DIGESTION AND

ABSORPTION
• NUTRITION IS A PROCESS OF OBTAINING AND
CONSUMING FOOD
NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC HETEROTROPHIC

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PARASITIC
CHEMOSYNTHETIC SAPROTROPHIC
HOLOZOIC
AUTOTROPHIC
NUTRITION
THE PROCESS BY WHICH ORGANISMS MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD IS
CALLED AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
PHOTOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A PROCESS IN WHICH PLANTS PREPARE CARBOHYDRATE
FOOD WITH THE HELP OF CARBONDIOXIDE AND WATER, IN THE PRESENCE OF
SUNLIGHT AND CHLOROPHYLL.

• EQUATION

• CHEMOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION
• CHEMOSYNTHESIS IS A MODE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH ORGANISMS PREPARE
THEIR CARBOHYDRATE FOOD WITH THE HELP OF CARBONDIOXIDE AND
WATER UTILISING THE ENERGY PRODUCED DURING CERTAIN CHEMICAL
PROCESSES

• EQUATION
• EXAMPLES: sulphur oxidizing bacteria
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
HETEROS– DIFFERENT
TROPH– NUTRITION

PARASITIC NUTRITION
IT IS A TYPE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH ORGANISMS DEPEND UPON OTHER LIVING
ORGANISMS FOR THEIR NUTRITION AND HARM THE HOST

EXAMPLES: LEECH, LICE, TAPEWORM, ASCARIS

SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION
SAPROS– DEAD AND DECAYING
TROPH-- NUTRITION
IT IS A TYPE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH ORGANISMS DEPEND UPON DEAD AND
DECAYING MATTER FOR THEIR NUTRITION

EXAMPLES: FUNGI, VULTURE ETC

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION IS A TYPE OF NUTRITION IN WHICH ORGANISMS

CONSUME FOOD IN COMPLEX, UNABSORBABLE FORMS, CONVERT IT
INTO SIMPLE ABSORBABLE FORMS AND THEN ABSORB AND UTILISE IT

• IT IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO:

• INGESTION– PROCESS OF CONSUMING FOOD
• DIGESTION– PROCESS OF BREAKING THE COMPLEX FOOD INTO
SIMPLE FOOD
• ABSORPTION– RELEASE OF DIGESTED FOOD INTO BLOOD STREAM
• ASSIMILATION-- PROCESS OF UTILISING THE ABSORBED NUTRIENTS
• EGESTION (NOT EXCRETION)– PROCESS OF REMOVAL OF
UNDIGESTED FOOD SUBSTANCE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ORGANS

• MOUTH
• PHARYNX
• OESOPHAGUS
• STOMACH
• SMALL INTESTINE
• LARGE INTESTINE
• RECTUM
• ANUS

• Accessory glands
• LIVER
• GALL BLADDER
• PANCREAS

• SALIVARY GLANDS
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

MOUTH
• IT CONSISTS OF:
• TEETH
• TONGUE
• GUMS
• PALATE
• ACCESSORY GLANDS– SALIVARY GLANDS

• TEETH
• 32 TEETH IN ADULTS,
• DENTAL FORMULA– 2123
2123
• 20 IN CHILDREN
• DENTAL FORMULA– 2102
2102
IN HUMAN BEINGS, THE TEETH ARE :

A) DIPHYODONT
• THERE ARE 2 SETS OF TEETH
• 1. TEMPORARY OR MILK TEETH(20)
• 2. PERMANENT TEETH(32)

B) THECODONT
• TEETH ARE FIXED INTO A CAVITY IN THE BONE. THEREFORE TEETH ARE CALLED
THECODONT

C) HETERODONT
A) HUMAN BEING HAS 4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEETH\
B) THEY ARE
1. INCISORS -- 2
2. CANINES-- 1
3. PREMOLARS --2
4. MOLARS– 3
The last molar is called Wisdom tooth, which is a vestigeal organ. Emerges at the age
of around 18 years and immediately decays
STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

• EXTERNALLY, A TOOTH IS DIVIDED INTO

• CROWN
• NECK
• ROOT

• INTERNALLY, IT IS DIVIDED INTO

• ENAMEL– hardest covering of tooth

• DENTINE– made up of calcium and

magnesium salts

• PULP CAVITY– contains blood vessels

and nerves
TONGUE
• A SENSORY ORGAN
• CONTAINS TASTE BUDS, WHICH DETECT
AND RECOGNISE TASTE
• TASTEBUDS ARE EMBEDDED IN TO
PAPILLAE
• THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF PAPILLAE
• VALLATE PAPILLAE
• FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE
• FOLIATE PAPILLAE
• FILIFORM PAPILLAE

• All except the filiform papillae are

associated with taste buds.
CIRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE
• THE CIRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE (OR VALLATE PAPILLAE) ARE DOME-SHAPED
STRUCTURES ON THE HUMAN TONGUE THAT VARY IN NUMBER FROM 8 TO 12.
• THEY ARE SITUATED ON THE SURFACE OF THE TONGUE IMMEDIATELY IN
FRONT OF SULCUS TERMINALIS, FORMING A ROW ON EITHER SIDE;
• THE MARGIN OF THE DEPRESSION IS ELEVATED TO FORM A WALL (VALLUM),
AND BETWEEN THIS AND THE PAPILLA IS A CIRCULAR SULCUS TERMED THE
FOSSA.
• COVERED BY STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM.
• THE CIRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE GET SPECIAL AFFERENT TASTE INNERVATION
FROM CRANIAL NERVE IX, THE GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE

• V- SHAPED
• LARGEST PAPILLAE
• 8-12 IN NUMBER
FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE

• THE FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE ARE CLUB SHAPED PROJECTIONS ON

THE TONGUE.
• GENERALLY RED IN COLOR.
• THEY ARE FOUND ON THE TIP OF THE TONGUE, SCATTERED AMONGST
THE FILIFORM PAPILLAE BUT ARE MOSTLY PRESENT ON THE TIP AND SIDES OF
THE TONGUE.
• THEY HAVE TASTE BUDS ON THEIR UPPER SURFACE WHICH CAN DISTINGUISH
THE FIVE TASTES: SWEET, SOUR, BITTER, SALTY, AND UMAMI.
• THE FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE ARE INNERVATED BY THE SEVENTH CRANIAL
NERVE

• MUSHROOM SHAPED
• DORSAL AND ANTERIOR
• ON THE TIP AND SIDES OF THE TONGUE
FOLIATE PAPILLAE

• FOLIATE PAPILLAE ARE SHORT VERTICAL FOLDS AND ARE PRESENT ON EACH
SIDE OF THE TONGUE.
• THEY ARE LOCATED ON THE SIDES AT THE BACK OF THE TONGUE, AND THEIR
SIZE AND SHAPE IS VARIABLE.
• THE FOLIATE PAPILLAE APPEAR AS A SERIES OF RED COLORED, LEAF–LIKE
RIDGES OF MUCOSA.
• THEY ARE COVERED WITH EPITHELIUM, LACK KERATIN AND SO ARE SOFTER,
AND BEAR MANY TASTE BUDS.
• THEY ARE USUALLY BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL. SOMETIMES THEY APPEAR
SMALL AND INCONSPICUOUS, AND AT OTHER TIMES THEY ARE PROMINENT.

• LEAF SHAPED
• ON THE SIDES AT THE BACK OF THE TONGUE
FILIFORM PAPILLAE
• FILIFORM PAPILLAE ARE THE MOST NUMEROUS OF THE LINGUAL PAPILLAE.
• THEY ARE FINE, SMALL, CONE-SHAPED PAPILLAE COVERING MOST OF THE
DORSUM OF THE TONGUE.
• THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR GIVING THE TONGUE ITS TEXTURE AND ARE
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SENSATION OF TOUCH.
• UNLIKE THE OTHER KINDS OF PAPILLAE, FILIFORM PAPILLAE DO NOT CONTAIN
TASTE BUDS.
• THEY COVER MOST OF THE FRONT TWO-THIRDS OF THE TONGUE'S SURFACE.
• THEY APPEAR AS VERY SMALL, CONICAL OR CYLINDRICAL SURFACE
PROJECTIONS, AND ARE ARRANGED IN ROWS WHICH LIE PARALLEL TO
THE SULCUS TERMINALIS. AT THE TIP OF THE TONGUE, THESE ROWS BECOME
MORE TRANSVERSE.
• THIN
• COVERS MOST OF THE FRONT TWO THIRDS OF TONGUE
• DO NOT CONTAIN TASTE BUDS
• RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SENSATION OF TOUCH
• GUMS(GINGIVA)

• PALATE
• ROOF OF MOUTH
• ANTERIORLY, IT IS BONY AND THEREFORE CALLED HARD PALATE
• POSTERIORLY, IT HAS A SOFT PALATE, WHICH IS NON –BONY
SALIVARY GLANDS
• SECRETES SALIVA
• THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF SALIVARY GLANDS
• PAROTID GLANDS
• SUB- MANDIBULAR GLANDS
• SUB LINGUAL GLANDS
• PAROTID GLANDS-- STENSONS DUCT
• SUB- MANDIBULAR GLANDS WHARTONS DUCT
• SUB LINGUAL GLANDS DUCT OF RIVINUS
PHARYNX

• COMMON PASSAGE BETWEEN DIGESTIVE AND RESPIRATORY TRACT

• PART OF PHARYNX WHICH COMMUNICATES WITH MOUTH IS CALLED
OROPHARYNX
• PART OF PHARYNX WHICH COMMUNICATES WITH NOSE IS CALLED
NASOPHARYNX
• PART OF PHARYNX WHICH
COMMUNICATES WITH
LARYNX IS CALLED
LARYNGO-PHARYNX
• A SMALL PART HANGS IN
PHARYNX WHICH GIVES
THE GAG REFLEX. THIS IS
CALLED UVULA
OESOPHAGUS

• TUBULAR ORGAN WHICH CONNECTS PHARYNX TO STOMACH

• 25 CMS OR 10 INCHES IN LENGTH
• LINED BY COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM(PSEUDOSTRATIFIED)
• FUNCTIONS:
• TRANSPORTATION OF FOOD FROM PHARYNX TO STOMACH
STOMACH
GASTER
STOMACH
• J- SHAPED ORGAN
• STARTS IN EPIGASTRIUM, TURNS ABOVE TO LEFT FORMING A DOME AND END
IN THE UMBELICAL REGION
• 25 CMS OR 10 INCHES IN LENGTH
• STRUCTURALLY DIVIDED INTO 4 PARTS:
• CARDIAC END
• FUNDUS
• BODY
• PYLORIC END

• CARDIAC END
• AT THE JUCTION OF OESOPHAGUS AND STOMACH
• BEARS CARDIAC SPHINCTER

• FUNDUS
• DOME SHAPED STRUCTURE PRESENT ABOVE LEVEL OF CARDIAC SPHINCTER
BODY
• MAJOR PART OF STOMACH
• PLAYS VITAL ROLE IN DIGESTION
• ABUNDANCE OF GASTRIC GLANDS
• pH NEAR FUNDUS– 4-5
• pH NEAR PYLORUS– 2-3

PYLORUS
• TERMINAL END OF STOMACH
• BEARS PYLORIC SPHINCTER
• PYLORIC SPHINCTER OPENS ONLY IF pH IS AROUND 2-2.4

FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH
• MECHANICAL DIGESTION BY PERISTALSIS
• CHEMICAL DIGESTION BY GASTRIC JUICE
T. S. OF STOMACH
• IN A TRANSVERSE SECTION, THE STOMACH WALL IS DIVIDED INTO 4 LAYERS:
• AN OUTER TUNICA SEROSA
• TUNICA MUSCULARIS
• TUNICA SUB MUCOSA
• INNER TUNICA MUCOSA

• TUNICA SEROSA:
• OUTER LAYER OF THE STOMACH WALL
• MADE UP OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• TUNICA MUSCULARIS:
• CONSISTS OF MUSCULAR LAYERS
• THERE ARE THREE MUSCULAR LAYERS:
• AN OUTER LONGITUDINAL MUSCLES
• A MIDDLE CIRCULAR MUSCLES
• AN INNER OBLIQUE MUSCLES
TUNICA SUB MUCOSA:
• CONTAINS BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES

TUNICA MUCOSA
• INNERMOST LINING OF THE STOMACH
• MADE UP OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• THROWN INTO MULTIPLE FOLDS CALLED RUGAE
• RUGAE INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA FOR ABSORPTION AND DIGESTION
• CONTAINS GASTRIC GLANDS
GASTRIC GLANDS
• PRESENT IN THE GASTRIC MUCOSA
• ‘Y’ SHAPED GLANDS
• LINED BY CUBOIDAL CELLS

• STRUCTURALLY, IT IS DIVIDED INTO:

• PART LINED BY FUNCTIONS

• NECK MUCOUS CELLS– SECRETES MUCUS
• BODY PARIETAL CELLS OR OXYNTIC CELLS SECRETES DIL. HCL
• APEX– CHIEF CELLS OR ZYMOGEN CELLS SECRETES PEPSINOGEN
OR PEPTIC CELLS
SMALL INTESTINE
ENTERUM
• SMALL INTESTINE IS A 7 METER LONG TUBULAR ORGAN
• STRUCTURALLY IT IS DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS:
• DUODENUM
• JEJUNUM
• ILEUM

• DUODENUM
• FIRST PART OF SMALL INTESTINE
• STOMACH OPENS INTO DUODENUM THROUGH PYLORIC SPHINCTER
• DIVIDED INTO 4 PARTS
• FIRST PART IS LINED BY MUCUS SECRETING GLANDS CALLED BRUNNERS
GLANDS
• THE SECOND PART CONTAINS OPENING OF THE HEPATO- PANCREATIC DUCT
• THE OPENING OF THE HEPATO- PANCREATIC DUCT IS GUARDED BY THE
SPHINCTER OF ODDI
• IT BRINGS
• BILE FROM LIVER AND GALL BLADDER AND
• PANCREATIC JUICE FROM PANCREAS
• LATER PART OF DUODENUM AND EARLY JEJUNUM SECRETE INTESTINAL JUICE
OR SUCCUS ENTERICUS
• THE PASTY ACIDIC FOOD THAT ENTERS THE DUODENUM IS CALLED CHYME

JEJUNUM AND ILEUM

• EARLY PART OF JEJUNUM SECRETE SUCCUS ENTERICUS
• LATER PART OF JEJUNUM AND ENTIRE ILEUM HELP IN ABSORPTION OF
NUTRIENTS
• THE ALKALINE PASTY FOOD IS CALLED CHYLE
• MAJOR PART OF ABSORPTION TAKES PLACE IN ILEUM
T. S. OF INTESTINE
• IN A TRANSVERSE SECTION, THE INTESTINAL WALL IS DIVIDED INTO 4 LAYERS:
• AN OUTER TUNICA SEROSA
• TUNICA MUSCULARIS
• TUNICA SUB MUCOSA
• INNER TUNICA MUCOSA

• TUNICA SEROSA:
• OUTER COVERING OF THE INTESTINAL WALL
• MADE UP OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• TUNICA MUSCULARIS:
• CONSISTS OF MUSCULAR LAYERS
• THERE ARE TWO MUSCULAR LAYERS:
• AN OUTER LONGITUDINAL MUSCLES
• A MIDDLE CIRCULAR MUSCLES
TUNICA SUB MUCOSA:
• CONTAINS BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES

TUNICA MUCOSA
• INNERMOST LINING OF THE INTESTINE
• MADE UP OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• THROWN INTO MULTIPLE FOLDS CALLED VILLI
• VILLI INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA FOR ABSORPTION
LARGE INTESTINE
COLON
• THE SMALL INTESTINE IS CONNECTED TO THE LARGE INTESTINE THROUGH A
SAC- LIKE CAECUM
• CAECUM BEARS A VESTIGEAL PART CALLED VERMIFORM APPENDIX
• CAECUM AND APPENDIX HARBOURS MANY BACTERIA ESSENTIAL FOR
DIGESTION
• APPENDIX IS A VESTIGE OF A VERY LONG INTESTINE DURING ANCESTRAL
HISTORY

• CAECUM CONTINUES AS COLON

• COLON IS A 1.5 METER LONG SACCULATED TUBULAR ORGAN
• STRUCTURALLY COLON IS DIVIDED INTO:
• ASCENDING COLON
• TRANSVERSE COLON
• DESCENDING COLON
• SIGMOID COLON

• IT CAN ONLY ABSORB WATER AND MINERALS

RECTUM
• TERMINAL PART OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• 12 CM IN LENGTH
• OPENS TO EXTERIOR THROUGH THE ANUS

• ANUS IS GUARDED BY THE ANAL SPHINCTER, WHICH NORMALLY IS UNDER

VOLUNTARY CONTROL
PHYSIOLOGY OF
DIGESTION
• NUTRIENTS ARE BROKEN DOWN AS:

CARBOHYDRATES
POLYSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES MONOSACCHARIDES
STARCH SUCROSE GLUCOSE+ FRUCTOSE
GLYCOGEN MALTOSE GLUCOSE+ GLUCOSE
LACTOSE GLUCOSE+ GALACTOSE

PROTEINS
POLYPEPTIDES DIPEPTIDES AMINO ACIDS

FATS
COMPLEX FAT FATTY ACIDS AND
GLYCEROLS
SECRETIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

• MOUTH SALIVA SALIVARY AMYLASE

• OESOPHAGUS -- --

• STOMACH GASTRIC GLANDS MUCUS

DILUTE HCL
PEPSINOGEN(INACTIVE)

• DUODENUM BRUNNERS GLANDS MUCUS

HEPATO- PANCREATIC BILE
DUCT PANCREATIC JUICE

• JEJUNUM AND ILEUM ENTEROCYTES INTESTINAL JUICE OR

SUCCUS ENTERICUS
• RECTUM -- --
DIGESTION IS CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

a)MECHANICAL DIGESTION
b)CHEMICAL DIGESTION

A)MECHANICAL DIGESTION: INVOLVES CRUSHING THE FOOD BY

A) CHEWING OR MASTICATION
B) PERISTALSIS

B) CHEMICAL DIGESTION: INVOLVES BREAKDOWN OF CRUSHED FOOD WITH

THE HELP OF CHEMICALS LIKE ENZYMES ETC.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION

• CHEMICALLY, FOOD IS DIGESTED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM.
• THIS PROCESS TAKES PLACE IN A STEP WISE MANNER I.E. FROM COMPLEX TO SIMPLER
TO SIMPLEST
• (I.E. POLY TO DI TO MONO)
• THE DIFFERENT LOCATIONS AND PROCESSES ARE:

• MOUTH:
• MOUTH CONTAINS SALIVARY GLANDS WHICH SECRETE SALIVA
• SALIVA CONTAINS SALIVARY AMYLASE, CALLED PTYALINE, WHICH HELPS IN
BREAKDOWN OF POLYSACCHARIDES TO DISACCHARIDES
• ABOUT 30% OF CARBOHYDRATES ARE DIGESTED IN MOUTH BY SALIVA

AMYLASE
POLYSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES
OESOPHAGUS:
• OESOPHAGUS DOES NOT SECRETE ANY ENZYME
• THEREFORE IT PLAYS NO ROLE IN DIGESTION
• IT ONLY HELPS IN TRANSPORTATION

STOMACH

• AS FOOD ENTERS STOMACH, RATHER EVEN BEFORE FOOD ENTERS STOMACH,

EVEN WITH THE SIGHT, SMELL OR THOUGHT OF FOOD, A HORMONE GASTRIN
IS SECRETED BY THE GASTRIC MUCOSA.
• GASTRIN STIMULATES THE GASTRIC GLANDS TO SECRETE GASTRIC JUICE
• DIL. HCL STIMULATES PERISTALSIS OF STOMACH

• THE PH OF STOMACH NEAR THE FUNDUS IS 4-5 WHILE NEAR PYLORIC END IS
2-3
GASTRIC JUICE
GASTRIC JUICE CONTAINS:

PART OF GLAND SECRETION FUNCTIONS

NECK MUCUS 1.LUBRICATION OF GASTRIC MUCOSA

2. PROTECTS INNER LINING OF THE
STOMACH

BODY DIL. HCl 1. KILLS MICRO- ORGANISMS

2. DISSOLVES SEEDS AND BONES
3. MAKES MEDIUM ACIDIC

APEX PEPSINOGEN WHEN ACTIVATED, PEPSIN, HELPS IN

DIGESTION OF PROTEINS

DIL. HCL
PEPSINOGEN PEPSIN(ACTIVE)

POLYPEPTIDES DIPEPTIDES
SMALL INTESTINE

DUODENUM:

FIRST PART:
• LINED BY BRUNNERS GLANDS
• BRUNNERS GLANDS SECRETE MUCUS
• MUCUS NEUTRALISES THE ACIDITY OF THE CHYME
• ALSO PROTECTS THE DUODENAL MUCOSA

SECOND PART:
• BEARS THE OPENING OF THE HEPATO- PANCREATIC DUCT
• HEPATO- PANCREATIC DUCT BRINGS
• BILE FROM LIVER AND GALL BLADDER
• PANCREATIC JUICE FROM PANCREAS
BILE AND
PANCREATIC JUICE
BILE
• PH– 8.8
• EMULSIFIES FATS
EMULSIFICATION
COMPLEX FAT FATTY ACIDS AND
GLYCEROLS

PANCREATIC JUICE (C DALToN)

• IT CONTAINS ENZYMES LIKE:

• CHYMOTRYPSINOGEN
• DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE(DNAase)
• AMYLASE
• LIPASE
• TRYPSINOGEN
• NUCLEASE
• CHYMOTRYPSINOGEN
• inactive TRYPSIN active
CHYMOTRYPSINOGEN CHYMOTRYPSIN

CHYMOTRYPSIN
POLYPEPTIDES DIPEPTIDES

• DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE: DIGESTS DNA

DNAase
POLYPEPTIDES DIPEPTIDES
• AMYLASE
AMYLASE
POLYSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES

• LIPASE
LIPASE
COMPLEX FATS FATTY ACIDS & GLYCEROLS

• TRYPSINOGEN
inactive ENTEROKINASE active
TRYPSINOGEN TRYPSIN
Chymotrypsinogen chymotrypsin

• RNAase: breaks down RNA

RNAase
POLYPEPTIDES DIPEPTIDES
INTESTINAL JUICE
SUCCUS ENTERICUS
INTESTINAL JUICE

• SECRETED BY ENTEROCYTES IN THE DUODENUM AND JEJUNUM

• PH– 8

• IT CONTAINS ENZYMES LIKE: (SMALLED)

• SUCRASE
• MALTASE
• AMYLASE
• LACTASE
• LIPASE
• ENTEROKINASE
• DIPEPTIDASE
• SUCRASE
SUCRASE
SUCROSE GLUCOSE+ FRUCTOSE

• MALTASE
MALTASE
MALTOSE GLUCOSE+ GLUCOSE

• AMYLASE

POLYSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES MONOSACCHARIDES

• LACTASE
LACTASE
LACTOSE GLUCOSE+ GALACTOSE
• LIPASE
LIPASE
COMPLEX FATS FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL

• ENTEROKINASE
ENTEROKINASE
TRYPSINOGEN TRYPSIN

• DIPEPTIDASE
DIPEPTIDASE
DIPEPTIDES AMINO ACIDS
ABSORPTION

• THE PROCESS OF TRANSPORTATION OF DIGESTED/ SIMPLE NUTRIENTS FROM

INTESTINE TO BLOOD IS CALLED ABSORPTION

• SUBSTANCES ABSORBED FROM VARIOUS LOCATIONS ARE:

• MOUTH CERTAIN DRUGS

• STOMACH WATER
SIMPLE SUGARS
ALCOHOL

• SMALL INTESTINE PRINCIPAL ORGAN FOR ABSORPTION

GLUCOSE
FRUCTOSE
AMINO ACIDS
FATTY ACIDS
GLYCEROLS

• LARGE INTESTINE WATER

MINERALS
DRUGS
ASSIMILATION
• THE PROCESS OF CONVERSION OF SIMPLER SUBSTANCES INTO
COMPLEX SUBSTANCES FOR STORAGE IS CALLED ASSIMILATION

• IT IS DONE BY LIVER

• THE TRANSPORTATION OF NUTRIENTS FROM SMALL INTESTINE TO

LIVER IS DONE BY A SPECIALISED CIRCULATION CALLED HEPATIC
PORTAL SYSTEM

• HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN RUNS EXCLUSIVELY FROM SMALL INTESTINE

TO LIVER ..
HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM
• PORTAL CIRCULATION IS A CIRCULATION
BETWEEN TWO ORGANS IN WHICH NONE
OF THEM IS HEART.
• THE HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM IS
THE VENOUS SYSTEM THAT RETURNS BLOOD
FROM THE DIGESTIVE TRACT AND SPLEEN
TO THE LIVER (WHERE RAW NUTRIENTS IN
BLOOD ARE PROCESSED BEFORE THE
BLOOD RETURNS TO THE HEART).
• IT IS UNIDIRECTIONAL
• IT EXTENDS FROM SMALL INTESTINE TO LIVER
ONLY..
• IT CARRIES DIGESTED NUTRIENTS FROM
SMALL INTESTINE TO LIVER FOR
ASSIMILATION.
• HYPOTHALAMO- HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL
SYSTEM IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF PORTAL
SYSTEM
EXTRA POINTERS

• LIVER DOES NOT SECRETE ANY ENZYME

• BILE IS NOT AN ENZYME

• CCK(CHOLECYSTOKININ)/ CCK-PZ(CHOLECYSTOKININ- PANCREATOZYMIN)

IS SECRETED BY DUODENUM, IT STIMULATES THE RELEASE OF BILE AND
PANCREATIC JUICE FROM THE GALL BLADDER AND PANCREAS
RESPECTIVELY

• HICCUPS ARE CAUSED DUE TO THE IRRITATION OF THE PHRENIC NERVE

(PHRENIC-- DIAPHRAGM)

• NAUSEA IS A SENSATION OF VOMITING.

• HEART BURNS IS ACTUALLY DUE TO HYPERACIDITY

• DIARRHOEA, BY DEFINITION IS INCREASED FREQUENCY OF STOOLS, USUALLY
ACCOMPANIED BY LOOSE STOOLS

• CONSTIPATION, IS A CONDITION OF DECREASED FREQUENCY OF STOOLS,

USUALLY ACCOMPANIED BY HARD KNOTTY STOOLS

• TENESMUS IS AN UNFINISHED SENSATION FOR STOOLS

GASTRIC
DISORDERS
DIARRHOEA DYSENTERY
- RRHOEA– DISCHARGE OF DYS– PAINFUL, ENTERUM– INTESTINE

• CAUSED BY A BACTERIA • CAUSED BY ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA

• CHARACTERISED BY WATERY • CHARACTERISED BY STICKY STOOLS

STOOLS

• MARKED URGENCY • LESS URGENCY

• PAIN IN ABDOMEN ABSENT • MARKED PAIN IN UMBELICAL REGION

• TENESMUS MAY OR MAY NOT BE • TENESMUS PRESENT

PRESENT
• BLOOD MAY OR MAY NOT BE • BLOOD IN STOOLS
PRESENT
LIVER
LIVER

• LARGEST GLAND OF THE BODY

• DIVIDED INTO TWO LOBES(ACTUALLY
FOUR)
• A LARGE RIGHT LOBE
• A SMALL LEFT LOBE
• THE TWO LOBES ARE CONNECTED BY
A FALCIFORM LIGAMENT
• SECRETES BILE
• BILE IS STORED AND CONJUGATED IN
THE GALL BLADDER AT THE BASE OF
LIVER
• EXTERNALLY, LIVER IS COVERED BY A HEPATIC CAPSULE(GLISSONS CAPSULE)
• THE CAPSULE EXTENDS MANY SEPTA, WHICH DIVIDES THE LIVER INTO MANY
SMALLER COMPARTMENTS CALLED HEPATIC LOBULES
• EACH HEPATIC LOBULE IS A HEXAGONAL LOBULE
• INTERNALLY, EACH LOBULE HAS CHAINS OF HEPATOCYTES, CALLED HEPATIC
CORDS
• HEPATOCYTES RELEASE BILE WITHIN THE HEPATIC CORDS
• BILE RUNS FROM CENTRE TO PERIPHERY
• BETWEEN THE CORDS, ARE SPACES THROUGH WHICH BLOOD RUNS FROM
PERIPHERY TO CENTRE
• AT THE CORNERS OF THE CORD, ARE PRESENT THREE VESSELS
• HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
• HEPATIC ARTERY
• INTERLOBULAR BILE DUCT
• AT THE CENTRE OF THE LOBULE, IN THE CENTRAL CANAL IS PRESENT THE
HEPATIC VEIN
• BLOOD IS IN ACTUAL CONTACT WITH HEPATOCYTES
• PHAGOCYTIC CELLS CALLED KUPPFERS CELLS ARE PRESENT BETWEEN THE
SINUSOIDS
PANCREAS
• PANCREAS IS A HETEROCRINE GLAND
• IT SECRETES ENZYMES AS WELL AS HORMONES
• ENZYMES ARE SECRETED BY THE PANCREATIC ACINI
• IN A TRANSVERSE SECTION, THERE ARE NUMEROUS
PANCREATIC FOLLICLES OR ACINI
• THE FOLLICLE IS LINED BY A SINGLE LAYER OF CUBOIDAL
CELLS
• AT THE CENTRE OF THE FOLLICLE, IS PRESENT A LUMEN
• CUBOIDAL CELLS SECRETE PANCREATIC ENZYMES AND
POUR IT INTO THE LUMEN
• SURROUNDING THE FOLLICLES IS THE CLUSTER OF
ENDOCRINE CELLS CALLED ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
• ISLETS OF LANGERHANS ARE MADE UP OF THREE TYPES OF CELLS
• ALPHA CELLS – SECRETE A HORMONE GLUCAGON
• BETA CELLS – SECRETE A HORMONE INSULIN
• DELTA CELLS– SECRETE A HORMONE SOMATOSTATIN

• INSULIN DECREASE BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS

• GLUCAGON INCREASE BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS