________________ or _______________________?
i. If the developing portion of the flow is small relative to the whole, then
model the flow as fully developed.
ii. If the developing and fully developed portions of the flow are of similar
proportions then account for the developing flow if possible.
c. Find xfd,t Is the flow ___________ fully _____________ or ________________?
i. If the developing portion of the flow is small relative to the whole, then
model the flow as fully developed.
ii. If the developing and fully developed portions of the flow are of similar
proportions then account for the developing flow if possible.
7. Determine if you need a __________ or ________________ convection coefficient.
8. Choose a __________________ that best matches your flow geometry, values for Re,
Pr, flow conditions (laminar or turbulent), and boundary layer development.
a. A _________ ______________ correlation applies when both hydrodynamic
and thermal boundary layers are developed over most of the flow length.
b. A ______________ _________ correlation is for hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers that develop together over a non-negligible fraction of the
flow length.
c. A _____________ __________ correlation is for a thermal boundary layer that
develops over a non-negligible fraction of the total flow length, while the
hydrodynamic boundary layer is fully developed over most of the flow length.
d. An ______________ __________ length means that the hydrodynamic
boundary layer develops over some flow length before the heating begins, in
which case the hydrodynamic boundary layer begins to form upstream of the
thermal boundary layer.
156
Sometimes it is necessary to find a first approximation for Nu and Sh for objects
whose geometry does not match the correlation but is close. A wing, for example, is
not too far from flow over a flat plate for the purpose of heat transfer.
9. Look at your results. Is the _____________ _________________ you used to find
properties _____________?
a. If properties depend strongly on temperature, then the reference temperature
used to find properties must be closer to the actual reference temperature.
b. If properties are less dependent on temperature, then you can allow for
greater variance between your initial estimate of the reference temperature
and the actual reference temperature.
If your initial reference temperature is not reasonable, use the results of your
analysis to make a better guess of the reference temperature, find the properties
again, and resolve the problem. For internal flow, you may iterate until the Tm,i and
Tm,o that you base properties on agree with the output values of your analysis. One
iteration is often enough for convergence.
10.Take note of all of the approximations you made and the _______________ (+ or -)
of the __________ that was likely caused. Do you expect your result is over or under
the actual? Note this in your analysis.
157
158
159
160
161
162
163