Computer Aided Tribology

Ian Sherrington
_____________________________________________________________________

TOPIC 3 – FLUID LUBRICANTS

3.1 Introduction

Fluids, in the form of both liquid and gas, are used a lubricants in a wide range of
applications. Lubricants may be required to perform several functions including

 Friction reduction
 Wear reduction
 Conduction/convection of heat from a contact
 Cleaning (removal of wear debris / detergent delivery)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiZR0lTCTsM

An extremely wide range of fluid lubricants are available to the tribologist

3.2 Viscosity

One of the key physical properties of a lubricant is its viscosity, a measure of its
ability to flow. Lubricants are commonly referred to as being “thick” or “thin”, a
reference to being more or less viscous.

The Newtonian model of fluid flow envisages infinitesimally thin layers of liquid
which slide over each other as depicted in figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Newtonian model of a fluid in shear.

Friction between each layer gives rise to shear stress. Newton proposed that:

  shear stress  Rate of shear strain

consequently,
 dU 
Rate of shear strain   
 dy 

 dU 
   
 dy 

 dU 
    
 dy 

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Ian Sherrington
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 is known as the dynamic viscosity. A fluid which displays the behaviour described
by equation 3.1 is called a “Newtonian fluid”.

Some fluids are non-Newtonian, their viscosity depends on the shear rate. Non
Newtonian fluid video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw

The SI unit of viscosity is Ns m-2 (numerically equivalent to Pascal seconds (PaS)).

Viscosities of fluids are often quoted in the more convenient milli Pascal Second
(mPaS) as this tends to be the order of magnitude of viscosity for many common
fluids. (Note, 1mPaS= 1 centipoise (cP) in CGS units.)

Typical values for the viscosity of some common fluids at room temperature are:

Air – 0.02 mPaS

Water – 1.0 mPaS
Engine oil – 2 to 400 mPa S

Viscometers are devices used to measure viscosity. Many forms have developed.
Traditionally, viscometers have relied on the time for a given measure of fluid to flow
through a nozzle, or the time it takes for a small sphere to fall through a column of
liquid as the basis of their principle of operation. More modern instruments measure
the rate of shear in a layer of fluid situated between a fixed and a moving component,
such as two flat plates. Older viscometers often gave rise to their own form of
viscometric unit, such as the Redwood Second. Often they would only provide a
measurement of viscosity in a form called the “kinematic viscosity” which is:

Dynamic vis cos ity ( )

Kinematic vis cos ity 
density(  )

SI unit of kinematic viscosity : m2s-1

It is worth noting the equivalence of CGS units commonly found in older books and
papers:

1 m2s-1 = 104 Stokes (St) (CGS)

1 mm2s-1 = 1 cSt (Centi-Stokes)

Exercise 3.1

Convert the following:

(i) 23.1 mPaS to cP

(ii) 23.1 mPaS to PaS
(iii) 19.3 cSt to m2s-1
(iv) 19.3 cSt to PaS
Assume that the density of the lubricant is 760 Kg m-3 where required.

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Ian Sherrington
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3.3 Temperature effects

Fluid viscosity displays a dependence on both temperature and pressure. This

dependence arises as a consequence of the interaction of two phenomena, namely:
intermolecular forces and the random motion of the molecules of the fluid.

From the Newtonian view point, intermolecular attraction between adjacent layers
will give rise to a force which will tend to resist relative sliding between the layers.

Thermal excitation will also cause molecules to move from one layer to another.
When molecules change layers, inevitably there will be collisions between molecules
and an exchange of momentum which will tend to resist bulk motion

In liquids:

Molecules are close together and slow moving. Inter-molecular forces dominate their
behaviour.

If the temperature rises, the liquid expands and its molecules move further apart
causing a reduction in the intermolecular forces and a reduction in viscosity.

Low temperature Higher temperature

Figure 3.2 Intermolecular forces in a liquid

In gases

Molecules are more widely spaced in gas than in a liquid and momentum transfer is
dominant effect on viscosity.

As the temperature rises the average kinetic energy in the gas also rises. This results
in a greater incidence of momentum transfer between the Newtonian layers and
increased exchange of momentum at molecular collisions giving rise to higher
viscosity.

Figure 3.3 Movement of molecules in a gas

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Ian Sherrington
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It is worth noting that in liquids the density is approximately constant as temperature

changes so the dynamic viscosity and the kinematic viscosity have about the same
sensitivity to temperature. In contrast for a gas at constant pressure, density is
inversely proportional to temperature so kinematic viscosity has a different sensitivity
to temperature than dynamic viscosity.

Summary video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swJQ42Q_Ou4

Simple summary:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1AESWxko4nI

3.4 Viscosity classification

The change in viscosity with temperature is an important property of an oil. A number

of schemes have been developed to characterise this effect

3.4.1 The Viscosity index (VI) scheme

The viscosity index scheme is a rather old methods, devised by Dean and Davis
(1929). The scheme involves comparison of a test oil with oils from two other series.

Gulf coast oils: which at the time the test was devised had the highest known variation
of kinematic viscosity with temperature. These are defined as VI = 0 oils.

Figure 3.4  vs T (Gulf coast oil)

Pennsylvanian oils: which have a low variation of kinematic viscosity with

temperature. These are defined as VI = 100 oils.

Figure 3.5  vs T (Pennsylvanian oil)

To determine the viscosity index of a test oil the following process is followed.

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Ian Sherrington
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1. Determine the viscosity of the test oil at two reference temperatures 100 o F and
210oF (37.8 oC and 99oC.)

2. Use tables to identify VI=0 and VI=100 oils with the same viscosity at 210 oF from
tables.

3. If the 100 VI oil has a viscosity of H at 100oF

the 0 VI oil has a viscosity of L at 100oF
and the test oil has a viscosity of U at 100oF

 L U 
Then VI    x100
LH 

Current oils for automotive applications have VI values which depend on their grade.
(monograde about 100 / multigrade 150 –170.)

3.4.2 SAE Classification

The Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) have developed a commonly used

scheme for classifying oils. The scheme identifies broad bands of viscosity values
which are specified at two reference temperatures of 0oF and 100oF.

Increasing
viscosity

Figure 3.6 SAE Oil classification Temperature

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Ian Sherrington
_____________________________________________________________________

An oil which meets a high temperature specification is described by a single number

and is called a monograde, e.g., SAE 20. An oil which matches a specification at two
temperatures is called a multigrade and denoted by a dual code, e.g., SAE 5W/30.

Qualitative explanation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hb6CX_rWoIA

Overview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tB-N8Gao5kQ

3.5 Pressure effects

The effect of increasing the pressure of a liquid or a gas is to make the average
distance between the molecules smaller. This increases the number of intermolecular
collisions in a given period of time and also increases intermolecular attraction.

In oils pressure effects typically considered to be significant at pressures above about

2 x 107 Pa. (At 3.7 x 107 Pa the viscosity of a mineral normally approach double its
viscosity at atmospheric pressure.)

Pressure effects are usually considered to be important when considering the

lubrication of highly loaded non-conformal contacts such as those found In gear
contacts and rolling element bearings where EHD prevails.

The effect of pressure on viscosity seems to be rather difficult to model with a single
approach. A number of models are in use, largely based on semi-empirical data. The
Vogel equation appears to be one of the mostly widely used providing a compromise
of ease of use and computational accuracy.

The equation is of the form,

   o e p

where  is the viscosity at a pressure p, o the viscosity at atmospheric pressure and 

is the pressure viscosity coefficient.

Figure 3.7 Effect of pressure on an SAE 40 oil (Adapted from Halling)

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Ian Sherrington
_____________________________________________________________________

Exercise 3.2

Table 3.1 below details a modified part of SAE viscosity classification J300.
Assuming a density of 760 kgm-3 for all the oils, use the table 3.1 to determine a
plausible SAE classification(s) for the hypothetical test lubricants 1 to 5 with the
following characteristics.

Test lubricant (1) – Viscosity: 3.4 PaS at –30oC and 3.9 mm2s-1 at 100oC
Test lubricant (2) – Viscosity: 10 mm2s-1 at 100 0C
Test lubricant (3) – Viscosity: 14.1 cSt at 100 oC
Test lubricant (4) – Viscosity: 4.3 PaS at –10oC and 16 mm2s-1 at 100oC
Test lubricant (5) – Viscosity: 4.0 Pa S at –10 oC and 0.0149 PaS at 100 oC

Table 3.1 SAE classification J300 (Part)

SAE Viscosity Borderline Stable Viscosity Viscosity

viscosity (PaS) Pumping pour at 100oC at 100oC
2 -1
grade Temperature point (mm s ) (mm2s-1)
(max) oC (max) oC Min Max
0W 3.25 (a) -35 3.8
5W 3.50 (b) -30 -35 3.8
10W 3.50 (c) -25 -30 4.1
15W 3.50 (d) -20 5.6
20W 4.50 (e) -15 5.6
25W 6.00 (f) -10 9.3
20 5.6  9.3
30 9.3  12.5
40 12.5  16.3
50 16.3  21.9
60 21.9  26.1
Notes:(a) A t –30oC, (b) At –25 C, (c) At –20 C, (d) At –15 C, (e) At –10oC
o o o

(f) At –5oC

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 Computer Aided Tribology
Ian Sherrington
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3.6 Bubbly oil and viscosity

Often the oil from oil supply systems is pumped in such a way that air becomes easily
entrained making the oil “bubbly”. Somewhat surprisingly bubbly oil has a higher
viscosity than oil without bubbles. A bubbly oil is a two phase system with a viscosity
b, given by,

 b   1  0.015  

where  is a parameter related to the proportion of gas bubbles in the oil.

Lecture 3 – Further reading (Not compulsory)

Cameron, A. “Basic lubrication theory” 3rd Edition (1981) pp 19 – 36.

Lansdown, A. R. “Lubrication and lubricant selection”. Pub. MEP (1996)

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