Hydropower Engineering

4 HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING

4.1 Introduction

In Hydropower Engineering, we try to tap the vast amount of energy available in flowing water
on the earth's surface and convert it to electricity to light our homes and to power our industries
(=science of dealing with generation of power from water).

The energy of flowing rivers is derived from the hydrological cycle which is powered by solar
energy (the sun).

To generate hydropower, the energy in flowing rivers turns the blades of a turbine connected to
a generator, which converts this energy into electricity. Hence, a turbine is the heart of a
hydropower system.

However, energy in a river is continuously lost throughout the length of the water course (e.g.
through friction along the channel bed or banks). Hence, it is some times necessary to create a
head (i.e. increase the potential energy through a vertical drop) at a point of a stream and then
convey the water through this head to the turbines to increase electrical energy.

The head here refers to the water pressure created by the difference in elevation between the
water intake and the turbine. The head can be created in different ways:

(a) Building a dam across a stream to hold back water and increase the head and then
release the water through a conduit or tunnel to the turbines.

Fig. 4.1: Creating a head using a dam (source: Kharagpur, 2006)

Damming a river increases the head at that point and creates a reservoir which can be
used to store water for future energy use.

2
 Hydropower Engineering

(b) Divert part of the river or stream by creating a low-head diversion structure like a
barrage or weir to generate power

Fig. 4.2 (a) Power house as part of the diversion structure (b) power house on a
diversion channel. (source: Kharagpur, 2006)

(c) Using pipeline penstocks

Here, the intake is at the highest point of your

hydro system. Water may be diverted from a
river or trapped in a diversion pond and
conveyed through a pipeline (or penstock) that
feeds your turbine.

The penstock also creates a head pressure with

increasing vertical drop.

Usually large pipeline diameters are better to

work as penstocks because they create less
friction as water travels through.

Fig. 4.3: A penstock

3
 Hydropower Engineering

4.2 Planning and the environment

4.2.1 Assessment of available power

The total amount hydropower that would be available from a hydropower plant mainly
depends upon the discharge and the head available at the power plant.

Head
This is measured as the vertical distance (in metres or feet) between your intake and the
turbine. This can be done by surveying using a dumpy level and a staff. Pressure transducers
(commonly called divers) can also be used. A GPS is also used, but it not very accurate

Accuracy is very crucial for head measurements in order not to overestimate or underestimate
the hydropower potential.

For penstocks, it is important to take into account head losses. In pipelines, there are head
losses due to friction as water moves through the pipe. Due to these losses, the gross head
will be different from the actual total energy at the bottom of the pipe

Flow

Flow can be measured using the following methods:

 Time taken to fill a container
 Using a floating object
 Using a weir
 Using a current metre which directly measures the speed of the water.

It is important to measure flow throughout the year in order take into account seasonal
variations. Once again, accuracy is important.

Hence, when planning a hydropower scheme, the essential measurements required are:

(a) Head: The vertical distance between your intake and the turbine

(b) Flow: how much water comes down the stream

(c) Pipeline length - in case of a penstock

Other necessary requirements for planning (but not part of this course) may include assessing
the demand, transmission mains and structural strength of your dam.

Head and flow are the most important facts you need to know about your site.
.

4.2.2 Environmental concerns

Although hydropower is considered to be environmentally friendly, because it presents a

clean and renewable energy source, it can significantly impact on the river ecosystem and
species that rely on it for survival.
4
 Hydropower Engineering

Below are some of the environmental and social impacts of hydropower development:

(a) Hydropower dams can create undesirable social economic impacts to the people
living around the system. A dam creates a large reservoir which can result into:
 Loss of grazing land for animals
 Impact on agriculture when productive fields are submerged by water
 Impacts on land development
 Displacement of homes and villages
 Loss in tourism. For example, rivers falls used for skating are usually
submerged by the reservoir.

(b) Dams also affect fish passage. They impede or block fish movement and kill or injure
fish. Fish like moving from one area to another when looking for food and good
climatic conditions. For example, the Salmon fish can migrate from fresh water
bodies to oceans and back again, from streams to lakes and vice-versa.
Hence, constructing a dam may completely diminish fish species in a river or stream.

(c) Hydropower development may also affect wildlife in riparian vegetation which
provides critical habitat for birds, ducks and wetland habitats. Damming rivers may
therefore lad to flooding and consequently to loss of riparian vegetation and wildlife.

(d) Hydropower development may also affect the water quality by modifying
temperature, dissolved oxygen and dissolved nitrogen due to alteration of river flow.

For further reading on the environmental impacts of dams, refer to Rugumayo, 2012.
An introduction to hydrology and water resources engineering in Uganda. Ndejje
University, Kampala, Uganda.

4.3 Hydropower potential

To evaluate the potential for hydropower of your stream or river, let us assume a uniform steady
flow between two cross-sections of a river, with H (metres) of difference in water surface
elevation between two sections for a flow of Q (m3 /s). Then the power (P) can be expressed as:

P = 81.9QH

Where P = power in kilowatts (kW)

Q = discharge (m3 /s)
H = head (m)

This is called the theoretical power at a specified discharge of the selected river stretch. Due to
energy losses, the practically available power will be less than the theoretical power. The
practically available power is given as:

P = 81.9 QH in kW
Where  = efficiency (0.75 - 0.95)

5
 Hydropower Engineering

Classification of Hydropower based on production (Balat, 2006)

Classification Power range
Micro < 100 kW
Mini 100 - 500 kW Small 500 kW -
50 MW
Large >50 MW

Note that the electrical energy delivered is defined as the power delivered per unit time and the
units are kilowatt-hour (kW h).

Example:
A river has a 30m head with 10m3 /s of flow.

The theoretical power is

P = 81.9QH
= 9.81 x 10 x 30 = 3000 kW = 3 MW

If the head is doubled, the power doubles.

4.4 Analysis of stream flow data for hydropower assessment

Stream flow data is essential for the assessment of the water power potential. River discharges
vary throughout the year and it is therefore important to have knowledge of the hydrology of the
stream flow of the site. Even average monthly discharges can vary throughout the year and these
discharges may be different for consecutive years.

Due to variations in river flow, the following criteria are used to evaluate the hydropower
potential of a dam.

(a) Minimum power potential (or firm potential)

Is based on the smallest runoff available in a stream (Q min) at all times having a
duration of 100%

(b) Small power potential

Is calculated from the 95% duration discharge (Q
95)

(c) Medium power potential

Is calculated from the 50% duration discharge (Q
50)

(d) Mean power potential

This results by evaluating the annual mean runoff (Qmean)

6
 Hydropower Engineering

4.4.1 Flow duration curves (FDC)

The choice of the design discharge for the different types of power potential is based on the flow
duration curve (FDC).

A Flow Duration Curve is a plot between the discharge as the ordinate and the percentage of
time that the discharge is exceeded as abscissa.

The data used could be daily, weekly, ten daily or monthly values. However, daily data shows
more variations and is more accurate.
Fig. 4.4: A typical flow duration curve (missing)

FDC's are developed by arranging all the discharge data at a location in decreasing order of
magnitude starting from the largest daily discharge observed during the year to the minimum
daily discharge. The data is then ranked according to the probability of exceedance.

The probability of exceedance is often calculated using the following plotting position (the
California plotting position: California, 1923):

P = (i/n) x 100%

Where P = percentage probability of the flow magnitude being equalled or exceeded i

= rank of the data
n = total number of data points

Some times, the Hazen plotting position (Hazens, 1930) below is used:

P = (i - 0.5)/n

The plot of discharge against Q and P is then the flow duration curve.
7
 Hydropower Engineering

4.5 Categories of hydropower potential

The design potential energy is given as P =9.8QiH

Hydropower potential is commonly divided into 3 categories:

1. Theoretical
The sum of the potential power of all natural river flows.

2. Technical
This considers head losses, efficiency losses in hydraulic and electrical machines.
P =9.8 iQiH, where ρ i = efficiency.

3. Economic
Is only that part of the potential of more favourable sites which can be regarded as
economic compared to alternative sources of power like oil and coal

Exercise:
Draw a flow duration curve for the given river flow. Estimate Q min and Q 50. Calculate the
minimum and the medium power potential of this river given that the net head available is 50m.

Discharge (m3 /s)

1130. 5350
1330. 4250
1440. 3500
1441. 3120
2870. 3250
2300. 3110
1960. 2730
1870. 2730
1871. 4680
4100. 4130
4101. 3260
5060. 2740
5061. 2370
5062. 2120
6600. 1940
5 9 1 0 .

8
 Hydropower Engineering

4.6 Classification of Hydropower plants

Hydropower projects are generally classified based on their storage characteristics. Broadly, the
classifications are:

(a) Run –off river plants

These are hydropower plants that utilize the stream flow as it comes, without any storage being
provided.

The plants are feasible only on perennial streams in which adequate discharge is available
through out the year. A weir or barrage is usually constructed across the river to maintain the
required water level and the head for the power plant located on its side or downstream (see Fig.
4.2).

These plants may also have a small pondage on the upstream to store some water to regulate
daily variations in the discharge.

(b) Storage (or reservoir) hydropower plants

Here, a dam is constructed to create a large reservoir upstream of the dam. In these reservoirs,
the water available in the river during the wet season is stored and later utilised for the
generation of power to meet power demands throughout the year. E.g. Owen fall dams

(c) Pumped storage plants

Here, extra storage is made available by pumping back the water which has already been used
for the development of power. The pumped-storage plant generates power only during the
peak-load period. During off-peak period, water is pumped back to the reservoir.