Seismic Behavior, Analysis, An

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S E IS M IC B E H A V IO R , A N A L Y S IS , A N D D E S IG N O F H IG H STR E N G TH SQ UARE
C O N C R ETE F IL L E D S TE E L T U B E (C F T ) C O LU M N S
By
AM TT H A R IO M V A R M A
Presented to the Graduate and Research C om m ittee
o f Lehigh U n iv e rs ity
in Candidacy fo r the Degree o f
D octor o f P hilosophy
In
C IV IL E N G IN E E R IN G
L E H IG H U N IV E R S IT Y
N ovem ber 2000
UMI Number: 9995544
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A pproved and recommended fo r acceptance as a dissertation in partial fu lfillm ent
o f the requirem ents fo r the degree o f D octor o f P hilosophy.
2/ OOO
Date 7
D r. James M . R icles
D issertation C o -A d viso r
D r. R ichard Sause
D issertation C o -A d viso r
November 22. Z jdoo

Accepted Date C om m ittee Members:
D r. Stephen P. Pessiki
C om m ittee C hairm an
D r. Le-W u L u
D r. J e ro m ^ f. H a jja r
U n ive rsity ox M innesota
D r. A q jp K . SenGupta > D r. Shosuke M o rin o

D epartm ent C hairm an M ie U nive rsity, Japan
C iv il and E nvironm ental Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my gratitude to my advisors, D r. James Ricles and D r. Richard Sause, fo r giving
me the opportunity to w ork on this research project and fo r their invaluable guidance during the
course o f this study. I w ould also lik e to thank D r. Stephen Pessiki fo r serving as the
chairperson and D r. Le-W u Lu, D r. Jerome H ajjar (U niversity o f Minnesota), and D r. Shosuke
M orino (M ie U niversity) fo r serving as members o f m y Ph.D. committee.
This research project was supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant Nos. CMS-
9396120 andCMS-9632911) under the Presidential Young Investigator Award (D r. Ken Chong
and D r. Ashland Brow n —cognizant NSF program o fficia ls) and the U.S.-Japan Cooperative
Earthquake Research Program: Phase V —Composite and H ybrid Structures (D r. Shih-Chi Liu
— cognizant NSF program o ffic ia l). Partial funding was provided by the Pennsylvania
Infrastructure Technology A lliance (P IT A ) through a grant by the Commonwealth o f
Pennsylvania, Department o f Com m unity and Economic Development. The steel tubes fo r the
test specimens were donated by B u ll Moose Tube; Prairie Materials o f Chicago donated the
high strength concrete. I w ould like to thank M r. B radford H u ll and M r. Anthony Ream fo r
their invaluable assistance in conducting the experimental investigations.
I dedicate this w ork to the memory o f m y father, the late M r. H ariom Varma, who has
inspired me to become a better human being. I w ould like to express my gratitude and love for
my mother, Mrs. Pushpa Varma, and my brother, M r. V inay Varma. I w ill remain indebted to
my fa m ily for making several sacrifices fo r m y progress and fo r helping me gain the proper
direction in life . I also thank Swami Tadatmananda fo r his guidance and friendship.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
L IS T O F T A B L E S x ii
L IS T O F F IG U R E S x iv
ABSTRACT 1
C H A P T E R 1. IN T R O D U C T IO N 3
1.1 C O M P O S IT E C O L U M N S 3
1.2 H IG H S T R E N G T H M A T E R IA L S 5
1.3 C U R R E N T E X P E R IM E N T A L D A T A B A S E 6
1.4 R E S E A R C H O B J E C T IV E S 7
1.5 R E S E A R C H SCOPE 8
1.6 D IS S E R T A T IO N O U T L IN E 9
C H A P T E R 2. P R IO R R E S E A R C H O N S Q U A R E C F T C O L U M N S 15
2.1 E X P E R IM E N T A L R E S E A R C H O N S Q U A R E C F T C O L U M N S 15
2.1.1 C O M P O S ITE A C T IO N IN C FT C O LU M N S 18
2.2 A N A L Y T IC A L R E S E A R C H O N S Q U A R E C F T C O L U M N S 19
2.2.1 T H R E E -D IM E N S IO N A L (3 -D ) F IN IT E E L E M E N T M E T H O D 20
(F E M ) M O D E LS
2.2.2 C O N C E N T R A T E D -P L A S T IC IT Y B ASED F E M M O D E L FO R 23
C FT C O LU M N S
iv
2.2.3 D IS T R IB U T E D -P L A S T IC IT Y BAS E D FE M M O D E L FO R C FT 25
C O LU M N S
2.2.4 FIB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS FO R C FT CROSS-SECTIONS 26
2.3 C U R R E N T C O D E P R O V IS IO N S F O R S Q U A R E C F T C O L U M N S 28
2.3.1 T U B E W A L L SLENDERNESS L IM IT S 28
2.3.2 A X IA L L O A D C A P A C IT Y 30
2.3.3 B E N D IN G M O M E N T C A P A C IT Y 31
2.4 S T R E S S -S T R A IN R E L A T IO N S H IP S F O R H IG H S T R E N G T H 34
C O N CR ETE
C H A P T E R 3. E X P E R IM E N T A L IN V E S T IG A T IO N S O F H IG H 40
S TR E N G T H SQ U AR E C FT C O LU M N S
3.1 S Y N O P SIS 40
3.2 T E S T M A T R IX A N D M E A S U R E D M A T E R IA L P R O P E R T IE S 41
3.2.1 TEST M A T R IX 41
3.2.1.1 Fabrication o f Test Specimens 45
3.2.2 M A T E R IA L C H A R A C TE R IS TIC S 46
3.2.2.1 Steel M aterial Properties 46
3.2.2.2 Concrete M aterial Properties 49
3.3 S TU B C O L U M N S P E C IM E N S 51
3.3.1 STUB C O L U M N TEST-SETU P A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N 52
LAYO U T
3.3.2 E X P E R IM E N T A L B E H A V IO R O F STU B C O L U M N SPECIM ENS 53
3.3.3 E V A L U A T IO N OF STUB C O L U M N S P E C IM E N RESULTS 57
3.4 MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 59
3.4.1 M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N T E S T SETU P A N D 60
IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N L A Y O U T
3.4.2 E X P E R IM E N T A L B E H A V IO R O F M O N O T O N IC B E A M - 61
C O L U M N SPECIM ENS
3.4.3 E V A L U A T IO N O F M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N S P EC IM EN 73
R ESU LTS
3.4.4 C O M P A R IS O N OF M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N SP E C IM E N 78
R ESU LTS W IT H PR ED IC TIO N S B A S E D O N C U R R E N T C O D E
PR O VIS IO N S
3.5 CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 80
3.5.1 TEST-S E TU P , IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N L A Y O U T , A N D 80
L O A D IN G H IS T O R Y FO R C Y C L IC B E A M -C O L U M N TESTS
3.5.2 E X P E R IM E N T A L B E H A V IO R O F C Y C L IC B E A M -C O L U M N 85
SPEC IM EN S
3.5.3 E V A L U A T IO N OF C Y C LIC B E A M -C O L U M N SP EC IM E N 99
R ESU LTS
3.5.4 C O M P A R IS O N OF E X P E R IM E N T A L R ESU LTS W IT H 109
P R E D IC TIO N S BASED O N C U R R E N T C O D E PR O VISIO N S
vi
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS FROM EXPERIMENTAL 112
INVESTIGATIONS
3.7 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGH STRENGTH 116
SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
CHAPTER 4. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FEM ANALYSIS OF HIGH 188
STRENGTH SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
4.1 SYNOPSIS 189
4.2 FEM MODELS OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS 190
4.2.1 F E M M O D E L OF S T E E L T U B E 190
4.2.1.1 Idealized Stress-Strain Curves fo r Steel 192
4.2.2 L O C A L B U C K L IN G A N D G EO M ETR IC IM P E R F E C T IO N 193
4.2.3 F E M M O D E L OF C O N C R E TE IN F IL L 195
4.2.3.1 Concrete M u ltia x ia l P la sticity M odel 196
4.2.3.2 Idealized Stress-Strain Curve fo r H ig h Strength C oncrete 199
4.2.4 F E M M O D E L OF C O M P O S ITE IN T E R A C T IO N 200
4.2.4.1 FE M M odel o f Transverse Interaction 201
4.2.4.2 F E M M odel o f L o n g itu d in a l Interaction 201
4.2.5 C O N F IN E M E N T O F C O N C R ETE IN S Q U A R E C FT C O LU M N S 202
4.2.6 C A L IB R A T IO N OF C O N C R ETE M A T E R IA L M O D E L 205
4.2.6.1 Values o f 0 fo r Core and N on-core Concrete 206
4.2.6.2 Values o f c0 fo r Core and Non-core Concrete 207
v ii
43 FEM ANALYSES OF CFT STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS 211
4.3.1 F E M A N A L Y S E S O F M O D E LS W IT H O U T IM P E R FE C TIO N S 212
4.3.2 F E M A N A LY S E S OF M O D E LS W IT H IM P E R FE C TIO N S 214
4.3.3 F E M A N A LY S E S O F IN E L A S T IC F A IL U R E SEG M EN TS 216
4.3.4 F IN D IN G S FR O M F E M A N A LY S E S OF S TU B C O L U M N 219
SPECIM ENS
4.4 FEM ANALYSES OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 222
4.4.1 F E M M O D E LS FO R M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N 221
SPECIM ENS
4.4.2 D IF F IC U LT IE S EN C O U N TE R E D IN F E M A N A LY S E S O F C FT 227
B E A M -C O L U M N S
CHAPTER 5. FIBER-BASED MODELS AND ANALYSES OF CFT 266
BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
5.1 SYNOPSIS 267
5.2 FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN 270
SPECIMENS
5.2.1 F IB E R -B A S E D B E A M -C O L U M N E LE M E N T 271
5.2.1.1 Accuracy o f the Fiber-Based Beam -Colum n Elem ent 273
5.2.1.2 M onotonic and C yclic Stress-Strain Curves 274
5.2.1.3 Summary 275
5.2.2 D E V E LO P M E N T OF FIB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS 276
v iii
5.2.2.1 U n ia xia l Stress-Strain Curves in Tension 277
5.2.2.2 F ib e r Stress-Strain Curves in C om pression 280
5.3 F E M M O D E L S A N D E F F E C T IV E S T R E S S -S T R A IN C U R V E S 284
5.3.1 F E M M O D E L S O F C FT F A IL U R E S E G M EN TS 285
5.3.1.1 F E M M odel o f Steel Tube 285
5.3.1.2 F E M M odel o f Concrete I n fill 287
5.3.1.3 F E M M odel o f Com posite In te ra ctio n 289
5.3.2 F E M -B A S E D E FFE C TIV E S TR E S S -S TR A IN C U R VES 290
5.3.2.1 Influence o f Parameters on E ffe c tiv e Stress-Strain Curves 293
5.4 F U R T H E R IN V E S T IG A T IO N S O F F E M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E 294
S T R E S S -S T R A IN C U R V E S
5.4.1 T R A N S V E R S E IN T E R A C T IO N O N L Y 296
5.4.2 C O N S T R A IN E D L O C A L B U C K L IN G O N L Y 299
5.4.3 L O C A L B U C K L IN G A N D T R A N S V E R S E IN T E R A C T IO N 301
5.4.4 E V A L U A T IO N OF FE M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E STR E S S -S TR A IN 302
C U R V E S FO R S TEE L TU B E W A L L S
5.4.5 E V A L U A T IO N O F FE M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E S TR E SS -STR A IN 305
C U R V E S FOR C O N CR ETE IN F IL L
5.5 F IB E R A N A L Y S E S O F M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N S P E C IM E N S 307
5.5.1 F IB E R STR E S S -S TR A IN CURVES 308
5.5.1.1 U nia xial Stress-Strain Curves fo r Steel Fibers 308
5.5.1.2 U n ia xia l Stress-Strain Curves fo r Concrete Fibers 310
ix
5.5.2 R ESULTS F R O M F IB E R A N A L Y S E S O F M O N O T O N IC 312
B E A M -C O L U M N SPEC IM EN S
5.5.3 E V A L U A T IO N O F F IB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS FOR 314
M O N O T O N IC B E A M -C O L U M N SPECIM ENS
5.6 FIBER ANALYSES OF CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 318
5.6.1 F IB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS FO R C Y C L IC B E A M -C O L U M N 319
SPECIM ENS
5.6.1.1 C yclic Stress-Strain R elationships fo r Steel Fibers 323
5.5.1.2 C yclic Stress-Strain R elationships fo r Concrete Fibers 325
5.6.2 R ESULTS FR O M F IB E R A N A L Y S E S O F C Y C LIC B E A M - 327
C O L U M N SPECIM ENS
5.6.2.1 Com parison o f E xperim ental and A n a lytica l Results 330
5.6.3 E V A L U A T IO N OF F IB E R -B A S E D M O D ELS FO R C Y C L IC 331
B E A M -C O L U M N SPEC IM EN S
5.7 AXIAL LOAD - BENDING MOMENT (P-M) INTERACTION 334
CURVES FROM FIBER ANALYSES
5.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 336
CHAPTER 6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 401
FOR FUTURE WORK
6.1 SUMMARY 401
6.1.1 S U M M A R Y O F E X P E R IM E N T A L IN V E S T IG A T IO N S 402
6.1.2 S U M M A R Y OF A N A L Y T IC A L IN V E S T IG A T IO N S 406
6.2 CONCLUSIONS 411
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 413
REFERENCES 416
VITA 428
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 L im its on b /t ra tio according to current code provisions 120
Table 3.2 T est-m atrix, nom inal dim ensions, and m aterial properties 120
Table 3.3 Average m aterial properties fo r steel tubes o f CFT specimens 121
Table 3.4 Average m aterial properties fo r steel tube flanges o f C FT specimens 121
Table 3.5 M a te ria l properties o f cored concrete cylinders 121
Table 3.6 Test m a trix w ith measured m aterial properties and dim ensions 122
Table 3.7 Stub colum n specimen results 123
Table 3.8 M onotonic beam -colum n specimen results 123
Table 3.9 Com parisons o f the experim ental m om ent capacities o f the 124
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens w ith predictions based on the
current code provisions
Table 3.10 C yclic beam -colum n specimen results 124
Table 3.11 Energy dissipated b y cyclic beam -colum n specimens 125
Table 3.12 Com parisons o f the experim ental m om ent capacities o f the cyclic 125
beam -colum n specimens w ith predictions based on current code
provisions
Table 3.13 S tiffness, strength, and available curvature d u c tility o f m onotonic 126
and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens according to recommended
design provisions
Table 4.1 Parameters fo r idealized steel stress-strain curves 230
x ii
Table 4.2 U n ia x ia l, b ia xia l, and tria x ia l stress-states 230
Table 4.3 C om parison o f experim ental and analytical results 231
Table 5.1 Parameters fo r idealized steel stress-strain curves. 340
Table 5.2 Values d e fin in g fib e r stress-strain curves 341
Table 5.3 C om parison o f experim ental and analytical m om ent capacities o f 342
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens
Table 5.4 Com parison o f experim ental and analytical m om ent capacities o f 343
c yclic beam -colum n specimens
x iii
LIST OF FIGURES
F igure 1.1 C olum ns used in com posite construction
F igure 1.2 T w o U nion Square b u ild in g in Seattle
F igure 1.3 T y p ica l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and high strength
concrete
Figure 1.4 T y p ic a l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and high strength
h o llo w steel sections
Figure 1.5 Frequency distributions o f the concrete strength and steel tube yield
stress fo r the rectangular C FT database, A ho and Leon (1997)
F igure 2.1 A x ia l load - bending m om ent (P -M ) interaction curves fo r C FT
beam -colum ns: (a) A IS C -LR FD and A C I; (b )A U ; and (c) EC4
p rovisions
Figure 2.2 E m p iric a l stress-strain relationships fo r high strength concrete
F igure 3.1 S tructural flo o r plan o f 6-story C FT m om ent-resisting-fram e
b u ild in g
Figure 3.2 S tructural elevation o f perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram es; (a)
East-W est Frame, (b) N orth-South Frame
Figure 3.3 F abrication o f steel tubes from coils
Figure 3.4 P lacing concrete in steel tubes o f C FT specimens
Figure 3.5 Locations o f tension coupons and measured u n ia xia l stress-strain
curves fo r steel tube o f specimen type C FT-32-80
x iv
Figure 3.6 Locations o f tension coupons and measured u n ia xia l stress-strain 130
Figure 3.9 M easured com pressive strength o f concrete cylinders w ith 132
respect to curing tim e and conditions
Figure 3.10 M easured uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r cored concrete 132
cylinders
Figure 3.11 Stub colum n test-setup and instrum entation layout 133
Figure 3.12 Photograph o f stub colum n test-setup 133
Figure 3.13 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC-32-80 134
Figure 3.14 Stub colum n specimens after testing; (a) SC -32-80, 134
(b) SC -48-80
Figure 3.15 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC -48-80 135
Figure 3.17 Stub colum n specimens after testing; (a) SC-32-46, 136
(b) SC -48-46
Figure 3.19 M o n oton ic beam -colum n test-setup 137
Figure 3.20 Instrum entation fo r m onotonic beam -colum n specimens 137
xv
Figure 3.21 Photograph o f m onotonic beam -colum n test-setup and 138
instrum entation layout
F igure 3.22 M id -h e ig h t moment - average end rotation response o f 139
BC-32-8O-20
F igure 3.23 Local b u c k lin g and concrete crushing in B C -32-80-20 139
Figure 3.24 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f 140
B C -32-80-20
F igure 3.25 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end rotation response o f 140
B C -32-80-40
Figure 3.26 Local b u c klin g and concrete crushing in B C -32-80-40 141
Figure 3.27 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f 141
B C -32-80-40
Figure 3.28 M id -h e ig h t m oment - average end rotation response o f 142
B C -48-80-20
Figure 3.29 L ocal b u cklin g and concrete crushing in B C -48-80-20 142
B C -48-80-20
Figure 3.31 M id -h e ig h t moment - average end rotation response o f 143
B C -48-80-40
Figure 3.32 Local b u c klin g and concrete crushing in B C -48-80-40 144
B C -48-80-40
xvi
Figure 3.34 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f
B C -32-46-20
F igure 3.35 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f
B C -32-46-20
F igure 3.36 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end rotation response o f
BC -32-46-40
F igure 3.37 Local b u cklin g and concrete crushing in BC -32-46-40
Figure 3.38 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f
B C -32-46-40
F igure 3.39 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end rotation response o f
BC -48-46-20
B C -48-46-20
Figure 3.41 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f
BC -48-46-22
Figure 3.42 Local b u cklin g and concrete crushing in BC -48-46-22
B C -48-46-22
Figure 3.44 D e fin itio n o f curvature d u c tility fo r m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens
x v ii
F igure 3.45 Influ e n ce o f parameters on curvature d u c tility o f m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens: (a) A x ia l load le ve l; (b) W id th -to -
thickness ra tio ; (c) Steel y ie ld stress
Figure 3.46 C om parison o f m onotonic beam -colum n test results w ith P - M
inte ractio n curves fo r specim en type C FT-32-80
inte ractio n curves fo r specimen type C FT-48-80
inte ra ctio n curves fo r specimen type C FT-32-46
Figure 3.50 C y c lic beam -colum n test-setup
Figure 3.51 Photograph o f cyclic beam -colum n test-setup
Figure 3.52 Instrum entation fo r cyclic beam -colum n specimens
Figure 3.53 Loading h isto ry fo r c yclic beam -colum n tests
Figure 3.54 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -32-80-20
C B C -32-80-20
Figure 3.56 L o cal b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f
C B C -32-80-20 at displacem ent levels: (a) 2Ay; (b) 5Ay; (c) 7Ay
Figure 3.57 C oncrete crushing in C B C -32-80-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel
tube; (b) A fte r rem oval o f loose concrete
x v iii
F igure 3.58 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -32-80-10 159
F igure 3.59 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f 159
C BC -32-80-10
F igure 3.60 Local b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f 160
C BC -32-80-10 at displacem ent levels: (a) 2Ay; (b) 7Ay; (c) 7Ay
Figure 3.61 Concrete crushing in C B C -32-80-10: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel 160
F igure 3.62 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f CBC -48-80-20 161
F igure 3.63 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f 161
C BC -48-80-20
Figure 3.64 Local bu cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f 162
C BC-48-80-20 at displacem ent levels: (a) 2Ay; (b) 5Ay; (c) 7Ay
F igure 3.67 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f 163
C BC -48-80-10
Figure 3.68 Local buckling and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f 164
C BC -48-80-10 at displacem ent levels: (a) 2Ay; (b) 5Ay; (c) 7Ay
x ix
C B C -32-46-20
Figure 3.72 L ocal b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f 166
C B C -32-46-20 at displacem ent levels: (a) 2Ay; (b) 7Ay; (c) 8Ay
Figure 3.74 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C B C -32-46-10 167
Figure 3.75 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f 167
C B C -32-46-10
Figure 3.76 L o cal b u cklin g and tension cracking o f the steel tube o f C B C - 168
32-46-10 at displacem ent levels o f; (a) 3Ay; (b) 8Ay; (c) 10Ay
C B C -48-46-20
Figure 3.80 Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube o f C BC -48-46-20 at 170
displacem ent levels o f: (a) 1.5Ay; (b) 5.0Ay
Figure 3.81 C oncrete crushing in C B C -48-46-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel 170
xx
Figure 3.83 Moment-curvature response of the failure segment of 171
C BC -48-46-10
Figure 3.84 Local b u c k lin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f 172
C B C -48-46-10 at displacem ent levels: (a) 1.5Ay; (b) 7Ay; (c) 8Ay
Figure 3.86 D e fin itio n o f curvature d u c tility fo r cyclic beam -colum n 173
specimens
Figure 3.87 Envelope o f c y clic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80- 174
20 and m onotonic m om ent-curvature response o f B C -32-80-20
Figure 3.88 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80-10 174
Figure 3.89 Envelope o f cy c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-80- 175
Figure 3.91 Envelope o f c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-46- 176
Figure 3.93 Envelope o f c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-46- 177
F igure 3.94 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-46-10 177
Figure 3.95 Influence o f c y c lic loading on curvature d u c tility 178
xxi
Figure 3.96 Influence of parameters on cyclic curvature ductility: (a) Axial 179
load level; (b) W idth-to-thickness ra tio ; (c) Steel y ie ld stress
F igure 3.97 Influence o f damage due to c yclic loading on elastic section 180
fle xu ra l stiffness (Ele-d) o f c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith :
(a) nom inal b/t=32; (b) nom inal b/t=48
Figure 3.98 Influence o f parameters on energy dissipation: (a) A x ia l load 181
level; (b) W idth-to-thickness ra tio ; (c) Y ie ld stress o f steel tube
Figure 3.99 A x ia l shortening —lateral displacem ent response o f Specimens: 182
(a) C BC -32-80-10; (b) C BC -32-80-20
Figure 3.100 Permanent axial shortening o f cyclic beam -colum n specimens as 183
a percentage o f the specim en test-length
Figure 3.101 Comparison o f m onotonic and cyclic experim ental results w ith 184
P - M interaction curves fo r specimen type C FT-32-80
Figure 3.102 Comparison o f m onotonic and cyclic experim ental results w ith 184
Figure 3.103 Com parison o f m onotonic and cyclic experim ental results w ith 185
Figure 3.104 Com parison o f m onotonic and cyclic experim ental results w ith 185
Figure 3.105 Com parison o f experim ental and design m om ent —curvature 186
responses and the d e fin itio n o f available curvature d u c tility fo r:
(a) m onotonic; and (b) c y clic beam -colum n specimens
x x ii
Figure 3.106 Influence of parameters on available curvature ductility of cyclic 187
beam -colum n specim ens: (a) A x ia l load leve l; (b) W id th -to -
thickness ratio; (c) Y ie ld stress o f steel tube
Figure 4.1 F E M model fo r stub colum n specimens: (a) Axes o f sym m etry; 232
(b) O verall m odel; (c) Transverse interaction; (d) L o n g itu d in a l
interaction
Figure 4.2 Idealized stress-strain curve fo r steel 233
Figure 4.3 Idealized and experim ental stress-strain curves fo r steel tube o f 233
specimen type C FT-32-80
Figure 4.7 Idealized stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f stub colum n 235
specimens
Figure 4.8 F E M model o f h o llo w steel tube 236
Figure 4.9 P-A responses fro m F E M analysis o f the h o llo w steel tube o f 236
SC-32-80
Figure 4.10 D isplaced shape fro m F E M analysis o f the h o llo w steel tube o f 237
SC-32-80
x x iii
F igure 4.11 F E M m odel o f constrained steel tube 237
Figure 4.12 D isplaced shape fro m F E M analysis o f the constrained h o llo w 238
steel tube o f SC -32-80
Figure 4.13 G eom etric im perfection shape fo r steel tube w alls 238
Figure 4.14 Stress-strain curves fo r high strength concrete: (a) E xpe rim e n ta l, 239
e m pirical, and idealized; (b) Idealized
Figure 4.15 Results fro m p re lim in a ry F E M analysis o f Specimen SC -32-80 240
Figure 4.16 Stress-state o f SC -32-80 at 80% peak load fro m F E M analyses: 241
(a) Opi - contour p lo t; (b) stress-state o f steel tube; (c) a p2 - contour
p lo t; (d) o"P 3 - contour plot; (e) crP 2 - vector plot; (f) c P 3 - vector p lo t
F igure 4.17 Idealization o f concrete in f ill into core and non-core regions 242
Figure 4.18 V a ria tio n o f rCTbland ram w ith 0 242
Figure 4.19 V a ria tio n o f rEbl w ith cQ 243
Figure 4.20 V a ria tio n o f re*1 w ith cQ 243
Figure 4.21 V a ria tio n o f e 'cc-R/£uc and ( e t i ) tnpeak / ( £ i i) umPeakw ith o 7 f'c 244-
Figure 4.22 C onfined and unconfined concrete stress-strain curves 244
Figure 4.23 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith o u t im perfections) o f 245
SC-32-80
Figure 4.24 Stress-state o f SC -32-80 at 92% peak load (post-peak) fro m 245
F E M analysis w ith o u t im perfections
x x iv
Figure 4.25 P-A response from FEM analysis (without imperfections) of 246
SC -48-80
Figure 4.26 Stress-state o f SC-48-80 at 92% peak load (post-peak) from 246
F E M analysis w ith o u t im perfections
Figure 4.27 P -A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith o u t im perfections) o f 247
SC -32-46
F E M analysis w itho u t im perfections
Figure 4.29 P -A response from F E M analysis (w ith o u t im perfections) o f 248
SC -48-46
F E M analysis w itho u t im perfections
F igure 4.31 P -A response from F E M analysis (w ith im perfections) o f 249
SC-32-80
Figure 4.32 L o n g itu d in a l strains in SC -32-80 at 97% peak load (post-peak) 249
fro m F E M analysis w ith im perfections
F E M analysis w ith im perfections
Figure 4.34 P-A response from F E M analysis (w ith im perfection) o f 250
SC -48-80
XXV
Figure 4.35 Stress-state of SC-48-80 at 96% peak load (post-peak) from 251
Figure 4.36 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith Im perfection) o f 251
SC -48-46
Figure 4.38 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith Im perfection) o f 252
SC -32-46
Figure 4.39 F ailure p ro file o f Specimen SC -32-80 253
Figure 4.40 Id e a liza tio n o f stub colum n specimen in to fa ilu re and elastic 254
unloading segments
Figure 4.41 D eterm ining P - A response o f com plete stub colum n specimen 254
fro m the P - As response o f fa ilu re segment obtained fro m FE M
analyses
Figure 4.42 P-A response fro m F E M A nalysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f 255
SC-32-80
Figure 4.43 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-80 at 92% o f the 255
peak load (post-peak)
Figure 4.44 P-A response from FE M analysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f 256
SC-48-80
xx vi
F igure 4.45 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f SC-48-80 at 92% o f the 256
Figure 4.46 P -A response fro m F E M analysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f 257
SC-32-46
Figure 4.47 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-46 at 92% o f the 257
Figure 4.48 P-A response from F E M analysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f 258
SC-48-46
Figure 4.49 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f SC-48-46 at 92% o f the 258
peak-load (post-peak)
Figure 4.50 Results fro m F E M analyses o f SC -32-80 259
Figure 4.51 Results fro m F E M analyses o f SC -48-80 259
F igure 4.52 Results fro m FE M analyses o f SC -32-46 260
Figure 4.53 Results from F E M analyses o f SC -48-46 260
Figure 4.54 F E M m odel fo r m onotonic beam -colum n specimens: (a) O ve ra ll 261
m odel; (b) Transverse inte ractio n ; (c) L o n g itu d in a l interaction
Figure 4.55 Tension stress-strain curve w ith te n sion -stiffe nin g behavior 262
F igure 4.56 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curve fo r high strength concrete 262
F igure 4.57 M om ent - rotation response fro m F E M analyses o f: (a) B C -32- 263
80-40; (b) BC -32-80-20
Figure 4.58 Results from the F E M analyses o f B C -32-80-40 at the last 264
converged point: (a) Lo ng itu d in a l strains; (b) Longitudinal stresses
x x v ii
Figure 4.59 Results from the FEM analyses of BC-32-80-20 at the last 265
converged point: (a) L o ngitudinal strains; (b) Longitudinal stresses
Figure 5.1 Fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent 344
F igure 5.2 M o n oton ic stress-strain behaviors available in D R A IN -2 D X ; 345
(a) type ‘C \ (b) type ‘S’
Figure 5.3 C y c lic stress-strain behaviors available in D R A 1N -2D X ; 346
(a) type ‘C \ (b) type ‘S’
Figure 5.4 Fiber-based m odel o f C FT fa ilu re segment. 347
Figure 5.5 D iscre tiza tio n o f C FT cross-section in to fibers. 347
Figure 5.6 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f CFT-32-80 348
Figure 5.7 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-48-80 348
Figure 5.8 U n ia x ia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-32-46 349
Figure 5.9 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-48-46 349
Figure 5.10 F E M models fo r determ ining fib e r stress-strain curves in 350
com pression
Figure 5.11 F E M m odel o f fa ilu re segment o f C FT colum n specimens 351
Figure 5.12 Idealized u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT 352
specimens
Figure 5.13 G eom etric im perfection fo r steel tube w alls 352
Figure 5.14 U nconfined and confined concrete stress-strain curves 353
Figure 5.15 Id ealization o f concrete in fill in to core and non-core regions 353
Figure 5.16 A x ia l load - shortening response o f CFT-32-80 354
x x v iii
Figure 5.17 Longitudinal stresses in concrete infill and steel tube of 354
C FT-32-80 at 91% o f the post-peak load
Figure 5.18 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w a lls and corners 355
o f C FT-32-80
Figure 5.19 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-32-80 355
Figure 5.20 A x ia l load - shortening response o f C FT-48-80 356
Figure 5.21 L o n g itu d in a l stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f 356
Figure 5.22 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w a lls and com ers 357
o f C FT-48-80
Figure 5.23 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-48-80 357
Figure 5.25 L o n g itu d in a l stresses in concrete in fill and steel tube o f 358
Figure 5.26 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls and com ers 359
o f C FT-32-46
Figure 5.27 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-32-46 359
Figure 5.29 L o n g itu d in a l stresses in concrete in fill and steel tube o f 360
Figure 5.30 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls and com ers 361
o f C FT-48-46
x x ix
Figure 5.31 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-48-46 361
Figure 5.32 N orm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls 362
o f C FT specimens
Figure 5.33 Average effective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f 362
C FT specimens
Figure 5.34 A x ia l load - shortening response fro m F E M analysis o f 363
C FT-32-80 w ith o u t geom etric im perfections
Figure 5.35 L o n g itu d in a l stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f 363
C FT-32-80 at 91% o f post-peak load, fro m F E M analysis
w ith o u t geom etric im perfections
Figure 5.36 E ffe ctive stress-strain curve fo r steel tube o f C FT-32-80, 364
Figure 5.37 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r concrete in fill o f CFT-32-80, 364
Figure 5.38 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT specimens, 365
w ithout geometric im perfections: (a) A ctu a l values; (b) Norm alized
Figure 5.39 Average effective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f CFT 366
specimens, w itho u t geom etric im perfections.
Figure 5.40 F E M M odel o f constrained h o llo w steel tube 366
Figure 5.41 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls and comers o f 367
C FT-32-80, from FE M analysis o f constrained h o llo w steel tube
xxx
Figure 5.42 Displaced shape and longitudinal stresses in steel tube of CFT- 367
32-80 at 99% post-peak load, fro m F E M analysis o f constrained
h o llo w tube
Figure 5.43 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f CFT 368
specimens, fro m F E M analyses o f constrained h o llo w steel tubes
Figure 5.44- N orm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f 368
C F T specimens, from F E M analyses o f constrained h o llo w tubes
Figure 5.45 E ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f C FT 369
specimens w ith a<j =1.25 m m : (a) A ctu a l values; (b) N orm alized
Figure 5.46 FEM -based average effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r concrete 370
in f ill o f C FT specimens w ith ao =1.25 m m
Figure 5.47 C om parison o f FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r 371
steel tube w alls o f CFT-32-80
steel tube w alls o f C FT-48-80
Figure 5.49 C om parison o f FEM-based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r 372
steel tube w alls o f C FT-32-46
steel tube w alls o f CFT-48-46
Figure 5.51 C om parison o f FEM-based average e ffe ctive stress-strain 373
curves fo r the concrete in fill o f C FT-32-80
xxxi
Figure 5.52 C om parison o f FEM -based average e ffective stress-strain 373
curves fo r the concrete in f ill o f C FT-48-80
F igure 5.53 C om parison o f FEM -based average effective stress-strain 374
F igure 5.54 Com parison o f FEM -based average e ffective stress-strain 374
Figure 5.55 Schem atic o f deform ed shapes o f C FT cross-sections: 375
(a) O rig in a l geom etry; (b ) D eform ed shape w ith o u t local
b u cklin g; (c) D eform ed shape w ith local buckling
Figure 5.56 D eform ed shapes o f steel tubes fro m F E M analyses o f 375
C FT-48-80: (a) no local b u cklin g - fro m Section 5.4.1, (b) w ith
local b u cklin g - fro m Section 5.3.2
Figure 5.57 Fiber-based m odel fo r m onotonic beam -colum n specimens 376
Figure 5.58 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel fibers o f the fo u r 376
C FT specimen types
Figure 5.59 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f e ffe ctive lon g itu d in a l stress-strain 377
curves fo r steel tube w a lls and com ers o f C FT-32-80.
Figure 5.60 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f e ffe ctive stress-strain curves 377
fo r steel tube w alls and com ers o f CFT-48-80
Figure 5.61 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f e ffe ctive stress-strain curves 378
fo r steel tube w alls and com ers o f C FT-32-46
x x x ii
F ig u re 5.62 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f e ffe ctive stress-strain curves 378
fo r steel tube w alls and comers o f CFT-48-46
Figure 5.63 U n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r steel fibers o f C FT specimen 379
types: (a) Flange and web fibers; (b) Com er fibers
F igure 5.64 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r 380
layers o f concrete in f ill o f CFT-32-80
F igure 5.65 M u lti-lin e a r id e a liza tio n o f average effective stress-strain 380
curve fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-32-80
F igure 5.66 M om ent-curvature responses fro m prelim inary fiber-analyses o f 381
BC -32-80-20
Figure 5.67 M om ent-curvature responses fro m prelim inary fiber-analyses o f 381
BC -32-80-40
Figure 5.68 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f FEM -based average e ffe ctive stress- 382
strain curves fo r concrete in fills o f C FT specimen types
Figure 5.69 Experim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature responses of 383
BC -32-80-20
Figure 5.70 Experim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature responses of 383
BC -32-80-40
F igure 5.71 Experim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature responses of 384
BC -48-80-20
Figure 5.72 Experim ental and a nalytical m om ent-curvature responses of 384
BC -48-80-40
x x x iii
Figure 5.73 Experimental and analytical moment-curvature responses of 385
B C -32-46-20
Figure 5.74 E xperim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature responses o f 385
B C -3 2-46-40
B C -48-46-20
B C -48-46-22
Figure 5.77 Fiber-based models fo r fa ilu re segment o f c y c lic beam -colum n 387
specimens: (a) O rig in a l m odel; (b) M o d ifie d m odel.
Figure 5.78 A n exam ple cyclic force-deform ation response o f Elem ent 05. 388
Figure 5.79 C yc lic stress-strain behavior fo r steel fib e rs 388
Figure 5.80 C yc lic stress-strain behavior o f concrete fib e rs: Influence o f 3 389
Figure 5.81 E ffe c t o f 3 on cyclic m om ent-curvature response o f 389
C B C -32-80-10
Figure 5.82 Influence o f f c.r on m om ent-curvature response o f 390
C B C -32-80-20
Figure 5.83 Influence o f fc.r on m om ent-curvature response o f 390
C B C -32-80-10
Figure 5.84 C y clic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80-20 391
Figure 5.85 C y clic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80-10 391
x x x iv
Figure 5.86 Influence of fc.r on moment-curvature response of 392
C B C -48-80-20
Figure 5.87 Influence o f fc.r on m om ent-curvature response o f 392
C B C -48-80-10
Figure 5.88 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-80-20 393
Figure 5.90 Influence o f f c-r on m om ent-curvature response o f 394
C B C -32-46-20
C B C -32-46-10
C B C -48-46-20
C B C -48-46-10
F igure 5.97 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-46-10 397
Figure 5.98 A typ ica l com parison o f the experim ental and a nalytical 398
m om ent-curvature response o f a cy c lic beam -colum n specimen
Figure 5.99 C om parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M inte ractio n curves 399
fo r specim en type CFT-32-80
x xx v
Figure 5.100 Comparison of experimental results with P-M interaction curves 399
fo r specim en type C FT-48-80
Figure 5.101 C om parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M interaction curves 400
fo r specim en type C FT-32-46
Figure 5.102 C om parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M interaction curves 400
fo r specim en type CFT-48-46
xxxvi
ABSTRACT
The behavior o f concrete fille d steel tube (C F T ) colum ns made from h ig h strength
m aterials was investigated experim entally and a n a ly tic a lly . The effects o f the w id th -to -
thickness (b /t) ra tio , y ie ld stress (cjy) o f the steel tube, and the axial load le ve l on the
force-deform ation response o f the hig h strength C FT beam-columns w ere studied.
T w enty three-fourth scale CFT specimens, w h ich in clu d e d fo u r stub colum n specimens,
eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens, and e ig h t c y clic beam -colum n specimens
were tested. The experim ental results indicate that th e load capacity o f C FT colum ns is
reached as inelastic behavior o f the steel tube and concrete in f ill is com bined w ith local
b u cklin g o f the steel tube and crushing o f the concrete.
In addition, the experim ental results show that th e a xia l load and m om ent capacity
o f the h ig h strength C FT columns can be predicted w ith reasonable accuracy using the
current A m erican Concrete Institute code p ro visio ns fo r C FT colum ns. C y c lic loading
does not have a sig n ifica n t influence on the stiffne ss o r strength o f C FT beam -colum ns.
H ow ever, it causes a more rapid decrease o f the post-peak moment resistance. The
curvature d u c tility o f the cyclic beam -colum n specim ens (m>-c) decreases s ig n ific a n tly
w ith an increase in the axial load level. A t higher a x ia l load levels, the b /t ra tio and a y
o f the steel tube have a negligible influence on p<j>-c. H ow ever, at low er a xia l load levels
the b /t ratio and cry have a significant influence on p^-c-
Three-dim ensional fin ite element m ethod (F E M ) m odels were developed fo r the
C FT stub colum n specimens and analyzed under a x ia l loading. The results fro m the
FE M analyses com pared favorably w ith the experim ental results and offered sig n ifica n t
insight into the behavior o f square CFT colum ns. T he results from the F E M analyses
1
indicate that the concrete in f ill changes the loca l b u cklin g m ode o f the steel tube,
delaying lo ca l b u cklin g , and the steel tube offers confinem ent to the concrete in fill.
H ow ever, the c o n fin in g forces act p rim a rily fro m the com ers o f the square cross-section
causing tria x ia l com pression in a core region and b ia x ia l com pression in the non-core
region o f the concrete in fill. The steel tube is subjected to tensile hoop stresses, w hich
reduce its lo n g itu d in a l stress capacity.
Fiber-based m odels w ere developed fo r the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
The results fro m the fib e r analyses are governed b y the stress-strain curves fo r the
fibers. Therefore, FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel
and concrete fibers in com pression. These e ffective stress-strain curves im p lic itly
accounted fo r the effects o f lo ca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l stresses in the steel tube, and the
effects o f confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The results fro m the fib e r analyses
com pared fa vo ra bly w ith the experim ental results.
Fiber-based m odels w ere also developed fo r the c yclic beam -colum n specimens.
The results fro m the c y c lic fib e r analyses are governed b y the c y c lic stress-strain
relationships fo r the fibers. The FEM -based effe ctive stress-strain curves w ere used as
the envelopes fo r the c y c lic stress-strain relationships o f the corresponding steel and
concrete fibers. The hysteresis rules fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs w ere based on
some s im p lify in g assum ptions. The results from the c y c lic fib e r analyses compared
fa vo ra b ly w ith the experim ental results. The fiber-based fo rm u la tio n along w ith the
m ethod used to derive the effe ctive stress-strain relationships is recom m ended fo r
m odeling h ig h strength square CFT colum ns fo r the purpose o f co n ducting static o r
dynam ic analysis o f structural fram e systems.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITE COLUMNS
The use o f com posite construction has become m ore widespread in the recent
decades. Com posite structures fo r b u ild in g s often include a steel moment resisting or
braced fram e system w ith steel-concrete com posite colum ns to help control late ral d rift.
In braced fram e systems, the braces m ay also be com posite members. T h is m ethod o f
construction combines the advantages o f both structural steel and concrete, nam ely, the
speed o f construction, strength and lig h t w e ig h t o f steel, and the inherent mass,
stiffness, dam ping, and econom y o f concrete. The steel fram e serves as the erection
fram e to com plete the construction o f the rest o f the structure.
The com posite colum ns m ay be structural steel shapes encased in reinforced
concrete (SRC) colum ns, o r c irc u la r o r rectangular concrete fille d steel tube (C FT)
colum ns as shown in Figure 1.1. SRC colum ns consist o f structural steel shapes
encased in concrete reinforced w ith lo n g itu d in a l bars and transverse stirrups. The
lo n g itu d in a l and transverse reinforcem ent are required to confine the concrete
encasement o f the steel core (R icles and Paboojian 1994). Shear connectors m ay also
be needed to ensure lon g itu d in a l inte ractio n and shear force transfer between the steel
and the concrete. Concrete fille d steel tube (C F T ) colum ns have an advantage over
SRC colum ns because the steel tube serves as fo rm w o rk fo r placing the concrete and
offers some confinem ent to the cured concrete, thus im p ro vin g its d u c tility (V ie s t et al.
1997). A d d itio n a lly , in C FT com posite colum ns, the concrete in f ill delays the local
b u ck lin g o f the rectangular steel tubes and increases the fle x u ra l stiffness o f the colum n.
This enables the inte rsto ry d rift requirements (e.g., N E H R P 1997) to be m et m ore
eco no m ica lly (Zhang and R icles 1996). Since the concrete core is contained and
confined b y the steel tube, transverse interaction between the steel and concrete is
assured (V ie s t et al. 1997). In some cases additional shear connectors m ay be required
to ensure transfer o f shear forces between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
F igure 1.2 shows a photograph o f the Tw o U n io n Square b u ild in g in Seattle, w h ich
is an exam ple o f com posite construction in the early 1990s. T his 58-story 43 x 58 m
o ffic e b u ild in g o f irre g u la r flo o r plan, designed b y the Seattle-based structural
engineering firm S k illin g W ard Magnusson B arkshire In c., u tilize s fo u r m ega-CFT
colum ns (circu la r) as part o f the lateral load resisting system fo r the b u ild in g . The
m ega-CFT colum ns are 3 m in diam eter and fille d w ith 131 M Pa h ig h strength concrete.
Fourteen m ore circ u la r C FT colum ns o f sm aller diam eter are placed along the periphery
o f the b u ild in g to support g ra v ity loads. The steel tubes served as erection fram ew ork
and replaced form s as w e ll as longitudinal and transverse reinforcem ent fo r the h ig h
strength concrete. O ther examples o f this type o f com posite construction include: (1)
the 4 4 -sto ry 34 x 52 m P a cific First Center in Seattle; (2) the 62-story 27 x 52 m
G ateway T ow er in Seattle; (3) the 242 m high M e llo n B ank C enter in Philadelphia; and
(4) the 53-story F irs t B ank Place in M inneapolis.
1.2 HIGH STRENGTH MATERIALS
H ig h strength concrete and steel m aterials have become m ore econom ical and
re a d ily available. T y p ic a l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and hig h strength
concrete are shown in F igure 1.3. H igh strength concrete has greater stiffness and
strength than conventional strength concrete. H ow ever, it is less d u ctile than
conventional strength concrete. In a CFT colum n, the steel tube restrains the vo lu m e tric
d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill thus im proving its com pressive d u c tility . As a result, high
strength concrete can be used m ore e ffe ctive ly in C FT colum ns.
T yp ica l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and high strength h o llo w steel sections
are shown in Figure 1.4. H ig h strength steel has a greater y ie ld ra tio Y R (ratio o f y ie ld -
to -u ltim a te stress) and a sm aller strain d u c tility p.e (ra tio o f stra in at ultim ate stress-to-
y ie ld strain) than conventional strength steel. E xperim ental studies on h o llo w box
colum ns made from h ig h strength steel (R icles et al. 1993) have shown that the o verall
force-deform ation response o f the member is s ig n ific a n tly affected b y loca l b uckling.
C ost-effective designs o f h ig h strength steel b ox colum ns tend to u tiliz e larger w id th -to -
thickness (b /t) ratios than conventional strength steel box colum ns. H ow ever, the use o f
large b /t ratios is lim ite d b y lo ca l buckling effects. The concrete in f ill o f a CFT colum n
w ill delay the local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube and a llo w the use o f h ig h strength steel
C FT colum ns w ith larger b /t ratios.
1.3 CURRENT EXPERIMENTAL DATABASE
Research on C F T colum ns has been conducted in the U .S . and other countries.
The details o f the experim ental and a nalytical investigations conducted b y other
researchers w ill be presented in m ore d e ta il in Chapter 2. G o u rley et al. (1995)
com piled a database sum m a rizin g experim ental techniques, observations, and results
fro m various C FT co lu m n research program s. Aho and Le on (1997) com piled a
com prehensive database o f experim ental studies conducted on com posite colum ns,
in clu d in g C FT colum ns. Figure 1.5 (a) and (b) show the experim ental database
com piled b y A ho and Le on (1997) fo r rectangular CFT colum ns. It is apparent that
previous research has focused p rim a rily on conventional strength m aterials w ith
concrete strength ( f 'c) betw een 20 and 52 M P a and steel tube y ie ld stress (<ry) between
276 and 449 M Pa. C u rre n tly, there is a lack o f experim ental data on the behavior o f
rectangular C FT colum ns made fro m h ig h strength steel (cry > 552 M Pa) and high
strength concrete ( f c > 1 0 4 M Pa) subjected to combined a x ia l and m onotonic o r cyclic
fle xu ra l loading.
O w ing to this la ck o f know ledge, the current code p ro visio n s in m ost countries
severely re strict the use o f high strength steel and concrete in C FT colum ns. The
current A m erican In s titu te o f Steel C onstruction —Load and Resistance Factor D esign
(A IS C -L R F D 1993) specifications lim it cry to 380 MPa and f ' c to 55 M Pa. The current
A m erican Concrete In s titu te (A C I 1995) provisions lim it oy to 414 M Pa.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
To broaden the know ledge base, a research program that focussed on the behavior
o f hig h strength square C FT colum ns was conducted. This research program was part
o f the U.S.-Japan C ooperative Earthquake Research Program : Phase V - Composite and
H y b rid structures (“ Sum m ary” 1995). The research program is described in this
dissertation.
The objectives o f th is research program are as fo llo w s:
(1) To experim entally investigate the behavior o f square C FT colum ns made from high
strength m aterials and subjected to axial loading (stub colum ns), com bined axial
and m onotonic fle x u ra l loading (m onotonic beam -colum ns), and com bined axial
and c y c lic a lly applied fle x u ra l loading (cyclic beam -colum ns), respectively.
(2 ) To study the influence o f m aterial and geom etric parameters and the level o f axial
load due to g ra v ity on the perform ance o f h ig h strength square C FT columns
subjected to a x ia l loading, com bined axial and m ono to n ic fle x u ra l loading, and
com bined a xia l and c y c lic a lly applied fle xu ra l loading, respectively.
(3 ) To develop a n alytica l m odels that provide insig h t into the b e havior o f high strength
square C FT colum ns.
(4) To develop a n alytica l m odels fo r high strength square C FT beam -colum ns that can
be used w ith nonlinear inelastic structural analysis program s.
1.5 R ESEA R C H SCOPE
To accom plish these objectives, tw e n ty three-fourth scale C FT specimens were
tested. The CFT specimens were fabricated from co m m e rc ia lly available high strength
m aterials and square steel tubes. The C FT specimens w ere c o m p le te ly fille d w ith high
strength concrete and d id not use shear connectors (between th e steel tube and concrete
in fill) , o r re in fo rcin g bars, and had the entire cross-section (b o th steel and concrete
m aterials) sim ultaneously subjected to a xia l load. O n ly n o n-p ro p ortio n a l com bined
axial and u n ia xial fle x u ra l loading conditions were considered (i.e ., constant axial
loading w ith increasing u n ia xial fle xu ral loading).
The m aterial and geom etric parameters included in th is research program were the
yie ld stress (a y) and the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the ste e l tube. The influence o f
the a xia l load level on the m onotonic and cyclic behavior o f the C FT beam -colum n
specimens was also investigated.
The CFT specimens were 305 m m square steel tubes fille d w ith high strength (104
M Pa) concrete. The steel tubes had nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 o r 48 and were made from
A500 Grade-B (317 M Pa) o r A500 Grade-80 (552 M Pa) m a te ria l. Four stub colum n
specimens, eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens (a x ia l lo a d levels equal to 20% or
40% o f the axial load capacity), and eight cyclic beam -colum n specimens (axial load
levels equal to 10% o r 20% o f the axial load capacity) were tested.
Three-dim ensional fin ite element m ethod (FE M ) m odels were developed fo r the
CFT stub colum n specimens. The FE M models were developed and the analyses were
conducted using A B A Q U S V ersion 5.8 (AB AQ U S 1998a, b). The FEM models
accounted fo r the effects o f lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube and transverse interaction
between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
Fiber-based m odels were developed fo r the m onotonic and c y c lic C FT beam-
colum n specimens. The fiber-based m odels were developed and analyzed using
D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993). FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were
developed fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression. The FEM -based e ffective
stress-strain curves im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f loca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l
stresses in the steel tube, and the effects o f confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
1.6 DISSERTATION OUTLINE
The relevant details o f the experim ental and an alytica l investigations conducted by
other researchers on square C FT colum ns are presented in C hapter 2. Chapter 2 also
presents some o f the relevant current code provisions fo r square CFT colum ns.
A d d itio n a lly , background that is relevant fo r developing the F E M models and fib e r-
based m odels fo r the h ig h strength CFT specimens is sum m arized.
Chapter 3 presents the results from the experim ental investigations o f h ig h strength
square C FT colum n specimens. The te st-m a trix along w ith the measured dim ensions
and m aterial properties fo r the CFT specimens are presented firs t. Then, the
experim ental behavior o f the stub colum n specimens, m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens, and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens are presented. The influence o f the
m aterial and geom etric properties and the a xia l load le ve l on the stiffness, strength, and
d u c tility o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens are presented. In C hapter 3, the influence
o f c y c lic loa d ing conditions on the force-deform ation response o f C FT beam-columns is
also presented. Based on the comparisons o f the experim ental results w ith sim ple
stiffness and strength p re dictio n methods, design recom m endations fo r high strength
square C F T colum ns are proposed.
C hapter 4 presents three-dim ensional (3 -D ) fin ite elem ent m ethod (FE M ) models
that w ere developed fo r the CFT specimens. These 3-D F E M m odels were developed
and analyzed using A B A Q U S V ersion 5.8 (A B A Q U S 1998 a, b) to develop insight into
the b e ha vio r o f the h ig h strength square C FT colum n specim ens. The FE M models
accounted fo r the effects o f lo ca l buckling o f the steel tube, confinem ent o f the concrete
in fill, and com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The
developm ent o f the F E M m odels and the results fro m the F E M analysis o f the CFT stub
colum n specimens is presented. FEM models w ere also developed fo r the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens b u t the FEM analyses could n o t be com pleted. Some o f the
d iffic u ltie s encountered in the FE M analysis o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens are
sum m arized in C hapter 4.
C hapter 5 presents the fiber-based models and analyses o f the fa ilu re segments o f
the C FT beam -colum n specimens. Fiber-based m odels w ere developed fo r the failure
segment o f each C FT beam -colum n specimen and analyzed using the nonlinear inelastic
structural analysis program D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993). The accuracy o f the
fiber-based m odels is governed b y the accuracy o f the u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r
the steel and concrete fibers o f the CFT cross-section. Therefore, FEM -based effective
u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel and concrete
fibers o f the C FT cross-section. These stress-strain curves im p lic itly account fo r the
10
effects o f lo ca l b u c k lin g and b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and the effects o f
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The general approach fo r developing the FEM-based
e ffective u n ia xia l stress-strain curves in com pression, the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves
fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens, and the influence
o f the m aterial and geom etric parameters on these u n ia xia l stress-strain curves are
presented in C hapter 5. The results fro m the fib e r analyses o f the m onotonic and cyclic
beam -colum n specimens along w ith a c ritic a l evaluation o f the fiber-based models and
analyses is also presented.
F in a lly, a sum m ary and the conclusions o f the experim ental and analytical
investigations and recomm endations fo r fixture w o rk are presented in Chapter 6.
11
(a) Structural Steel Shape (b) Circular Concrete Filled (c) Rectangular Concrete
Encased in Reinforced Tube (CFT) Filled Tube (CFT)
Concrete
Figure 1.1 C olum ns used in com posite construction
3 m d ia m eter
m e g a -C F T
columns
G ra v ity columns
(c irc u la r C F T s )
Figure 1.2 T w o U n io n Square b u ild in g in Seattle
550.0
High Strength Concrete
412.5
cs
Cm
2
s ’ 275.0
u
137.5 * Conventional Strength Concrete
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 1.3 T y p ic a l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and high strength concrete
825.0
High Strength Steel
687.5-
550.0-
Stress (M P a )
Conventional Strength Steel

412.5-
275.0-
137.5-
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Figure 1.4 T y p ic a l stress-strain curves fo r conventional and h ig h strength h o llo w

steel sections
13
(a) (b)
80r 80 r
1
70 i- 70;
11 Beam-Columns (303) i | Beam-Columns (303) jj
t
)i | ^ Columns (100) jj
! 1 Columns (100)
i
No. of Tests
f
1
S
C#
50fs
i i
H i
's 40r i
... 1
— -
1
10
1 1 ! i. 11 i i
0 CS —. O CN OO
t'; o
o
^
2
co (n - o c* oo r-* vo ‘'I
co in oi c\ «ri n* c( o 2 o
^
o
^*> m — m
ccn w->
oo un
to
CN Cn un
so o
CN
r-- co
CNC' ‘J c n r r ^ f ' V > v © ' O C -*00 0 0 © \O
Steel T u b e Y ie ld Stress (M P a )
C oncrete C rushing Strength (M P a )
Figure 1.5 Frequency d istrib u tio n s o f the concrete strength and steel tube y ie ld
stress fo r the e xistin g rectangular C FT database, Aho and Leon (1997)
14
CHAPTER 2. PRIOR RESEARCH ON SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
A sign ifica nt am ount o f research has been conducted in the U.S. and in other
countries on square C FT colum ns. H ow ever, m ost o f the research has focused on the
behavior o f CFT colum ns made from conventional strength m aterials. In C hapter 2,
some o f the relevant experim ental investigations o f square C FT colum ns are presented
in Section 2.1. R elevant analytical investigations o f square C FT colum ns are presented
in Section 2.2. The current code provisions fo r square C FT colum ns are presented in
Section 2.3. E m pirical stress-strain relationships fo r high strength concrete, that are
needed fo r analytical models o f high strength C FT colum n, are presented in Section 2.4.
2.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
A sig n ifica n t amount o f research has been conducted on square C FT colum ns. One
o f the earliest U.S. C FT colum n studies was reported by Furlong (1967, 1968), who
conducted m onotonic load tests on both c ircu la r and rectangular C FT colum ns. The
rectangular CFT colum ns had w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratios ranging from 26 to 48,
length-to-w idth (1/b) ratios ranging from 7 to 9, concrete com pressive strengths ( f 'c)
ranging from 23 to 45 MPa, and steel tube y ie ld stress (a y) ranging from 330 to 480
M Pa. Furlong concluded that the concrete in f ill delays the local b u cklin g o f the steel
tube. H ow ever, no increase in concrete strength due to confinem ent by the steel tube
was observed. The studies conducted by F urlong form the basis o f some o f the current
15
design guidelines in the U.S.
T o m ii and Sakino (1979a) conducted m onotonic load tests on rectangular CFT
beam -colum n specimens w ith b /t ratios ranging fro m 23 to 45, <7y ra n gin g fro m 194 to
339 M Pa, and f ' c ranging fro m 19 to 39 M Pa. The influence o f the a xia l load level on
the behavior o f C FT beam -colum n specimens was also investigated. The experim ental
m om ent-curvature relationships o f the beam -colum n specimens and the influence o f
various parameters on th e ir behavior w ere reported. The experim ental results indicate
that increasing the axial load level o r the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube decreases the d u c tility
o f the beam -colum n specimens. A n a ly tic a l equations to estimate the m om ent capacity
o f the C FT cross-sections were also developed.
Sakino and T o m ii (1981) conducted c y c lic load tests on square C FT beam -colum n
specimens w ith b /t ratios ranging from 23 to 45, cy ranging from 194 to 339 M Pa, and
f ' c ranging from 19 to 39 M Pa. The m ain parameters o f the research were the b /t ratio,
the a xia l load level, and the shear span ra tio o f the beam -colum n specim ens. The cyclic
lateral load — lateral displacem ent responses o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens were
reported. The influence o f various parameters on the lateral load — lateral displacem ent
response was also reported. The experim ental results indicate that increasing the axial
load level o r b /t ratio decreases the d u c tility o f the c y c lic a lly loaded beam -colum n
specimens.
E xperim ental studies on rectangular C FT colum ns subjected to d iffe re n t loading
conditions have also been conducted b y K now les and Park (1969), B rid g e (1976),
S h a k ir-K h a lil and M o u li (1990), L u and Kennedy (1994), and Zhang and Shahrooz
16
(1997). G ourley e t al. (1995) com piled a database sum m arizing experim ental
techniques, observations and results from various C FT colum n research program s. Aho
and Leon (1997) co m p ile d a com prehensive database o f experim ental studies conducted
on com posite colum ns, in clu d in g C FT colum ns. Figures 1.5 (a) and 1.5 (b) show the
experim ental database com piled by A ho and Leon (1997) fo r rectangular C FT columns.
I t is apparent that previous research has focused p rim a rily on conventional strength
m aterials w ith f ' c between 20 and 52 M Pa and cry between 276 and 449 M Pa.
Research interest in the perform ance o f high strength C FT colum ns has increased
recently. Researchers in Japan (Ichinohe et al. 1991; F u jim o to et al. 1995; Nakahara
and Sakino 1998), U .S . (E l-R e m a ily et al. 1997), and o th e r countries (P rion et al. 1989;
C ederw all et al. 1990; O'Shea and B ridge 1997; K ilp a tric k and Rangan 1999) have
conducted studies on high strength C FT colum ns. H ow ever, m ost o f this research has
focused on c irc u la r C FT colum ns, and either co n ce n trica lly o r e ccentrically a xia lly
loaded rectangular C F T colum ns.
Cederwall et al. (1990) conducted experim ental investigations on C FT columns
w ith b /t ratios va ryin g fro m 15 to 24, f ' c varying fro m 39 to 103 M Pa, <7y va ryin g from
305 to 440 MPa. Eighteen slender colum ns w ith va ryin g degrees o f e cce n tricity were
tested to evaluate the influence o f m aterial and geom etric parameters on the behavior.
E xperim ental results indicated that the concrete strength had a sig n ific a n t influence on
the d u c tility o f the C F T colum ns. Increasing the thickness o r y ie ld stress o f the steel
tube increased the strength o f the C FT colum ns.
Nakahara and Sakino (1998) conducted experim ental investigations on square CFT
beam -colum ns made fro m high strength m aterials. The C F T specimens had nom inal b/t
17
ratios varying fro m 32 to 64, f ' c equal to 119 M Pa, and <ry va rying fro m 310 to 781
M Pa. M onotonic beam -colum n tests at axial load levels o f 20% and 40% o f the a xia l
load capacity were conducted on the C F T specimens. The results fro m the experim ental
investigations indicated that increasing the axial load level and the b /t ratio o f the steel
tube reduced the d u c tility o f the beam -colum n specimens d rastically. Sakino and
Nakahara (2000) also proposed an analytical method to predict the m om ent capacity o f
high strength C FT beam -colum ns.
2.1.1 COMPOSITE ACTION IN CFT COLUMNS
The lon g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the concrete in fill o f a C FT
colum n has been investigated by several researchers in clu d in g V ird i and D o w lin g
(1980), S h a kir-K h a lil (1991a, 1993a, b), M o rish ita and T o m ii (1982), and Roeder et al.
(1999). These studies indicate that the bond strength increases w ith the roughness o f
the steel at the steel - concrete interface. The bond strength does not change when
shear connectors are used, and the shear connectors contribute to the load ca rryin g
m echanism o n ly a fte r slip has occurred. The bond strength fo r square CFTs is sm aller
than the bond strength fo r circu la r CFTs. The concrete com pressive strength does not
have a consistent effe ct on the bond strength.
Roeder et al. (1999) com piled numerous bond strength test results from previous
researchers, in clu d in g 104 circu la r and 49 square C FT bond tests, and com bined them
w ith th e ir own experim ental results. These studies indicate that the bond strength
decreases d ra m a tica lly as the w idth (b) o r the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio increases.
18
The w id th o f the C FT colum n has a sig n ifica n t influence on the shrinkage o f the
concrete in fill, w hich makes it an im portant param eter fo r bond strength. A lin e a r
regression analysis was perform ed using a ll the experim ental results. The results from
the regression analysis are as fo llo w s :
Tbond = 2 .3 1 4 -0 .0 1 9 5 (b /t) (2.1)
Tbond-2a = 2 .109 - 0.026 (b /t) (2.2)
In Equations (2.1) and (2.2), Tbond is the average bond strength in M Pa and
Tbond-2 cr is equal to the bond strength (in M Pa) tw o standard deviations below Tbond-
These equations are recommended fo r design.
2.2 ANALYTICAL RESEARCH ON SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
A n a ly tic a l investigations o f square and rectangular CFT colum ns have been
conducted by several researchers. The analytical m odels that have been developed and
used in these a nalytical investigations can be placed in fo u r general categories:
1) Three-dim ensional (3-D ) fin ite elem ent m ethod (F E M ) models fo r C FT colum ns
2) C oncentrated-plasticity based FE M m odels fo r C FT colum ns
3) D istrib u te d -p la sticity based FE M models fo r C FT colum ns
4) Fiber-based models fo r C FT cross-sections
The 3-D F E M models o f a x ia lly loaded CFT colum ns were developed to study th e ir
behavior, to conduct param etric studies, and to develop design guidelines. The
concentrated o r d istrib u te d -p la sticity based F E M m odels o f C FT colum ns were
19
developed w ith in the fram ew ork o f inelastic structural analysis program s. The fib e r-
based models o f the C FT cross-sections were developed to study the m om ent -
curvature behavior and to conduct param etric studies. The relevant details o f these
an alytica l investigation are presented below .
2.2.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3-D) FINITE ELEMENT METHOD (FEM)
MODELS
3-D F E M analysis o f C FT colum ns has been conducted b y Yonezawa et al. (1996),
H . S h a k ir-K h a lil and A . Al-R aw adan (1997), S chneider (1998) and Shams and
Saadeghvaziri (1999). The firs t tw o studies were lim ite d to the m odels o f specific
experim ental results and the models were used to investigate the influence o f various
parameters on the behavior o f C FT colum ns. The la tte r tw o studies were m ore general,
and are described below .
S c h n e id e r (1 9 9 8 )
3-D FEM m odels were developed fo r c irc u la r C FT colum ns made from
conventional strength m aterials and analyzed under a xia l com pression using A B A Q U S
(A B A Q U S 1994) by Schneider (1998). The concrete in f ill was m odeled using 20-node
b ric k elements. The ‘C O N C R E TE ’ m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S w ith its default
ca lib ra tio n was used fo r the concrete elements. The post-peak portion o f the uniaxial
stress-strain curve fo r the concrete m aterial was calibrated to experim ental results. The
steel tube was m odeled using 8-node shell elements. A m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel w ith
20
the V on M ises y ie ld crite rio n , no strain hardening, and the Prandtl-Reuss flo w rule was
used fo r the steel elements. The transverse inte ractio n between the steel tube and the
concrete in f ill was m odeled using interface o r gap elements. The longitudinal bond
between the steel tube and concrete in f ill was not e x p lic itly modeled. However, a
fric tio n c o e fficie n t o f 0.25 was used fo r contact between the steel and concrete
elem ents. The F E M models were validated b y com paring the results from the FE M
analyses w ith experim ental results reported by Ito (1990) and Masada (1990).
The validated 3-D F E M models were used in analytical investigations o f circu la r
C FT colum ns. The influence o f the steel tube diam eter-to-thickness (D /t) ratio on the
behavior o f large diam eter circu la r C FT colum ns made fro m steel tubes w ith <ry equal to
317 M Pa, and f ' c equal to 31 M Pa was investigated. C ircu la r CFTs o f three d iffe re n t
diam eters (120 mm, 360 mm, 720 m m ) and D /t ratios va rying fro m 10 to 85 were
analyzed. The results fro m the analytical investigations indicated that larger diam eter
c irc u la r CFTs could not develop the y ie ld load o f the steel tube in the longitudinal
d ire ctio n due to b ia xia l stress effects. The sm aller diam eter c irc u la r CFTs offered better
confinem ent to the concrete in fill. Schneider (1998) found that the A IS C -LR FD (1993)
provisions provided conservative predictions o f the axial load capacity o f circula r CFT
colum ns.
S h a m s a n d S a a d e g h v a z iri (1 9 9 9 )
3-D F E M models were developed fo r c irc u la r and square C FT colum ns made from
conventional strength m aterials and analyzed under axial com pression by Shams and
Saadeghvaziri (1999). The concrete in fill was m odeled by 3-D so lid elements. The
21
fracture-energy based P ram ano-W illiam s m odel was used fo r the concrete elements.
The Pram ano-W illiam s model was calibrated to predict the behavior o f conventional
strength concrete (20.7 to 41.4 M Pa) subjected to tria x ia l com pression loading
conditions. The steel tube was m odeled w ith isoparam etric shell elem ents. The FE M
m odel o f the steel tube accounted fo r the lo ca l buckling o f the steel tube. A p la sticity
based m u ltia x ia l constitutive model w ith the V on Mhses y ie ld crite rio n , w ith o u t strain
hardening, and w ith the associated flo w ru le was used fo r the steel elem ents. The
transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill was m odeled by
u n ia xia l gap-contact elements. The lon g itu d in a l interaction between the steel tube and
the concrete in fill due to bond o r fric tio n was not modeled. The 3-D F E M models were
validated by com paring the results from the F E M analyses w ith experim ental results fo r
a x ia lly loaded circular and square C FT colum ns reported by T o m ii et al. (1977).
The validated 3-D FE M m odel was used to study the behavior o f a x ia lly loaded
c irc u la r and square C FT colum ns and to perform param etric studies. The results from
the F E M analyses offered sign ifica nt in sig h t in to the transverse inte ractio n and load
transfer mechanism in circu la r and square C F T colum ns. The ra d ia lly u n ifo rm concrete
confinem ent o f circular C FT colum ns and the variation in the concrete confinem ent
over the square CFT cross-sections was investigated. The param etric study included a
w ide range o f w idth-to-thickness ratios (10 to 100), concrete strengths (13.8 to 62
M Pa), length-to-w idth ratios (4 to 25) and steel y ie ld stresses (276 to 414 M Pa). The
results fro m the FEM analyses indicated that steel tubes w ith sm aller D /t ratios offered
better confinem ent to the concrete in fill. The reduction in the steel lo n g itu d in a l stress
capacity due to biaxial stress effects was found more sign ifica nt at larger D /t ratios.
22
The results o f the param etric study were used to develop analytica l expressions fo r the
e ffe ctive stress-strain behavior o f the steel and concrete m aterials o f the C FT cross-
section. These a n a lytica l expressions can be used to p re d ict the a xia l load capacity o f
a x ia lly loaded C FT colum ns made fro m conventional strength m aterials.
2.2.2 CONCENTRATED-PLASTICITY BASED FEM MODEL FOR CFT
COLUMNS
H a jja r et al. (1996, 1997a, and 1997b) developed a concentrated-plasticity based
3-D cy c lic nonlinear F E M m odel fo r square C FT colum ns. The m odel was incorporated
in to a com puter program that can be used fo r conducting m onotonic, cyclic, o r dynam ic
analysis o f fram e structures w ith C F T colum ns. The fin ite elem ent program uses the
d ire ct stiffness approach and an increm ental updated Lagrangian fo rm u la tio n . The 3-D
c y c lic nonlinear fin ite elem ent fo r the C FT colum n consisted o f a 12 degree-of-freedom
elastic beam fin ite elem ent w ith concentrated plastic hinges at the elem ent ends.
Standard H erm etian shape functions were used to obtain transverse displacem ents along
the length o f the elastic beam fin ite elem ent. The elem ent stiffness m a trix consisted o f
elem ent elastic, geom etric, and plastic reduction m atrices.
The cyclic n o nlinear behavior o f the concentrated p la stic hinges at the elem ent ends
governs the inelastic behavior o f the fin ite elem ent m odel. The cyc lic nonlinear
behavior o f the concentrated p la stic hinges was m odeled by using a tw o-surface
bounding surface m odel in three-dim ensional stress-resultant space (axial load-m ajor
axis bending-m inor axis bending). Strength and stiffness degradation due to cy c lic
23
loading conditions w ere m odeled by kinem atic hardening and iso tro p ic hardening o r
softening o f the bounding surfaces in stress-resultant space.
The bounding surfaces in stress-resultant space were developed by fittin g
p o lyn o m ia l equations to the cross-section strengths o f C F T colum ns that were
determ ined fro m extensive fib e r analyses. The fib e r analyses used e m p iric a lly derived
e ffe ctive u n ia xial stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers. The
e ffe ctive un ia xial stress-strain curve fo r the steel fibers was assumed to be elastic —
p la stic (i.e., the strain hardening po rtion o f the m aterial stress-strain curve was
neglected to account fo r the effects o f local buckling and b ia xia l stress conditions on the
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain behavior o f the steel tube). The e ffe c tiv e u n ia xia l stress-strain
curves recomm ended b y T o m ii and Sakino (1979a, b) were used fo r the concrete fibers.
The p olynom ial equations fo r the bounding surfaces were va lid a te d using experim ental
results reported by T o m ii and Sakino (1979a, b) and Furlong (1967, 1968).
The kinem atic hardening and isotropic hardening o r so fte n in g behavior o f the
bounding surfaces under c y c lic loading conditions required extensive ca lib ra tion w ith
experim ental results. The c y clic nonlinear fin ite elem ent m odel was calibrated w ith
experim ental results reported by Sakino and T o m ii (1981), B rid g e (1976), T o m ii and
Sakino (1979a), C ederw all et al. (1990), and S h a kir-K h a lil (1991b). Therefore, the
calibrated fin ite elem ent models were lim ite d to conventional strength m aterials w ith f ' c
va ryin g from 20 to 35 M Pa and Gy equal to 317 MPa. The w idth-to-thickness ratios
were less than 50. The calibrated fin ite element m odels were v e rifie d against
experim ental results reported by Sakino and T o m ii (1981), S h a k ir-K h a lil and Zegiche
(1989) and M o rin o et al. (1993).

24
2.2.3 DISTRIBUTED-PLASTICITY BASED FEM MODEL FOR CFT
COLUMNS
H a jja r et al. (1998a, b) have developed a 3-D d istrib u te d -p la sticity based F E M
m odel fo r C FT colum ns under cyclic loading. The m odel accounts fo r the effects o f
geom etric and m aterial nonlinearity on the behavior o f C F T colum ns. The m odel is
suited fo r studying the force-deform ation behavior o f C FT colum ns as part o f com posite
frames subjected to m onotonic and c y clic loading conditions, and fo r conducting
param etric studies o f in d iv id u a l CFT colum ns.
The distrib u te d p la s tic ity model was developed using a stiffness-based beam-
colum n fin ite elem ent form ulation. The m odel uses several fin ite elements along the
length o f a C FT beam -colum n. The ends o f each fin ite elem ent are discretized in to a
g rid o f fibers and the stress-strain behavior o f the steel and concrete fibers are e x p lic itly
m onitored during the loading history. The cross-sectional stiffness at the elem ent ends
are obtained b y num erical integration over the fibers and interpolation functions are
used to integrate along the elem ent length. Steel and concrete constitutive form ulations
account fo r m aterial nonlinearity under c y c lic loading. The steel constitutive
fo rm u la tio n accounts fo r the cyclic behavior o f cold-form ed h o llo w steel tubes made
fro m conventional strength materials. The concrete constitutive form ulation accounts
fo r the strength and stiffness degradation o f conventional strength concrete, the e ffe ct o f
confinem ent, and c yc lic loading on the concrete core. This m odel also accounts fo r slip
between the steel and concrete surfaces o f the C FT colum n. The slip was modeled by a
25
nonlinear slip interface that accounts fo r the gradual transfer o f stress between steel and
concrete and can capture behavior ranging fro m perfect bond to p e rfe ct slip .
The effects o f loca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l stress conditions in the steel tube were not
accounted fo r e x p lic itly . The concrete constitutive m odel was calibrated to experim ental
results reported by T o m ii and Sakino (1979a). The calibrated fin ite elem ent m odel was
v e rifie d against experim ental results reported by B ridge (1976), S h a k ir-K h a lil (1991b),
and Sakino and T o m ii (1981). The calibrated and ve rifie d d istrib u te d plasticity-based
fin ite elem ent m odel is lim ite d to square C FT colum ns made fro m conventional strength
m aterials.
2.2.4 FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR CFT CROSS-SECTIONS
Fiber-based models fo r square C FT cross-sections have been developed by several
researchers (T o m ii and Sakino 1979a, b; H a jja r and G ourley 1996; M o rin o et al. 1995;
In a i and Sakino 1996; and Zhang and Shahrooz 1997). The fiber-based models were
used fo r developing m om ent - curvature responses, and axial load - bending mom ent
interaction curves, and fo r conducting param etric studies on square C FT beam-columns.
The accuracy o f the fiber-based models depends on the accuracy o f the stress-strain
curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. T y p ic a lly , these
stress-strain curves were developed by ca lib ra ting the fiber-based models w ith
experim ental results. Zhang and Shahrooz (1997) sum m arize the stress-strain curves
developed by T o m ii and Sakino (1979 b), Inai and Sakino (1996), and M o rin o et al.
(1995).
26
T o m ii a n d S a k in o (1 9 7 9 b )
U sing the results o f th e ir experim ental study (T o m ii and Sakino 1979a), T o m ii and
Sakino (1979b) developed fiber-based m odels fo r square C FT beam -colum ns. The
stress-strain curves fo r the steel fibers were assumed to be elastic-plastic. The strain
hardening p o rtio n o f the m aterial stress-strain curve was neglected to account fo r the
effects o f local b u cklin g and b ia xia l stress conditions on the lon g itu d in a l stresses in the
steel tube. The stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fib e rs were developed by ca lib ra tin g
the fiber-based models w ith the experim entally measured m om ent — curvature
responses. Thus, the stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers im p lic itly accounted fo r
the effects o f the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The confined concrete stress-strain
curves proposed by T o m ii and Sakino (1979b) accounted fo r the effects o f the w id th -to -
thickness ra tio on the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. H ow ever, the effects o f the
steel tube y ie ld stress and a x ia l load level on the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill were
not e x p lic itly accounted fo r.
The stress-strain curves proposed by T o m ii and Sakino were used by several
researchers in clu d in g Zhang and Shahrooz (1997), and H a jja r and G ourley (1996).
These stress-strain curves were found to compare fa vo ra b ly w ith experim ental results
fo r C FT beam -colum ns made fro m conventional strength m aterials.
I n a i a n d S a k in o (1 9 9 6 )
Inai and Sakino (1996) used experim ental results from a x ia lly loaded square C FT
colum ns to develop e m p irica l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f
square C FT cross-sections. The em pirical stress-strain curves im p lic itly account fo r the
27
effects o f loca l bucklin g in the steel tube and the effects o f confinem ent in the concrete
in fill. These em pirical stress-strain curves can be used fo r conventional as w e ll as high
strength m aterials. Zhang and Shahrooz (1997) found the stress-strain curves proposed
by In a i and Sakino (1996) to be too conservative fo r C FT colum ns made fro m
conventional strength m aterials.
2.3 CURRENT CODE PROVISIONS FOR SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
C urrent code provisions were developed based on the e xistin g experim ental
database fo r C FT colum ns made fro m conventional strength m aterials. The fo llo w in g
code provisions are relevant: A m erican Institute o f Steel C onstruction - Load and
Resistance Factor Design (A IS C -L R F D 1993), Am erican Concrete Institute (A C I
1995), A rch ite ctu ra l Institute o f Japan (A U 1987), and Eurocode 4 (EC 4 1996). These
code provisions specify b /t lim its fo r the steel tubes o f C FT com posite colum ns as w e ll
as procedures fo r predicting the axial load capacity and m om ent capacity o f CFT
colum ns. These provisions and procedures are discussed in the fo llo w in g sub-sections.
2.3.1 TUBE WALL SLENDERNESS LIMITS
The A IS C -L R F D and A C I provisions lim it the b /t ratio o f the steel tube o f a CFT
colum n as shown in Equation (2.3). The b /t ratio lim its o f the EC 4 and A U provisions
can be s im p lifie d to Equations (2.4) and (2.5), respectively.
28
In Equations (2.3), (2.4), and (2.5), Es and a y are the Y oung’ s modulus and y ie ld stress
o f the steel in M Pa, respectively. In Equations (2.4) and (2.5) Es is assumed as 200
GPa.
The elastic b u cklin g stress (crc) fo r a rectangular plate subjected to uniform uniaxial
compression is given as (Galambos 1998):
In Equation (2.6), k is a buckling coe fficien t determ ined by the plate aspect (length-to-
w idth) ratio and boundary conditions along the edges, and v is Poisson’s ratio (0.3 fo r
steel). W hen the length-to-w idth ratio is large (i.e., the plate is long) k depends o n ly on
the boundary conditions fo r the longitudinal edges (parallel to the direction o f
compressive loading), and has a value o f 4.0 fo r sim p ly supported edges, and 6.97 fo r
fixe d edges (G alam bos 1998).
Equation (2.6) indicates that ctc fo r a long rectangular plate w ill be equal to cry, if:
fo r sim ply supported longitudinal edges (2.7)
29
6.30 E
or, for fixed longitudinal edges (2.8)
t y Gy
In this case, the com pression stress is lim ite d by y ie ld in g rather than plate b u cklin g . A
com parison o f Equations (2.5) and (2.8) im plies that the A U provisions assume nearly
fix e d conditions along the edges o f the tube w alls (at the com ers) o f a C FT colum n.
The adjacent sides o f h o llo w square tubes do not restrain each other when local
b u cklin g develops. One side buckles inw ards w h ile the adjacent side buckles outw ards.
Thus, sim p ly supported edge conditions (k = 4.0) are reasonable fo r estim ating crc
(Tim oshenko and Gere 1961). The concrete in f ill o f a C FT mem ber prevents inw ard
b u cklin g o f the tube w alls. A ll fo u r sides o f the tube buckle outwards and the com ers o f
the tube do not rotate. Thus, fix e d edge boundary conditions (k = 6.97) are reasonable
fo r estim ating o c o f the steel tube in a C FT. The A IS C -LR F D , A C I and E C 4 provisions
do not re fle ct this change in b u cklin g mode due to the presence o f the concrete in fill.
2.3.2 A X IA L L O A D C A P A C IT Y
The current code provisions assume that a x ia lly loaded C FT stub colum ns, w hich
sa tisfy the specified b /t lim it, w ill develop com plete p la stifica tio n o f the com posite
cross section at the peak load. As a result, the a xia l load capacity o f a C FT stub colum n
is estim ated by superposition o f the y ie ld strength o f the steel tube w ith the com pressive
strength o f the concrete in fill.
The A IS C -L R F D , A C I and A IJ provisions use a reduction factor o f 0.85 fo r the
strength o f the concrete in f ill ( f 'c), w hich results in Equation (2.9). The E C 4 provisions
30
do not use a reduction factor, w hich results in Equation (2.10). The 0.85 fa cto r is used
by A IS C -LR F D , A C I and A U provisions to account fo r the e ffe ct o f size and curing
conditions. The EC 4 provisions o m it this 0.85 fa cto r because o f the c o n fin in g effe ct o f
the tube (Goode and Narayanan 1997).
P85 = A s <Ty + 0.85 f ' c A c (2.9)
Pioo = A s (Jy + f /c A c (2.10)
In Equations (2.9)and (2.10) Pss and Pioo are the a xia l load capacity, A s is the area
o f steel tube,A c is the area o f concrete in fill, and f 'c is equal to the com pressive strength
o f the concrete.
2.3.3 BENDING MOMENT CAPACITY
The A IS C -L R F D provisions assume that the m om ent capacity o f a C FT beam-
colum n can be predicted using the fo llo w in g interaction form ulae that were developed
fo r standard steel cross sections:
P P 8M
F o r —^ > 0 . 2 ; -2 - + H-=1.0 (2.11)
P85 P85 9 M „
P P M
F o r —^ < 0 . 2 ; = i.o (2.12)
P85 ^“ P 85 M n
In Equations (2.11) and (2.12), Pu and M u are the a xia l and m om ent capacities,
respectively, d e fin in g the axial load — bending mom ent (P -M ) interaction curve fo r the
C FT cross section. Pgs is the axial load capacity (at zero bending m om ent) from
Equation (2.9). M n is the m om ent capacity (at zero axial load), and is determ ined from
31
a p la stic stress d istrib u tio n on the com posite cross section in accordance w ith several
assum ptions as fo llo w s.
The firs t o f these assumptions is that when Pu = 0, no com posite action is assumed
to occur and M n is determ ined fro m a plastic stress d istrib u tio n on the steel section
alone (M p). Secondly, when Pu > 0.3Pgs, fu ll com posite action is assumed to occur and
M n is determ ined from a plastic stress d istrib u tio n on the com posite cross section.
W hen 0 < Pu < 0.3P85, M n is determ ined as a straight lin e transition between the m om ent
capacity determ ined from a plastic stress d istrib u tio n on the com posite cross section at
Pu = 0.3Pg5 and M p at Pu = 0. Figure 2.1 (a) shows an A IS C -LR F D predicted P -M
interaction curve fo r a C FT cross-section along w ith the details o f the provisions.
The A C I provisions fo r C FT beam -colum ns assume that the m om ent capacity o f a
C FT cross section can be predicted based on the same assumptions that are used fo r
o rd in a ry reinforced concrete colum ns. Plane sections are assumed to rem ain plane and
the m om ent capacity is assumed to be reached at an extreme concrete com pression fib e r
strain (ec) o f 0.003. Figure 2.1 (a) also shows an A C I predicted P -M interaction curve
fo r a C F T cross-section.
The A U provisions fo r C FT beam -colum ns assume that the steel tube and the
concrete in f ill develop th e ir in d ivid u a l plastic strengths, and that the m om ent capacity
o f the C F T cross section can be predicted by superposition o f these strengths. The A U
provisions do not e x p lic itly account fo r c o m p a tib ility between the steel and the
concrete. As a result, in the calculation o f strength, the steel tube and concrete in fill
may have d iffe re n t neutral axis positions. The P -M interaction curve fo r the C F T cross
section is obtained as fo llo w s:

32
W hen 0 < Pu < UN C
Pa = N c and M u = M p + Me (2.13)
W hen Pu > UN C
p u = UN C+ N s and M U= M S (2.14)
In Equations (2.13) and (2.14) Pu and M u are the a xial and m omentcapacities,
respectively, d e fin in g the P -M interaction o f the C FT cross section. UN Cis the axial load
capacity o f the concrete core when it not subjected to any m om ent (UN C= 0.85 f ' c A c).
M p is the plastic m om ent capacity (at zero axial load) o f the steel tube. N c and Me are
the a xia l load and m om ent, respectively, resisted by the concrete core. N s and M s are
the a xia l load and m oment, respectively, resisted by the steel tube.
Me, corresponding to N c, is calculated using A U provisions fo r reinforced concrete
cross-sections, w hich utilize s the stress-block method. M s, corresponding to N s, is
calculated fro m a plastic stress d istrib u tio n on the steel tube, assum ing local b u cklin g
does not occur. Figure 2.1 (b) shows the A U predicted P -M interaction curve fo r a C FT
cross-section.
The EC 4 provisions fo r C FT beam -colum ns assume that the m om ent capacity o f a
C FT cross section can be determ ined fro m a plastic stress d istrib u tio n on the com posite
cross section w h ile assuming c o m p a tib ility between the steel and concrete. The EC4
provisions assume rig id -p la stic m aterial properties fo r the steel and the concrete. The
EC 4 C FT cross-section P -M interaction curve is obtained by jo in in g fo u r points B , D ,
C, and A on the capacity interaction curve by straight lin e segments as shown in Figure
2.1 (c). The axial load and bending m om ent capacities C?u and M u, respectively)
d e fin in g the fo u r points are calculated by the EC 4 provisions. P oint A corresponds to

33
the pure axial load capacity (M u = 0) and is determ ined b y Equation (2.10). P o in t B
corresponds to the pure bending m om ent capacity (Pu= 0 ). P o int D corresponds to a
com bined a xia l load and bending m om ent capacity that results in the plastic neutral axis
being located at the centroid o f the cross section. P oint C corresponds to a com bined
a xia l load and bending moment capacity that results in the same M u as p o in t B .
2.4 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS FOR HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
T h is section presents two e m p irica l stress-strain relationships fo r high strength
concrete. The C FT colum ns in this research program were fille d w ith high strength
(104 M Pa) concrete. The em pirical stress-strain relationships are used later in C hapter
4 to establish the idealized uniaxial stress-strain curve fo r the high strength concrete
used in the research program .
C o llin s a n d P o ras z (1 9 8 9 )
T horenfeldt, Tom aszewicz and Jensen (1987) proposed an e m p irica l c -E
relationship fo r high strength concrete. The e m p irica l expressions were fu rth e r
enhanced by C o llin s and Porasz (1989), and are presented below :
n
ct = f 'cx x- (2.15)
ûc r \ nk
e
n —1+
E c = 3 3 2 0 7 f\T + 6900 (2.16)
34
(2.17)
f'
n = I.O h— - (2.18)
17
I f g < euc ; k = 1.0 (2.19)
I f e > 8UC; k = 0 .6 7 + — (2 .20 )
In Equations (2.15) to (2.20) cr, 8, Ec, f 'c, euc, n, and k are the stress in MPa, strain,
in itia l slope (e la s tic ity m odulus) in M Pa, peak stress in M Pa, strain at peak stress, pre
peak curve exponent factor, and post-peak curve exponent factor, respectively. These
em pirical equations are s im ila r to the equations proposed by Popovics (1973), w ith the
exception o f the post-peak curve exponent factor (k ). C o llin s and Porasz (1989)
proposed this factor, w hich attempts to m odel the more ra p id ly descending post-peak
behavior o f hig h strength concrete. H ow ever, the use o f the post-peak curve exponent
fa cto r results in a slope d isco n tin u ity at the peak stress. Figure 2.2 shows an example
stress-strain curve fo r 110 M Pa high strength concrete developed using the model
proposed by C o llin s and Porasz (1989).
O h a n d S ause (2 0 0 1 )
Oh and Sause (2001) also developed em pirical expressions fo r the stress-strain
relationship o f concrete. T h e ir expressions assume a lin e a r elastic response up to 0.3 f 'c
fo llo w e d by a nonlinear exponential ascending branch up to the peak stress ( f 'c) and a
nonlinear exponential post-peak descending branch. These expressions use d iffe re nt
exponents fo r the ascending and descending branches o f the stress-strain curve but
35
m aintain slope c o n tin u ity at the peak stress. Equations (2.21) to (2.28) present the
e m pirical equations.
or = E c 8 0<£<£r (2 .21)
a = 0 .3 f' + 0 .7 f' x — — — X- p < p< p

c o — c — C uc (2 .22)
P —P
° ac o
ra _ 1 +
^ nr
P —P
/■
C7= f'cx x- 8 > 8 uc (2.23)

ûc r \
ra = (2.24)
ûc
rd = (2.25)
f'
E „ ^
e0 = 0 . 3 f 'c / E c (2.26)
E c = 3 3 2 0 7 ^ 7 + 6900 (2.27)
17.0 + f '
P
C UC
—- (2.28)
In Equations (2.21) to (2.28) cr, e, Ec, f ' c, £uc, £o, ra, and rd are the stress in MPa,
strain, in itia l slope (e la sticity m odulus) in MPa, peak stress in MPa, strain at peak stress,
strain at the stress o f 0.3 f 'c, exponent fo r ascending branch, and exponent fo r
descending branch, respectively. Figure 2.2 shows an example stress-strain curve fo r
110 M Pa high strength concrete developed using the m odel proposed b y Oh and Sause
36
(2001). The e m p irica l stress-strain relationship proposed by Oh and Sause (2001)
models the ra p id post-peak unloading o f high strength concrete w h ile m a in ta in in g slope
co n tin u ity at the peak stress.
As shown in Figure 2.2, the tw o e m p irica l stress-strain m odels are n e arly identical
up to peak stress ( f 'c). The em pirical stress-strain model by C o llin s and Porasz (1989)
unloads m ore ra p id ly in the post-peak p ortion o f the stress-strain response.
37
o 8M
J H — = 1 .0
M n: full composite a ctio n ''
.2 0.3 P 85 .t )
x ■+■ M n: lin e arly decreases fro m
< 0.2 P,85 fu ll compositeâcfion to M p
M = M
Moment Capacity, Mu
M =M , (b)
851
a.
«
U
■aa P =N
0 N - curve
-J
A I J C F T P -M curve
N c- M c curve
1
Moment Capacity, M,
(C)
KD A
*100
*3
ce
Q.
« A : A x ia l L oad C ap a city (P 100)
u 1
1 \
B : M o m en t C ap acity (P u=0) 1
es 1
o 1
-3 C : In term ed ia te point same M u as B 1
1
1 ^>» D
D : N e u tra l axis a t plastic centroid o f 1
'x 1
< composite section
1
1
1
1 .—
B l^ ^
Moment Capacity, Mu
Figure 2.1 A x ia l load - bending m om ent (P -M ) inte ractio n curves fo r CFT
beam -colum ns: (a) A IS C -LR F D and A C I; (b) A IJ ; and (c) EC 4 Provisions
38
127.5-
110.0-
O h and Sause (2001)

Stress (M P a )
87.5-
Colllns and Porasz (1989)

55.0-
27.5-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
S train (m m /m m )
F igure 2.2 E m p irica l stress-strain relationships fo r h ig h strength concrete
39
CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF HIGH
3.1 SYNOPSIS
The behavior o f high strength square C FT colum ns was experim entally
investigated. The influence o f the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ra tio and y ie ld stress o f the
steel tube and the level o f axia l lo a d on the stiffness, strength, and d u c tility o f the C FT
beam -colum n specimens was evaluated. The results fro m the experim ental
investigations are presented in d e ta il in this chapter. The experim ental investigations
were conducted in collaboration w ith H u ll (1998) and Ream (2000). A d d itio n a l details
o f the components o f the test-setup, the instrum entation layout, and the observed
experim ental behavior are reported in H u ll (1998) and Ream (2000).
The CFT specimens were 305 m m square tubes w ith n om inal w idth-to-thickness
(b /t) ratios o f 32 o r 48, made fro m either A 500 Grade-B (n om inal y ie ld stress equal to
317 M Pa) or A 500 Grade-80 (n o m in a l y ie ld stress equal to 552 M Pa) steel, and fille d
w ith high strength (nom inal strength equal to 104 M Pa) concrete. The test-m atrix fo r
the experim ental research program is presented in Section 3.2. The C FT specimens
were tested under a xia l loading (stub colum n specimens), com bined constant axial load
and m onotonically increasing fle x u ra l loading (m onotonic beam -colum n specimens),
and com bined constant axial lo a d and c y c lic fle xu ra l loading (c y c lic beam -colum n
40
specim ens). F our stub colum n specimens, eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens,
and e ig h t c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were tested.
The experim ental behavior o f the stub colum n specimens and the evaluation o f the
experim ental results are presented in Section 3.3. The experim ental behavior o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens, the evaluation o f the experim ental results, and
com parisons w ith predictions based on the current code pro visio ns are presented in
S ection 3.4. The experim ental behavior o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens, the
e va lu a tio n o f the experim ental results, and com parisons w ith predictions based on the
current code provisions are presented in Section 3.5. S ection 3.6 presents a sum m ary
and the conclusions o f the experim ental investigations. Section 3.7 presents the design
recom m endations fo r h ig h strength square C FT colum ns that w ere developed based on
the experim ental investigations.
3.2 TEST-MATRIX AND MEASURED MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.2.1 TEST MATRIX
The dim ensions o f the high strength CFT test-specim ens were based on the base
colum ns o f the perim eter m om ent-resisting frames o f a 6 -s to ry C FT m om ent-resisting-
fram e b u ild in g designed b y M uhum m ud et al. (2001). The structural layo u t and site-
co n ditio n s fo r the 6 -sto ry C FT m om ent-resisting-fram e b u ild in g were based on the
“ open C FT” theme structure o f the U.S.-Japan research program (“ Sum m ary” 1995).
F ig u re 3.1 shows the structural flo o r plan fo r the 6-story b u ild in g . The b u ild in g has six
41
bays in the east-west d ire ctio n and fiv e bays in the north-south d irection. The lateral
force resisting system o f the b u ild in g includes tw o perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram es
in each d ire ctio n . Figure 3.2 shows the elevations o f the perim eter m om ent-resisting-
fram es in the east-west and north-south directions. As shown in Figure 3.2, the firs t
flo o r o f the b u ild in g has a height o f 4.6 m, w h ile the rem aining stories have a height o f
3.6 m . A ll e xte rio r colum ns, except the com er colum ns, were fix e d at the base. The
co m e r colum ns w ere pinned in the north-south d ire ctio n .
The b u ild in g was assumed to be located in Los Angeles, C a lifo rn ia , w ith a Seism ic
Use G ro u p -I, S o il P ro file T ype-D , and Seism ic Perform ance C ategory-D . The
fundam ental periods in the north-south and east-west directions were estim ated as 2.19
and 2.15 seconds, respectively. The fundam ental periods were based on C FT cracked
transform ed section properties and the rig id end zones were ignored at a ll jo in ts . 5%
viscous dam ping was assumed in the design o f the b u ild in g .
The dead, liv e , and w in d loading conditions fo r the 6-story b u ild in g were estim ated
using A S C E 7-95 Standards (A S C E 7 1995). D esign earthquake loading conditions fo r
the b u ild in g were determ ined fro m the Inte rn a tio na l B u ild in g Code (IB C 2000)
p ro visio ns. The b u ild in g was designed fo r the load com binations specified in A S C E 7-
95 Standards (A S C E 7 1995). U nder earthquake loading conditions, the perim eter
fram es w ere designed as special m om ent-resisting-fram es w ith a response m o d ifica tio n
fa c to r (R ) equal to 8 and a displacem ent m o d ific a tio n factor (Cd) equal to 5.5 (IB C
2000). The steel beams were designed using the current A IS C -L R F D provisions
(A IS C -L R F D 1993). The C FT colum ns were designed using the current A C I
42
pro visio ns (A C I 1995). The design o f the C FT colum ns was controlled b y the seism ic
d rift c rite ria in the IB C provisions, (M uhum m ud et al. 2001).
F igure 3.2 shows the members designed fo r the perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram es
in the east-west and north-south directions. The steel (y ie ld stress equal 345 MPa)
beam sizes are shown using the standard notation fo r steel beams ro lle d in the U.S.
(A IS C -L R F D 1993). The CFT colum ns o f the perim eter mom ent resisting frames are
405 x 405 x 14 m m steel tubes (y ie ld stress equal to 552 M Pa) fille d w ith 55 M Pa
concrete.
The h ig h strength CFT test-specim ens were designed to be three-fourth scale
m odels o f the base colum ns o f the perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram es o f the 6-story
C FT b u ild in g . Therefore, the h ig h strength C FT test-specimens were 305 m m square
steel tubes fille d w ith high strength concrete.
The hig h strength CFT test-specimens were made from com m ercially available
hig h strength steel tubes and h ig h strength concrete. As noted previously, the m aterial
and geom etric parameters included in the research program were the y ie ld stress and
w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube. The CFT specimens were 305 mm
square steel tubes fille d w ith high strength (104 M Pa) concrete. The tubes were made
fro m e ith er conventional strength (A 500 G rade-B; nom inal yie ld stress equal to 317
M Pa (46 k s i)) o r high strength (A 500 Grade-80; nom inal yie ld stress equal to 552 M Pa
(80 k s i)) steel, w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 o r 48. Thus, there were fo u r CFT specimen
types, nam ely, C FT-32-46, C FT-48-46, C FT-32-80, and CFT-48-80, where the firs t
num ber represents the nom inal b /t ratio and the second num ber represents the nom inal
y ie ld stress o f the steel tube in ksi.

43
The b /t lim its fo r the steel tubes o f CFT colum ns according to the current code
p rovisions (A IS C -LR F D , A C I, ALT, EC4) were presented in C hapter 2. These b /t lim its
applied to the fo u r C FT specim en types are shown in Table 3.1. C FT specimens w ith
nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 sa tisfy the b /t lim its o f a ll the code p ro visio ns. C FT specimens
w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 48 vio la te the b /t lim its o f a ll the code p rovisions, except
specimens made fro m A 500 G rade-B steel w h ich do not vio la te the b /t lim it according
to the ALT provisions.
The fo u r CFT specimen types were tested under a xia l loa d ing conditions (stub
colum n specimens), com bined constant a xial load and m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle x u ra l
loading conditions (m onotonic beam -colum n specim ens), and com bined constant axial
load and c y c lic a lly v a ry in g fle x u ra l loading conditions (c y c lic beam -colum n
specim ens). The influence o f a xia l load le ve l on the b ehavior o f beam -colum n
specimens was also investigated. The m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were tested
under an a xia l load o f either 20% o r 40% o f the a xia l load capacity. The results from
the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens indicated ve ry lo w d u c tility at the h ig h e r a xial
load le ve l o f 40%. A d d itio n a lly , the base colum ns o f m om ent-resisting-fram es are
subjected to m axim um a xia l load levels o f 10% to 17% o f the a x ia l load capacity (Ream
2000). Therefore, the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were tested under an a x ia l load
le ve l o f either 10% o r 20% o f the a xia l load capacity.
Table 3.2 shows the test m a trix along w ith the nom inal dim ensions and a x ia l load
levels fo r the specimens. In Table 3.2, P/PQ is the ratio o f the m axim um applied axial
load to experim ental a xia l load capacity (PQ) o f the corresponding stub colum ns. The
nom enclature used to id e n tify the specimens in Table 3.2 (e.g., S C -32-80, B C -32-80-20,
44
C B C -32-80-20) consists o f the specimen type (SC represents a stub colum n, BC
represents a m onotonic beam -colum n, CBC represents a c y c lic beam -colum n), the
nom inal b /t ratio, the nom inal y ie ld stress o f steel tube in ksi, and the nom inal axial load
le ve l as a percentage o f a xia l load capacity. The same specim en nom enclature is used
to id e n tify the test-specim ens in th is and the rem aining chapters. The test-length o f the
stub colum n specimens was equal to fo u r tim es the w id th (b) o f the cross-section. The
test-length o f the m o n oton ic beam -colum n specimens was equal to fiv e tim es the w idth
(b) o f the cross-section. The test-length o f the cyclic beam -colum n specimens was
s lig h tly less than fiv e tim es the w id th (b) o f the cross-section. The experim ental test-
setups and test-procedures fo r the stub colum n, m onotonic beam -colum n, and cyclic
beam -colum n specimens w ill be presented later.
3.2.1.1 Fabrication of Test Specimens
B u ll Moose Tube C om pany fabricated the 305 m m square steel tubes from A500
G rade-B and A 500 Grade-80 steel coils, w hich were provided b y Lukens Steel. The
steel tubes were m anufactured b y the Form Square-W eld Square process, w hich is
com pliant w ith the A S T M A 500 standards fo r m anufacturing h o llo w structural sections
(A S T M A500 1997). Figure 3.3 shows the tube fabrication process. The steel coils
w ere cut to the appropriate w id th and then driven through ro lle rs to progressively form
the com ers o f the square cross-section. The open square cross-section was seam
w elded. A fte r w e ld in g , the steel tube was allow ed to cool and then ro lle d again to
produce the fin a l shape. F in a lly , the steel tube was saw cut to the required length. For
each C FT specimen type, fo u r steel tubes o f length equal to 4 m and one steel tube o f
45
length equal to 1.2 m were fabricated. The lengths fo r the steel tubes were based on the
test-setups fo r conducting the stub colum n, m onotonic beam -colum n, and c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens, w hich w ill be presented later.
The fabricated steel tubes were fille d w ith high strength (104 M Pa) concrete at a
construction yard in Chicago, Illin o is . The high strength concrete was provided b y
P rairie M a te ria l o f Chicago, a firm that com m ercially produces concrete w ith
com pressive strengths equal to o r greater than 104 M Pa. A ll the steel tubes w ere fille d
w ith h ig h strength concrete fro m the same batch m ix. The concrete had a slum p o f 230
m m , w hich is in com pliance w ith A S T M C31 Standards (A S T M C31 1997). A s shown
in Figure 3.4, the steel tubes w ere v e rtic a lly oriented (orientation checked w ith a plum b
lin e ), and braced to a te m p o rarily erected scaffolding. The concrete was placed in the
steel tube in three lifts . A fte r each lift, the placed concrete was vibrated w ith an electric
vib ra to r. T w e n ty concrete cylinders (150 x 300 m m ) were also cast in plastic cylin d e r
m olds. These concrete cylinders were used to determ ine the com pressive strength o f
the cured concrete. A fte r three days o f curing in Chicago, the cast C FT specimens were
ca re fu lly shipped on a flatbed tru ck to Lehigh U n ive rsity, where they were cured fo r
110 days before the test program began.
3.2.2 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.2.2.1 Steel Material Properties
U n ia x ia l tension tests were conducted on tension coupons that were cut and
m achined fro m the sides o f the steel tubes o f the fo u r C FT specim en types. A ll the CFT
46
specimens o f the same type were m ade fro m steel tubes from the same heat. Thus, there
were fo u r steel tube types corresponding to the fo u r C FT specim en types. S ix tension
coupons were cut and m achined fro m the sides o f each steel tube type. Figures 3.5
through 3.8 shows the locations o f th e tension coupons in the square cross-section. The
gage-length o f the tension coupons was equal to 200 mm. The u n ia x ia l tension tests
were conducted according to A S T M Standards (A S T M E8 1997).
The measured un ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f C FT-32-80, C FT-
48-80, CFT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figures 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8,
respectively. Table 3.3 sum m arizes the average measured m aterial properties fo r the
steel tubes o f the CFT specimens th a t were estimated using the s ix measured uniaxial
stress-strain curves fo r each steel tube. In Table 3.3, tm, Es, Es_h, <ry, cju, Y R , sy, and pE
are the measured tube thickness, m odulus o f e la sticity, m odulus at onset o f strain
hardening, 0.2% offset y ie ld stress, u ltim ate stress, y ie ld -to -u ltim a te stress (CTy/a u) ratio,
y ie ld strain, and ratio o f strain a t ultim ate stress-to-yield stra in (stra in d u c tility ),
respectively. For each nom inal tube w a ll thickness, the higher strength steel has a
larger yie ld ratio (Y R ) and sm aller strain d u c tility (p.E), w hich im p lie s that the high
strength steel has less strain hardening and inelastic deform ation capacity than the
conventional strength steel.
A sign ifica nt variation in the experim entally measured u n ia xia l stress-strain curves
around the perim eter o f the square cross-section was observed fo r steel tubes w ith a
nom inal b /t ratio o f 32, especially fo r the steel tube used fo r C FT -32-46 specimens.
This va riation was alm ost n e g lig ib le fo r steel tubes w ith a nom inal b /t ratio o f 48. The
47
residual stresses and strains in the steel tubes o f the C FT specimens were not m easured
e xperim entally. The reason fo r the va ria tio n in the e xperim entally measured u n ia x ia l
stress-strain curves around the perim eter o f the square cross-section is not know n.
H ow ever, th is v a ria tio n m ay have been caused b y the fo llo w in g :
• S traightening o f o rig in a l curvature o f the steel co ils.
• F a b rica tio n o f the steel tube.
• R em oval and fa b ricatio n process o f the u n ia xia l tension coupons.
The C FT beam -colum n specimens w ere subjected to com bined a xia l and fle x u ra l
loading conditio n s. The C FT cross-sections o f the beam -colum n specimens were
oriented in such a w ay that the w elded side was one o f the webs. Therefore, the
u n ia xia l stress-strain behavior o f the flanges (i.e ., coupons (D and (D in Figure 3.5) had
a greater influ e n ce on the m om ent capacity o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens.
Table 3.4 summarizes the average m aterial properties fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT
specimens th a t were estim ated using the measured stress-strain curves fo r o n ly the
flange tension coupons (coupons © and (D). In Table 3.4, o y r , cru_f, ey.f, pE.f are the
yie ld stress, u ltim a te stress, y ie ld strain, and strain d u c tility estim ated using the
measured u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r the flanges only. The steel tube m anufacturer,
B u ll M oose Tube Com pany, had also provided m ill-re p o rte d values o f the yie ld (c ry-m)
and u ltim a te (cru-m) stresses fo r the steel tube m aterials o f the fo u r CFT specim en types.
These a y.m and cru.m values are also shown in Table 3.4. The y ie ld stresses fo r the steel
tubes o f the fo u r C FT specimen types show n in Tables 3.3 and 3.4 indicate that:
48
• The steel tubes o f C FT-32-80 have an average y ie ld stress (cry) that is 7.0% less
than the m ill-re p o rte d y ie ld stress (a y_m), 1.5% greater than the nom inal yie ld stress
(552 M P a), and 6.5% less than the average y ie ld stress fo r the flanges (a y.f)
• The steel tubes o f C FT-48-80 have an average y ie ld stress (a y) that is equal to the
m ill-re p o rte d y ie ld stress (<Jy-m), 19.5% greater than the nom in a l y ie ld stress (552
M Pa), and equal to the average yield stress fo r the flanges (a y.f).
• The steel tubes o f C FT-32-46 have an average y ie ld stress (ay) that is 21% less than
the m ill-re p o rte d y ie ld stress (a y.m), 18% less than the nom inal y ie ld stress (317
M P a), and 3.9% less than the average yie ld stress fo r the flanges (a y.f).
• The steel tubes o f C FT-48-46 have an average y ie ld stress (a y) that is 23% greater
than the m ill-re p o rte d y ie ld stress (a y.m), 49% greater than the nom inal yie ld stress
(317 M Pa), and equal to the average yie ld stress fo r the flanges (a y.f).
3.2.2.2 Concrete Material Properties
U n ia x ia l com pression tests were conducted on 150 x 300 m m concrete cylinders
that were cast along w ith the C FT specimens and cured in closed plastic molds. The
concrete cylinders w ere tested at 7, 14, 28, 56, 90 and 110 days a fte r casting. Concrete
cylinders w ere also cured in a lim estone bath and tested in u n ia x ia l compression after
28 days. The u n ia x ia l com pression tests were conducted according to A S T M C39
Standards (A S T M C39 1997). The high strength concrete cylinders had a nearly linear
49
stress-strain response up to the peak compressive stress. A t the peak, a b rittle and
explosive fa ilu re o f the concrete cylinders occurred.
Figure 3.9 shows the va ria tio n o f the peak com pressive stress (strength) o f the
concrete cylinders w ith respect to the tim e and curing conditions. The high strength
concrete cylinders achieved a peak compressive stress (strength) o f approxim ately 110
M Pa at 14 days. The com pressive strength did not seem to be influenced sig n ifica n tly
by the cu rin g tim e o r conditions. The 28 day average compressive strength o f the
concrete cylinders cured in a lim estone bath was equal to 110 MPa.
A d d itio n a lly , concrete cylinders were cored fro m an untested C FT specimen and
tested under u n ia xial com pression at the tim e when the stub colum n and m onotonic
beam -colum n tests were conducted (approxim ately 110 days a fte r casting). The
experim ental results fro m the com pression tests o f the cored concrete cylinders are
sum m arized in Table 3.5. In Table 3.5 Ec, f'c, and euc, are equal to the m odulus o f
e la sticity, the peak com pressive stress, and the strain at fa ilu re , respectively. The
average values o f Ec, f 'c, and euc, were equal to 42 GPa, 110 M Pa, and 0.00269,
respectively.
Figure 3.10 shows the measured stress-strain responses fo r the cored concrete
cylinders. The stress-strain response was alm ost linear up to the peak stress (f'c), where
a b rittle and explosive fa ilu re o f the concrete cylinders occurred. The post-peak portion
o f the stress-strain response co u ld not be measured. The uniaxial com pression tests
were conducted in a 2670 kN -capacity test machine and the stiffness o f the machine
50
m ay have been inadequate to measure the post-peak stress-strain response o f the high
strength concrete cylinders.
Concrete cylinders were also cored fro m an untested C FT specimen and tested
under u n ia xia l com pression at the tim e when the c y c lic beam -colum n tests were
conducted (approxim ately 36 m onths a fte r casting). The average com pressive strength
o f the concrete cylinders was equal to 110 M Pa.
The average values o f f 'c, Ec, and £uc, equal to 110 M Pa, 42 GPa, and 0.00269,
respectively, were consistently observed fo r the high strength concrete in fills o f a ll the
C F T specimens.
3.2.2.3 Test matrix with measured dimensions and material properties
Table 3.6 summarizes the test m a trix fo r the experim ental program along w ith the
measured dim ensions and m aterial properties.
3.3 STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS
As noted previously, fo u r stub colum n specimens were tested. The relevant
m aterial and geom etric properties and the nom enclature used to id e n tify the stub
colum n specimens were presented in Section 3.2 and are sum m arized in Table 3.6. The
stub colum n specimens were subjected to m o n to n ica lly increasing axial com pression
using the test-setup described in Section 3.3.1. The experim ental results and the
behavior o f the stub colum n specimens are presented in Section 3.3.2. A n evaluation o f
the experim ental results fro m the stub colum n specimens, and com parisons w ith sim ple
51
strength and stiffness p re d ictio n methods are presented in S ection 3.3.3.
3.3.1 STUB COLUMN TEST-SETUP AND INSTRUMENTATION LAYOUT
The stub colum n specimens were tested in the 22,250 k N universal testing m achine
in F ritz lab o ra to ry at Le hig h U niversity, using the test-setup show n in Figure 3.11. A
fix e d head co n fig u ra tio n was u tilize d during testing to constrain the ro ta tio n o f the ends
o f the specim en. H ydrostone was placed betw een the ends o f the stub colum n
specimens and the platens o f the test machine to fa c ilita te a u n ifo rm load d istrib u tio n
over the cross section o f the specimen. A photograph o f the stub colum n test-setup is
show n in F igure 3.12.
Figure 3.11 shows the instrum entation layout fo r the stub colum n specimens. The
a xia l shortening o f the stub colum n specimens was measured over 300 m m gage-lengths
using lin e a r va riable d iffe re n tia l transducers (L V D T s ). The o ve ra ll a xia l shortening o f
the stub colum n specimens was also measured using a strin g pot. A s shown in Figure
3.11, lo n g itu d in a l strain gages were bonded to the steel tubes o f the stub colum n
specimens at sections A , B , and C. These strain gages were used to measure the
lo n g itu d in a l strains in the steel tubes at d iffe re n t locations along the height. The axial
load was measured using the 22,250 kN universal testing m achine load cell. As
m entioned p re vio u sly, additional details o f the com ponents o f the test-setup and the
instrum entation layout are provided in H u ll (1998).
The stub colum n specimens were tested under load co n tro l at a rate o f 225
kN /m in u te u n til fa ilu re . Failure was defined as a sudden o r abrupt loss in axial load
52
capacity due to extensive local b u cklin g o f the steel tube and concrete crushing. The
test was continued under displacem ent co n tro l at a rate o f 1.25 m m /m inute after failure
had occurred.
Proper alignm ent o f the a xia l load w ith respect to the stub colum n specimens was
v e rifie d b y m o n ito rin g the increm ental lon gitudinal strains in the steel tube as the axial
load was increased up to 40% o f the expected axial load capacity. The alignm ent o f a
stub colum n specim en was considered satisfactory o n ly i f the increm ental longitudinal
strains varied b y less than 5% o f the average increm ental lo n g itu d in a l strain in the steel
tube.
3.3.2 EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOR OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS
The relevant m aterial and geom etric properties and the nom enclature used to
id e n tify each stub colum n specimen were presented in Section 3.2 and are summarized
in Table 3.6. The a xia l load — displacem ent response o f each stub colum n specimen is
presented along w ith a b rie f description o f the experim ental behavior. The significant
events that occurred d uring each stub colum n test are indicated on the a xia l load —
displacem ent responses and used in the discussion o f the experim ental behavior.
S C -3 2 -8 0
The a xia l load-displacem ent (P-A) response o f SC-32-80 is shown in Figure 3.13.
The P-A response was nearly lin e a r up to the peak a xial load (P0). Concrete crushing
53
was heard at an a x ia l load o f 0.90 P0. The corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete
(calculated using the a xia l shortening measured b y the L V D T s ) was 0.93 euc, where suc
is the average fa ilu re strain fo r the concrete cylinders (see Section 3.2.2). A t PQ the
steel tube yielded in compression, that is, the average lo n g itu d in a l strain in the steel
tube (measured b y the com er longitudinal strain gages) w as equal to the u n ia xia l y ie ld
strain (sy) o f the steel tube (Table 3.3). A fte r reaching P0 the specimen a xia l load
resistance decreased gradually w ith increasing axial displacem ents due to loca l b u cklin g
o f the steel tube and crushing o f the concrete in fill. T h e specim en unloaded g radually
to 0.92 P0, at w h ich p o in t failure occurred due to extensive lo ca l b u cklin g and concrete
crushing, and the specimen unloaded a b ru p tly to 0.70 P 0- The average lo n g itu d in a l
strain in the steel tube (measured b y the com er strain gages) at the fa ilu re load (0.92 P0)
was equal to 1.34 sy. The corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete (calculated using
the a xia l shortening measured b y the L V D T s ) was 1.34 suc. The test was continued
under displacem ent co n tro l after failure and the stub co lu m n m aintained its residual
axial load resistance w ith increasing a xia l displacem ents. A photograph o f Specimen
SC-32-80 after testing was completed is shown in Figure 3 .1 4 (a).
S C -4 8 -8 0
The axial load-displacem ent (P-A) response o f SC -48-80 is shown in Figure 3.15.
The P-A response was nearly linear up to the peak a x ia l load (P0). In itia l concrete
crushing was heard at an axial load o f 0.91 P0. The corresponding a xia l strain in the
concrete (calculated using the axial shortening measured b y the L V D T s) was equal to
54
0.93 suc. A fte r reaching PQthe specim en a xia l load resistance decreased g ra d u a lly w ith
increasing a x ia l displacem ents due to lo ca l b u c klin g o f the steel tube and cru sh in g o f
the concrete in fill. The specimen unloaded g ra d u a lly to 0.94 P0, at w h ich p o in t fa ilu re
occurred due to extensive loca l b u cklin g and concrete crushing and the specim en
unloaded a b ru p tly to 0.54 P0, before rebounding to 0.63 P0. The average lo n g itu d in a l
strain in the steel tube (measured b y the com er strain gages) at the fa ilu re load (0.92 P0)
was equal to 0.84 sy. The corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete (calculated using
the a xia l shortening measured b y the L V D T s) was equal to 1.43 suc. The test was
continued under displacem ent co n tro l a fte r fa ilu re . A through-thickness lo n g itu d in a l
crack developed in the seam w eld o f the steel tube at an axial displacem ent o f 7.5 m m .
The crack grew lo n g itu d in a lly along the seam w eld w ith increasing a xia l displacem ent.
The crack reached the base o f the steel tube and s p lit the tube open at an a xia l
displacem ent o f 10.0 m m . A photograph o f the Specim en SC-48-80 a fter testing was
com pleted is shown in Figure 3.14 (b). T h is stub colum n specimen reached P0 w h ile
portions o f the steel tube were s till in the elastic range. Elastic local b u cklin g o f the
steel tube m a y have occurred.
S C -3 2 -4 6
The a x ia l load-displacem ent (P-A) response o f SC-32-46 is shown in Figure 3.16.
The P-A response was nearly lin e a r up to the peak a xia l load (P0). A t an a xia l load o f
0.68 P0, the steel tube yielded in com pression, that is, the average lo n g itu d in a l stra in in
the steel tube (measured b y the com er lo n g itu d in a l strain gages) was equal to the
55
u n ia xia l y ie ld stra in (ey) o f the steel tube (T able 3.3). A t P0 concrete crushing was
heard and the corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete (calculated using the a xia l
shortening measured b y L V D T s) was equal to suc- A fte r reaching P0 the specim en a xia l
load resistance decreased g ra du a lly w ith increasing a xia l displacem ents due to lo ca l
b u c k lin g o f the steel tube and crushing o f the concrete in fill. The specim en unloaded
g ra d u a lly to 0.95 P0, at w hich p o in t fa ilu re occurred due to extensive local b u c k lin g and
concrete crushing and the specim en unloaded a b ru p tly to 0.55 PQ. The average
lo n g itu d in a l strain in the steel tube (m easured b y the com er strain gages) at the fa ilu re
load (0.95 P0) was equal to 2.2 ey. The corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete
(calculated using the a xia l shortening measured b y the L V D T s) was 1.2 suc. The test
was continued under displacem ent co n tro l a fte r fa ilu re and the specimen m aintained its
residual a x ia l load capacity w ith increasing a xia l displacem ents. A photograph o f
Specim en SC -32-46 after testing was com pleted is show n in F igure 3.17 (a).
S C -4 8 -4 6
The a x ia l load-displacem ent (P -A ) response o f SC-48-46 is shown in Figure 3.18.
The P-A response was nearly linear up to the peak load (P0). L o ca l b u cklin g o f the steel
tube w a lls was observed at 0.98 P0. The corresponding average lo n g itu d in a l strain in
the steel tube (measured b y the com er strain gages) was equal to 0.84 sy. F ailure
occurred at an a xia l load capacity o f 0.99 P0 (post-peak) and the specim en unloaded
a b ru p tly to 0.43 P0. Failure was accom panied b y extensive loca l b u cklin g o f the steel
tube and crushing o f the concrete in fill. The average lon g itu d in a l strain in the steel tube
56
(m easured b y the com er strain gages) at the fa ilu re load was equal to 0.89 sy. The
corresponding a xia l strain in the concrete (calculated using the a xial shortening
measured b y the L V D T s) was equal to 0.92 euc. The test was continued under
displacem ent co n tro l after fa ilu re and the specim en m aintained its residual a xia l load
capacity w ith increasing axial displacem ents. A photograph o f Specimen SC-48-46
after testin g was com pleted is shown in Figure 3.17 (b). This stub colum n specimen
reached P0 w h ile portions o f the steel tube were s till in the elastic range. E lastic local
b u ck lin g o f the steel tube m ay have occurred.
3.3.3 EVALUATION OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMEN RESULTS
Table 3.7 summarizes the results fro m the stub colum n tests and shows a
com parison o f the experim ental results w ith predictions o f strength and in itia l stiffness.
In Table 3.7 P0, Pss, Pioo, K ax-cxp, and EAn- are the experim ental axial load capacity, the
a xia l load capacity estimated b y the superposition o f the y ie ld strength o f the steel tube
w ith 85% o f the com pressive strength o f the concrete in fill, the a xial load capacity
estim ated b y superposition o f the y ie ld strength o f the steel tube w ith 100% o f the
com pressive strength o f the concrete in fill, the e xperim entally determ ined section a xia l
stiffness, and section a xia l stiffness predicted using transform ed section properties,
respectively. In Table 3.7 Kax-exp was estim ated using a xia l shortening measurements
over 300 m m gage-lengths (fro m the L V D T s). Pss is recommended fo r calculating the
a xia l load capacity o f CFT stub colum ns b y the A IS C -L R F D (1993), A C I (1995), and
57
A U (1987) code provisions. The 85% fa cto r accounts fo r the effects o f size and cu rin g
conditions. Pioo is recomm ended fo r calculating the a xia l load capacity o f C FT stub
colum ns b y the EC4 (1996) code provisions.
Table 3.7 indicates that C FT stub colum n specimens w ith a hig h e r b /t ratio have
lo w e r section a xia l stiffness K^-exp- A n increase in the b /t ratio replaces some steel in
the com posite cross section w ith concrete, w h ich has a low er Y oung’ s m odulus, and
this change results in a reduction in Kax-exp.
For a given nom inal b /t ratio, increasing the nom inal yie ld stress o f the steel tube
(fro m 317 to 552 M Pa) resulted in an increase in the a xia l load capacity. F o r C FT
specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32, increasing the nom inal y ie ld stress (fro m 317
to 552 M Pa) increases P0 b y 23.9% . H ow ever, fo r C FT specimens w ith a nom in al b /t
ratio o f 48, the increase in PQ was o n ly 6.4% . The increase in P0 was sm aller fo r
specimens w ith the nom inal b /t ratio o f 48 because the thinner steel tubes, especially the
steel tube o f SC-48-80 are prone to elastic bu cklin g.
Specimen SC-32-80 had the highest a xia l load capacity and section a xia l stiffness
o f the stub colum n specimens. T his specim en com bined the high strength concrete w ith
h ig h strength steel and had a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32, w h ich satisfies the b /t lim its o f a ll
the current code provisions.
Com parisons o f the experim ental a xia l load capacities (PQ) w ith those predicted
using the current code provisions (Pss and Pioo) are shown in Table 3.7. The
com parisons shown in Table 3.7 indicate that the a xia l load capacity o f CFT stub
colum n specimens can be predicted conservatively (except Specimen SC -48-80) using
P 8 5 - The steel tube o f Specimen SC-48-80 does not sa tisfy the b /t lim it o f any o f the
58
code provisions (see Table 3.1) and m ay have m ay have buckled e la stica lly. As a
re su lt, Pgs overestim ates the a xia l load capacity o f th is specim en b y 4% .
Ptoo overestim ates the a xia l load capacity o f a ll the stub colum n specim ens. The
e rro r varies fro m 3% to 14%. Table 3.7 shows that the a xia l section stiffness o f the C FT
stub colum n specimens was predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y using the
transform ed section properties (EAtr).
3.4 MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
A s noted p re vio u sly, eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were tested. The
m ono to n ic beam -colum n specimens w ere subjected to constant a xia l load and
m o n to n ic a lly increasing fle xu ra l loading conditions using the test-setup described in
S ection 3.4.1. The experim ental results and the behavior o f the m onotonic beam-
co lu m n specimens are presented in Section 3.4.2. The influence o f the steel tube yie ld
stress, nom inal b /t ra tio , and the level o f a xia l load on the behavior o f the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens is discussed in Section 3.4.3. Com parisons o f the
e xperim ental m om ent capacities w ith predictions based oh the current code provisions
are presented in Section 3.4.4.
59
3.4.1 MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN TEST-SETUP AND
INSTRUMENTATION LAYOUT
The m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were tested in the 22,250 k N universal
testing m achine in F ritz Labo ra to ry at Lehigh U n ive rsity, using the test-setup shown in
F igure 3.19. The to ta l length o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens was 4.0 m.
The 1.5 m test-length o f the specimens was subjected to a constant a xia l load and
m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle x u ra l loading. The a xia l load was a pplied and m aintained
constant b y the 22,250 k N universal testing machine. The ends o f the specimens were
attached to c y lin d ric a l bearings at the top and bottom and were free to rotate in-plane
thus sim ulating p in -p in end conditions. The fle xu ra l loading was applied b y im posing
m o n o to n ica lly increasing rotations at the ends o f the specimen test-length using tw o 670
k N h ydraulic rams and loading beams (w ith W 27 x 94 cross-sections) as shown in
F igure 3.19. The loading beams were connected to the beam -colum n specimens b y pre-
tensioned bolted end-plate m om ent connections. The h yd rau lic rams w ere connected to
the loading beams using a clevis and p in type connection. The h yd ra u lic rams were
co n tro lle d to apply equal and opposite loads (Q ), thus causing a u n ifo rm p rim a ry
bending mom ent along the test-length o f the specimens.
The instrum entation layout fo r the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens is shown in
F igure 3.20. The in-plane displacem ents over the specimen test-length and the
c y lin d ric a l bearings w ere measured using LV D T s as shown in F igure 3.20. These
displacem ents were used to calculate the second-order bending m om ents caused b y the
constant axial load. R otations o f the c y lin d ric a l bearing and along the test-length o f the
60
specim en were measured using rota tio n meters. These rotations were used to determ ine
the average end ro ta tio n and the curvature o f segments along the specimen test-length.
As shown in Figure 3.20, lon g itu d in a l strain gages were bonded to the steel tubes o f th e
beam -colum n specimens at sections A , B , and C. These strain gages were used to
measure the lo n g itu d in a l strains in the steel tubes at d iffe re n t locations along the h e ig h t.
The a x ia l load (P) and the fle xu ra l loads (Q ) applied b y the hydraulic rams w ere
measured using load cells. Figure 3.21 shows a photograph o f the m onotonic beam -
colum n test-setup and instrum entation layout. As m entioned previously, a d d itio n a l
details o f the m onotonic beam -colum n test-setup and instrum entation layout are
provided in H u ll (1998).
The alignm ent o f the axial load (P) w ith respect to the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens was v e rifie d by m onitoring the increm ental lon gitudinal strains in the steel
tubes as the axial load was applied. The alignm ent o f the axial load was considered
satisfactory i f the increm ental lo n g itu d in a l strains varied b y less than 5% o f the average
increm ental lo n g itu d in a l strain in the steel tube.
3.4.2 EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOR OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN
SPECIMENS
id e n tify each m onotonic beam -colum n specimen were presented in Section 3.2 and are
sum m arized in Table 3.6. The m id-h e igh t moment - average end rotation (M -0 )
response o f each m onotonic beam -colum n specimen is presented in this section. The
61
m id-height m om ent fo r each specim en was calculated u sin g E quation (3.1). As shown
in Equation (3.1), the m id -h e ig h t m om ent includes the second-order m om ent caused b y
the applied axial load, acting through the in-plane displacem ents o f the specimen.
M = 3 Q + PA (3.1)
In Equation (3.1), M , Q, P, and A are the m id-height m om ent in kN -m , the actuator load
in kN , the axial loa d in kN , and the m id-height in-plane displacem ent in m.
S ig nifica n t events that occurred du rin g the m onotonic beam -colum n tests are as
fo llo w s:
• A : Concrete goes in to tension.
• B : Y ie ld in g o f steel tube com pression flange.
• C: Extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reaches fa ilu re stra in euc.
• D : Y ie ld in g o f steel tube tension flange.
• E: In itia l concrete crushing.
• F: Local b u c klin g o f steel tube com pression flange.
• G: Local b u c k lin g o f steel tube webs.
• H : Tension cra ckin g o f steel tube comers.
Events A , B, C, and D w ere established using the lo n g itu d in a l strains that were
measured at the m id -h e ig h t cross-section using the lo n g itu d in a l strain gages. For events
B and D , the y ie ld stra in o f the steel tube was assumed to be sy.f (g ive n in Table 3.4).
F or Event C, euc was assumed as 0.00269 (see Section 3.2.2). Events E, F, G, and H
were experim ental observations. Event E indicates w hen concrete crushing was heard
during the experim ent. Events F indicates when loca l d is to rtio n o f the compression
62
flange was v is u a lly observed d u rin g the experim ent. E vent G indicates w hen lo ca l
d isto rtio n o f the webs was v is u a lly observed during the experim ent. E vent H indicates
when tension cracking o f the steel tube comers was v is u a lly observed during the
experim ent. Events A to H are indicated on the M -0 responses and are used in
discussing the behavior o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
A ll the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens (except Specim en B C -48-80-40) fa ile d
close to the m id -h e ig h t o f the test-length w ith the fo rm a tio n o f approxim ately 305 m m
long ine la stic fa ilu re segments. The curvature o f the fa ilu re segment was calculated
using E quation (3.2).
4» = ( 0 i- 0 j) / d (3.2)
In E quation (3 .2 ), (j), 0;, 0j, and d are the curvature o f the fa ilu re segment, rotation
measured b y ro ta tio n m eter i at one end o f the fa ilu re segment, rota tio n measured b y
rotation m eter j at the other end o f the fa ilu re segment, and the distance between the
rotation m eters i and j. The m om ent-curvature (M-<|>) response o f the fa ilu re segment is
presented along w ith the M -0 response o f each specimen.
B C -3 2 -8 0 -2 0
Specim en BC -32-80-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 3050 kN (21%
P0). The m id -h e ig h t m om ent average-end rotation (M -0 ) response o f Specimen B C -32-
80-20 is show n in Figure 3.22. A t 21% o f the m om ent capacity (M u) the steel and
concrete w ent in to tension at the m id -h e ig h t cross-section (E vent A ) and the fle xu ra l
stiffness o f the specim en deviated fro m its in itia l value due to concrete cracking. A t
63
0.65 M u the steel tube com pression flange reached its y ie ld strain (E vent B ) at the m id-
height cross-section. A t 0.70 M u the strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r
reached euc (E vent C) at the m id-height cross-section. A t 0.75 M u the steel tube tension
flange reached its y ie ld stra in (Event D ) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section. A t 0.88 M u
concrete crushing was heard (Event E), w hich was fo llo w e d b y a sig n ifica n t reduction
in the fle x u ra l stiffness o f the specimens. A t 0.98 M u (pre-peak) loca l buckling o f the
steel tube com pression flange was observed. The specim en achieved its mom ent
capacity (M u equal to 933 kN -m ) and fa ile d close to the m id-h e igh t due to local
b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete. W ith
increasing fle x u ra l deform ations the local buckle propagated around the comers o f the
steel tube into the webs o f the cross-section. Local b u c k lin g o f the webs (Event G) was
observed at 0.91 M u (post-peak). B y the end o f the test, the specim en exhibited a 20%
loss in fle x u ra l capacity w h ile achieving an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.108 rad.
Photographs o f the steel tube and the in fill concrete fo llo w in g the test are shown in
Figure 3.23. L o ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and webs can be seen
in Figure 3.23. The steel tube was removed to inspect the concrete in the failure region.
Extensive concrete crushing was observed d ire c tly under the buckled regions o f the
com pression flange and webs. The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment
is shown in Figure 3.24. The curvature o f the fa ilu re segm ent was estimated using the
rotations measured b y ro ta tio n meters 3 and 5 shown in F igure 3.20.
64
BC-32-80-40
Specim en B C -32-80-40 was subjected to a constant a x ia l load o f 6100 k N (43%
P0). The m id -h e ig h t m om ent average-end ro ta tio n (M -0 ) response o f Specimen B C -32 -
80-40 is shown in Figure 3.25. A t 52% o f the m om ent capacity (M u) the steel and
concrete w ent in to tension at the m id-height cross-section (E ve n t A ) and the fle x u ra l
stiffness o f the specim en deviated from its in itia l value due to concrete cracking. At
0.59 M u the steel tube com pression flange reached its y ie ld stra in (Event B ) at the m id
height cross-section. A t 0.65 M u the strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r
reached suc (E vent C) at the m id-height cross-section. A t 0.84 M u concrete crushing was
heard (E vent E ), w h ich was fo llo w e d b y a sig n ifica n t reduction in the fle xu ral stiffness
o f the specimens. A t 0.88 M u (pre-peak) local b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression
flange (E vent F) was observed. A t the capacity m om ent (M u equal to 806 kN -m ) the
steel tube tension flange reached its yie ld strain (E vent D ) at the m id-height cross-
section. The specim en fa ile d close to the m id-height due to lo ca l buckling o f the steel
tube com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete. W ith increasing fle x u ra l
deform ations the local buckle propagated around the com ers o f the steel tube into the
webs o f the cross-section. Local buckling o f the webs (E vent G ) was observed at 0.71
M u (post-peak). B y the end o f the test, the specimen e xh ib ite d a 39% loss in fle x u ra l
capacity w h ile achieving an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.0404 rad. Photographs o f the
steel tube and the in fill concrete fo llo w in g the test are show n in Figure 3.26. L o ca l
b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and webs can be seen in Figure 3.26. The
steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete in the fa ilu re region. Extensive concrete
65
crashing was observed d ire c tly under the b u ckle d regions o f the com pression flange and
webs. The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment is shown in Figure 3.27.
Based on the location o f the fa ilu re segment, the curvature was estim ated using the
rotations measured b y ro ta tio n meters 4 and 6 show n in Figure 3.20.
B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0
Specim en BC -48-80-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 2715 k N (22%
P0). The m id-height m om ent average-end ro ta tio n (M -0 ) response o f Specim en B C -48-
80-20 is show n in Figure 3.28. A t 28% o f the m om ent capacity (M u) the steel and
concrete w ent into tension at the m id-h e igh t cross-section (Event A ) and the fle xu ra l
stiffness o f the specimen deviated fro m its in itia l value due to concrete cracking. A t
0.83 M u the strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached euc (E vent C) at
the m id -h e ig h t cross-section. A t 0.89 M u the steel tube com pression flange reached its
y ie ld stra in (E vent B ) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section. A t 0.92 M u the steel tube tension
flange reached its yie ld strain (E vent D ) at the m id -h e ig h t cross-section. Local b u cklin g
o f the steel tube com pression flange (E vent F) was observed and concrete crashing was
heard (E ve n t E) at the m om ent capacity (M u equal to 700 kN -m ). The specim en fa ile d
close to the m id-height due to local b u ck lin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and
crashing o f the concrete. W ith increasing fle x u ra l deform ations the lo ca l buckle
propagated around the com ers o f the steel tube in to the webs o f the cross-section. Local
b u c k lin g o f the webs (Event G ) was observed at 0.87 M u (post-peak). Tension cracking
o f the steel tube comers was observed (E vent H ) at an average end rotation (0 ) equal to
66
0.089 rad. B y the end o f the test, the specimen exhibited a 21% loss in fle xu ra l capacity
w h ile achieving an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.092 rad. Photographs o f the steel tube and
the in f ill concrete fo llo w in g the test are shown in Figure 3.29. Tension cracking o f the
com ers and lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs can be seen in Figure 3.29. The steel
tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete in the fa ilu re region. E xtensive concrete
crushing was observed d ire c tly under the buckled regions o f the com pression flange and
webs. The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment is shown in Figure 3.30.
The curvature o f the fa ilu re segment was estim ated using the rotations measured b y
ro ta tio n meters 3 and 5 shown in Figure 3.20.
B C -4 8 -8 0 -4 0
Specim en BC -48-80-40 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 5430 k N (44%
P0). The m id-h e igh t m om ent average-end rotation (M -0 ) response o f Specimen B C -48-
80-40 is shown in Figure 3.31. A t 56% o f the peak m om ent (M u) the steel and concrete
w ent in to tension at the m id-h e igh t cross-section (Event A ) and the fle xu ra l stiffness o f
the specim en deviated fro m its in itia l value due to concrete cracking. A t 0.86 M u the
strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached euc (E ve n t C) at the m id-height
cross-section and concrete crushing was heard (Event E), w h ic h was fo llo w e d b y a
s ig n ific a n t reduction in fle xu ra l stiffness o f the specimen. A t 0.99 M u the steel tube
com pression flange reached its y ie ld strain (Event B ) at the m id -h e ig h t cross-section. A t
the m om ent capacity (M u equal to 574 kN -m ) local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
com pression flange (E vent F) was observed 0.5 m b e low the test-length. The
67
corresponding average end ro ta tio n 0 was equal to 0.013 rad. The specim en fa ile d at a
distance o f 0.5 m below the m id-height o f the test-length due to local b u cklin g o f the
steel tube com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete in fill. A t an average end
ro ta tio n 9 equal to 0.024 rad. the steel tube tension flange reached its y ie ld strain (Event
D ) at the cross-section 0.38 m below m id-height (cross-section © in F igure 3.20). This
was the o n ly m onotonic beam -colum n specimen to develop tension flange y ie ld in g after
M u had been reached, as opposed to before M u was reached. W ith increasing fle xu ral
deform ations the local buckle propagated around the com ers o f the steel tube into the
webs o f the cross-section. Lo cal buckling o f the webs (E vent G ) was observed at an
average end rotation 9 eqaul to 0.031 rad. B y the end o f the test, the specim en exhibited
a 38% loss in fle xu ra l capacity w hile achieving an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.033 rad.
Photographs o f the steel tube and the in fill concrete fo llo w in g the test are shown in
Figure 3.32. The local b u cklin g o f the steel tube can be seen cle a rly in Figure 3.32.
The steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete in the fa ilu re region. Extensive
concrete crushing was observed d ire c tly under the buckled regions o f the com pression
flange and webs. The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment is shown in
Figure 3.33. Because o f the location o f the fa ilu re segment, the curvature was estimated
using the rotations measured b y rotation meters 1 and 2 shown in Figure 3.20.
Specim en BC -48-80-40 was the o n ly m onotonic beam -colum n specim en that d id
n ot fa il close to the m id-height o f the test-length. The center o f the fa ilu re segment o f
Specim en BC -48-80-40 was located at a distance o f 0.5 m (approxim ately) fro m the
m id-h e igh t o f the 1.5 m test-length. A lthough, the reason fo r the anomalous fa ilu re o f
68
th is specim en is not know n, some d iffic u ltie s were encoutered w h ile testing this
specim en. The c y lin d ric a l bearings at the top and bottom o f the test-setup had to be
adjusted several tim es to obtain concentric a xia l loading o f the specim en at the
b e ginning o f the test. The top and b o tto m c y lin d ric a l bearings slipped several tim es
w h ile subjecting the specim en to m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle x u ra l loading. T h is m ay
have caused Specimen B C -48-80-40 to be subjected to eccentric a x ia l loading.
B C -3 2 -4 6 -2 0
Specim en B C -32-46-20 was subjected to a constant axial load o f 2515 k N (22%
P0). The behavior and fa ilu re o f this specim en was s im ila r to that o f Specim en B C -32-
80-20 presented earlier. The experim ental behavior o f Specim en B C -32-46-20 is
b rie fly sum m arized here. The m id-h e igh t m om ent average-end ro ta tio n (M -0 ) response
o f Specim en BC -32-46-20 is shown in F igure 3.34. A t 33% o f the m om ent capacity
(M u) the steel and concrete w ent into tension at the m id-height cross-section (E vent A )
and the fle xu ra l stiffness o f the specim en deviated fro m its in itia l value due to concrete
cracking. A t 0.38 M u the steel tube com pression flange reached its y ie ld strain (Event
B ) at the m id-height cross-section. A t 0.69 M u the steel tube tension flange reached its
y ie ld strain (Event D ) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section. A t 0.83 M u the strain in the
extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C) at the m id-h e igh t cross-
section and concrete crushing was heard (E vent E). Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube
com pression flange was observed close to the m id-height o f the test-length at the
m om ent capacity (M u equal to 606 k N -m ). The specim en fa ile d close to the m id-height
69
due to lo ca l b u c klin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete.
B y the end o f test, the specimen exhibited a 90% loss in fle x u ra l load capacity w hile
achieving an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.05 rad. The m om ent-curvature response o f the
fa ilu re segment is shown in Figure 3.35. The curvature o f the fa ilu re segment was
estim ated using the rotations measured b y ro ta tio n meters 3 and 5 show n in Figure 3.20.
B C -3 2 -4 6 -4 0
Specim en B C -32-46-40 was subjected to an a xia l load o f 5025 k N (44% PQ). The
m id-h e igh t m om ent average-end rotation (M -0 ) response o f Specim en BC -32-46-40 is
show n in Figure 3.36. A t 15% o f the m om ent capacity (M u) the steel tube compression
flange reached its y ie ld strain (E vent B ) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section and the flexural
stiffness o f the specim en deviated s lig h tly from its in itia l value. A t 0.54 M u the steel
and concrete w ent into tension at the m id-height cross-section (E vent A ) and the
fle x u ra l stiffness o f the specimen decreased fu rth e r due to concrete cracking. A t 0.86
M u the strain in the extreme concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C) at the
m id-h e igh t cross-section. Concrete crushing was heard (E ve n t E) at 0.94 M u. A t the
m om ent capacity (M u equal to 543 kN -m ) the steel tube tension flange reached its yield
strain (E vent D ) at the m id-height cross-section. The specim en m om ent capacity
decreased ra p id ly w ith increasing fle xu ra l deform ations. L o ca l b u c k lin g o f the steel
tube com pression flange was observed close to the m id-h e igh t o f the test-length at 0.78
M u (post-peak). B y the end o f the test the specimen e xh ib ite d a 36% loss in flexural
load capacity w h ile achieving an average end rota tio n o f 0.035 rad. Photographs o f the
70
steel tube and in f ill concrete upon com pletion o f the test are show n in Figure 3.37.
L ocal b u cklin g o f the steel tube can be seen cle a rly in Figure 3.37. The steel tube was
rem oved to inspect the concrete in the fa ilu re region. Extensive concrete crushing was
observed d ire c tly under the buckled regions o f the steel tube. The m om ent-curvature
response o f the fa ilu re segment is shown in Figure 3.38. The curvature o f the fa ilu re
segment was estim ated using the rotations measured b y ro ta tio n meters 3 and 5 shown
in Figure 3.20.
B C -4 8 -4 6 -2 0
Specimen BC -48-46-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 2360 kN (20%
P0). The behavior and fa ilu re o f this specimen was sim ila r to that o f Specim en B C -48-
80-20 presented earlier. The experim ental behavior o f Specimen B C -48-46-20 is
b rie fly sum m arized here. The m id-h e igh t mom ent average-end ro ta tio n (M -0 ) response
o f Specimen B C -48-46-20 is shown in Figure 3.39. A t 31% o f the m om ent capacity
(M u) the steel and concrete w ent in to tension at the m id-height cross-section (Event A )
and the fle xu ra l stiffness o f the specim en deviated from its in itia l value due to concrete
cracking. A t 0.74 M u the steel tube com pression flange reached its y ie ld strain (Event
B ) at the m id-height cross-section. A t 0.84 M u the strain in the extrem e concrete
com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C ) at the m id-height cross-section and concrete
crushing was heard (Event E). A t 0.87 M u the steel tube tension flange reached its
y ie ld strain (E vent D ) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section. Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube
com pression flange was observed close to the m id-height o f the test-length at the
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m om ent capacity (M u equal to 597 kN -m ). The specim en fa ile d close to the m id-h e igh t
due to loca l b u ck lin g o f the steel tube com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete.
W ith increasing fle x u ra l deform ations the com pression flange loca l buckle propagated
around the com ers and in to the webs o f the steel tube. L o cal b u c klin g o f the webs
(E vent G) was observed at 0.80 M u. Tension cracking o f the steel tube com ers (E vent
H ) was observed close to the m id-height at an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.05 rad. B y the
end o f test, the specim en exhibited a 31% loss in fle x u ra l load capacity w h ile achieving
an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.083 rad. The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re
segment is shown in Figure 3.40. Because o f the location o f the center o f the fa ilu re
segment, the curvature was estim ated using the rotations measured b y rotation meters 4
and 6 shown in F igure 3.20.
B C -4 8 -4 6 -2 2
Specimen B C -48-46-22 was subjected to an a xia l load o f 2515 k N (22% PQ). The
m id-h e igh t m om ent average-end rotation (M -0 ) response o f Specim en BC -48-46-22 is
shown in Figure 3.41. A t 30% o f the m om ent capacity (M u) the steel and concrete w ent
in to tension at the m id-h e igh t cross-section (E vent A ) and the fle xu ra l stiffness o f the
specim en deviated fro m its in itia l value due to concrete cracking. A t 0.79 M u the steel
tube com pression flange reached its yie ld strain (E vent B ) at the m id-height cross-
section. A t 0.88 M u the strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached euc
(E vent C) at the m id-h e igh t cross-section and concrete crushing was heard (E vent E).
A t 0.89 M u the steel tube tension flange reached its y ie ld strain (E vent D ) at the m id-
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h e ig h t cross-section. Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression flange (Event F) was
observed at 0.96 M u. The specimen achieved its m om ent capacity (M u equal to 629 k N -
m ) and fa ile d close to the m id-height due to lo ca l b u c k lin g and crushing o f the concrete
in fill. W ith increasing fle xu ra l deform ations the lo ca l bu ckle propagated around the
com ers o f the steel tube into the webs o f the cross-section. L o ca l b u c k lin g o f the webs
(E vent G ) was observed at 0.83 M u (post-peak). Tension cra ckin g o f the steel tube
com ers (E vent H ) was observed at an average end ro ta tio n o f 0.064 rad. B y the end o f
the test, the specimen exhibited a 20% loss in fle x u ra l capacity w h ile achieving an
average end rota tio n o f 0.079 rad. Photographs o f the steel tube and the in fill concrete
fo llo w in g the test are shown in Figure 3.42. L o ca l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
com pression flange and webs can be seen in F igure 3.42. The steel tube was rem oved
to inspect the concrete in the fa ilu re region. E xtensive concrete crushing was observed
d ire c tly under the buckled regions o f the com pression flange and webs. The m om ent-
curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment is shown in Figure 3.43. The curvature o f the
fa ilu re segment was estim ated using the rotations m easured b y ro ta tio n meters 3 and 5
(F ig ure 3.20).
3.4.3 EVALUATION OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMEN
RESULTS
The m om ent-curvature responses o f the fa ilu re segments w ere used to determine
the in itia l (K f.ini) and se rvice a b ility-le ve l (K f.sec) section fle x u ra l stiffness o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. The in itia l section fle x u ra l stiffness (K f.,ni)
73
corresponds to the section fle x u ra l stiffness before concrete cra ckin g (E vent A ) occurs.
The se rvice a b ility-le ve l section fle x u ra l stiffness (K f.sec) was defined as the secant
section fle x u ra l stiffness to 60% o f the m om ent capacity (M u). A fle x u ra l load o f 0.60
M u was chosen to represent the service-level load, because it corresponds to the m om ent
capacity (M u) divided b y the load fa cto r o f 1.4 used fo r earthquake resistant design in
the U n ifo rm B u ild in g Code (U B C 1997) and m u ltip lie d b y the resistance fa cto r o f 0.85
used fo r C FT columns in A IS C -L R F D (1993).
The m om ent-curvature responses o f the fa ilu re segments w ere also used to
determ ine the curvature d u c tility (p^) o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
C urvature d u c tility (p^) was defined as the <|)u d ivid e d by (j)y, w here <j)u is the curvature o f
the fa ilu re segment corresponding to a m om ent o f 0.90 M u (post-peak) and (j)y is the
curvature o f the fa ilu re segm ent corresponding to M u and K f.sec, i.e., (j)y = M u/K f.sec.
F igure 3.44 shows a graphical representation o f the d e fin itio n o f curvature d u c tility fo r
the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
Table 3.8 summarizes the experim ental results fo r the eight m onotonic beam-
co lu m n specimens. In Table 3.8 Kf_sec, M u, p$, E Itr, and ETr-tr are the
exp erim e nta lly determ ined in itia l section fle xu ra l section stiffness, the experim entally
determ ined se rvice a b ility-le ve l section fle xu ra l stiffness, the m om ent capacity, the
curvature d u c tility , the section fle xu ra l stiffness predicted using uncracked transform ed
section properties, and the section fle x u ra l stiffness predicted using cracked transform ed
section properties corresponding to 0.60 M u, respectively.
74
S tiffn e ss
The values shown in Table 3.8 indicate that increasing the nom inal yie ld stress o f
the steel tube o r the le ve l o f a xia l load does not influence Increasing the nom inal
b /t ratio o f the steel tube replaces some area o f steel in the C FT cross section by
concrete, w h ich has a low e r m odulus o f elasticity, and results in a slig h t reduction in
Kf-ini-
K f.SeCincreases w ith h igher levels o f axial load, except fo r the B C -32-46 specimens.
A t higher a xia l load levels m ore area o f concrete is in com pression and thereby a ctive ly
p a rticip a tin g in resisting the a xia l and fle xu ral loads at 0.60 M u, thus increasing K f.sec.
The steel tube com pression flange o f Specimen B C -32-46-40 yielded in compression
(E vent B ) before 0.60 M u was reached. C onsequently the secant stiffness is
approxim ately the same as that o f Specimen B C -32-46-20. K f-sec decreases fo r
specimens w ith higher b /t ratio. A s in the case o f K f.jni-, K f.sec decreases when the b /t
ratio increases due to the sm aller area o f steel in the CFT cross section.
Com parisons o f K f.ini w ith predictions based on the uncracked transform ed section
properties (E ltr) are shown in Table 3.8. The experim entally determ ined Kf.ini is
predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y using the uncracked transform ed section
properties. Com parisons o f K f.sec w ith predictions based on the cracked transform ed
section properties (E lc r -tr ) are also shown in Table 3.8. The e xperim entally determ ined
K f.Sec is predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y using the cracked transform ed section
properties corresponding to 0.60 M u.
75
S tre n g th
The values show n in Table 3.8 indicate that increasing the nom in a l yie ld stress o f
the steel tube (fro m 317 to 552 M Pa), w hile m a in tain in g the nom in a l b /t ratio and axial
load level, results in an increase in the mom ent cap acity (M u) o f the m onotonic beam-
colum n specim ens. F o r m onotonic beam -colum n specim ens w ith a nom inal b /t ratio o f
32 this increase is approxim ately 52%. H ow ever, fo r m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 48 this increase in M u is o n ly 17%. Increasing the
nom inal b /t ra tio o f the steel tube (fro m 32 to 48), w h ile m a in ta in in g the nom inal yield
stress o f the steel tube and the a xia l load level decreases the m om ent capacity o f the
CFT specimens. F o r the m onotonic beam -colum n specim ens made fro m conventional
strength steel (n o m in a l y ie ld stress equal to 317 M P a) th is reduction is o n ly 1.5%.
How ever, fo r the beam -colum n specimens made fro m h ig h strength steel (nom inal yield
stress equal to 552 M Pa) this reduction is approxim ately 27% .
D u c tility
The p.,), values shown in Table 3.8 indicate that the m ost d u ctile m onotonic beam-
colum n specim ens were those w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32 and subjected to an axial
load level o f 20% (i.e ., Specimens BC -32-46-20 and B C -32 -8 0 -20 ). These specimens
had an average curvature d u c tility o f 13.85. The least d u c tile specimens was BC -48-80-
40 (p<{,= 1.7), w h ic h had a nom inal b /t ratio o f 48 and an a x ia l load le ve l o f 40%. Table
3.8 also indicates that a v a ria b ility in can occur, as observed fo r Specimens BC -48-
76
46-20 (m = 2.9) and BC -48-46-22 (fty = 5.9). These specimens had ide n tica l m aterial
and geom etric parameters, and the a xia l load d iffe re d b y o n ly 2% o f P0. H ow ever, the
curvature d u c tility o f these specimens varied sig n ific a n tly.
Figure 3.45 shows the va ria tio n o f the curvature d u c tility p.j, o f the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens w ith the le ve l o f a x ia l load, the measured w idth-to-thickness
(b /t) ra tio o f the steel tube and the measured yie ld stress o f the steel tube. Figure 3.45
(a) indicates that increasing the a xia l load level (fro m 20% to 40% ) s ig n ific a n tly
reduces the curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. In Figure
3.45 (a), the results fo r Specimens B C -48-46-20 and B C -48-46-22 are not connected by
a dotted lin e because a sig n ifica n t v a ria tio n in was observed fo r these specimens fo r
a sm all change in a xia l load level. Figure 3.45 (b) indicates that increasing the w id th -
to-thickness ratios o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens also s ig n ific a n tly reduces
the curvature d u c tility . In Figure 3.45 (b ), the average value o f the curvature d u c tility
o f Specimens B C -48-46-20 and B C -48-46-22 is com pared w ith the curvature d u c tility
o f Specim en B C -32-46-20. Figure 3.45 (c) indicates that the y ie ld stress o f the steel
tube does not have a sig n ifica n t in fluence on the curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens. In Figure 3.45 (c), the average value o f the curvature d u c tility
o f Specimens B C -48-46-20 and B C -48-46-22 is compared w ith the curvature d u c tility
o f Specim en BC -48-80-20.
In sum m ary, the experim ental results shown in Table 3.8 and Figure 3.45 indicate
that the curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens decreases
s ig n ific a n tly w ith an increase in the a xia l load level and the w idth-to-thickness ratio o f
77
the steel tube. H ow ever, the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube does n o t seem to have a
sig n ifica n t in flu e n ce on the curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens.
3.4.4 COMPARISON OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMEN
RESULTS WITH PREDICTIONS BASED ON CURRENT CODE
PROVISIONS
A x ia l load —bending m om ent capacity (P -M ) inte ractio n curves were developed fo r
the fo u r C FT specim en types according to the current A IS C -L R F D , A C I, A IJ and EC4
code provisions fo r C FT colum ns. The methods fo r developing these P -M interaction
curves were presented in de ta il in Chapter 2. The m ain assumptions invo lve d in
developing the P -M interaction curves according to these code provisions were given in
Section 2.3.3 o f C hapter 2.
The P -M inte ra ctio n curves fo r the fo u r specim en types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80,
C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in F igure 3.46, 3.47, 3.48, and 3.49,
respectively. The experim ental results fo r the corresponding m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens are also shown in Figures 3.46 to 3.49. Com parisons o f the experim ental
m om ent capacities w ith the values predicted b y the code provisions are presented in
Table 3.9. In Table 3.9 M LRpD, M a c i, M Arj, and M ec 4 are the m om ent capacity
predicted using the A IS C -LR F D provisions, the m om ent capacity predicted using the
A C I provisions, the m om ent capacity predicted using the A H provisions, and the
m om ent capacity predicted using the EC4 provisions, respectively.

78
Figures 3.46 to 3.49 indicate th a t the A IS C -L R F D and EC4 predictions fo rm the
lo w e r and upper bound estimates, respectively, fo r the strength o f C FT beam -colum ns.
The A C I p rovisions are m ore conservative than the A U provisions, except at lo w levels
o f a xia l load, because fo r pure fle x u ra l loading, the A H provisions assume that the
m om ent capacity o f the C FT cross section is lim ited to the plastic m om ent capacity o f
the steel tube alone, whereas the A C I provisions assume fu ll com posite action and strain
c o m p a tib ility .
Figures 3.46 to 3.49 and Table 3.9 indicate th a t the A IS C -L R F D p rovisions
s ig n ific a n tly underestim ate the m om ent capacity o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens. These provisions do not appropriately account fo r the co n trib u tio n o f the
concrete in f ill to the m oment capacity. The A C I predicted m om ent capacities are
accurate fo r the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 48. The
A C I predicted m om ent capacities are reasonably accurate and conservative fo r the
specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32.
The A H predicted moment capacities are reasonably accurate but tend to be
unconservative. The A IJ predicted m om ent capacities are m ore unconservative fo r the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens made fro m h ig h strength steel tubes w ith nom inal
b /t ratios o f 48 (specim en type C FT-48-80). The EC4 predicted m om ent capacities are
reasonably accurate but unconservative fo r the specimens made from h ig h strength steel
tubes (specim en types CFT-32-80 and C FT-48-80). The EC4 predicted m om ent
capacities are reasonably accurate and conservative fo r the specimens made fro m
conventional strength steel tubes (specim en types C FT-32-46 and C FT-48-46).
79
Figures 3.46 to 3.49 and Table 3.9 indicate that am ong the various code provisions,
the current A C I code p rovisions fo r conventional strength C F T colum ns are m ost
appropriate fo r conservatively p re d ictin g the m om ent capacities o f high strength square
C FT beam -colum ns.
3.5 CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
As noted p re vio u sly, eight c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were tested. The c y c lic
beam -colum n specimens were subjected to constant a xia l load and c y c lic a lly v a ryin g
fle x u ra l loading conditions using the test-setup presented in Section 3.5.1. The
instrum entation p la n and test procedure is also presented in Section 3.5.1. The
experim ental results and the behavior o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens are
presented in Section 3.5.2. The influence o f the steel tube y ie ld stress, nom inal b /t ratio,
and the le ve l o f a xia l load on the perform ance o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens is
presented in Section 3.5.3. Com parisons o f the experim ental m om ent capacities w ith
predictions based on the current code p rovisions are presented in Section 3.5.4.
3.5.1 TEST-SETUP, INSTRUMENTATION LAYOUT, AND LOADING
HISTORY FOR CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN TESTS
Test-S etup
The c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were tested in the m u ltid ire ctio n a l structural
testing lab o ra to ry at the A TLS S E ngineering Research C enter in Lehigh U n ive rsity.
80
Figures 3.50 and 3.51 show a schem atic and a photograph o f the c y c lic beam -colum n
test-setup, respectively. The n o rth d ire c tio n , indicated in Figures 3.50 and 3.51, w ill be
used in describing the loading d ire c tio n o f the c y c lic load. The to ta l length o f each
c y c lic beam -colum n specimen was 2.0 m . A s m entioned p re vio u sly in Section 3.2.1.1,
the length o f the CFT specimens that w ere cast in Chicago was 4.0 m . The 2.0 m long
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were obtained b y cu ttin g the 4.0 m C FT specimens into
h a lf. The cu t surfaces were ground square w ith the sides o f the steel tube. A d d itio n a l
details o f c u ttin g and prepping the cut surface are provided in Ream (2000). The cut
section was located at the top o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specim en in the test-setup
show n in F igure 3.50.
A s show n in Figure 3.50, the 1.5 m test-length o f each c y c lic beam -colum n
specim ens was fix e d at the base and subjected to a constant a xia l load (P) and c y c lic a lly
v a ry in g late ral load (H ) at the top. The a xia l load (P) was applied and m aintained
constant b y a 9000 kN —capacity h o llo w core h yd rau lic ja ck. A s show n in Figures 3.50
and 3.51, the h o llo w core ja c k was placed between the beam -colum n specim en and an
a xia l loa d ing beam. The a xia l loading beam was supported b y tw o a xia l tension rods,
w h ich w ere connected to the a xia l loa d ing beam through c y lin d ric a l bearings and to the
steel base plate using clevis and p in type connections. The a xia l loading arrangement
was free to rotate about the base o f the specim en test-length. Thus, the a xia l load was
applied along the chord o f the la te ra lly displaced shape. The test-length o f the
specim en was subjected to second-order bending moments caused b y the constant axial
load and the displacements o f the test-length fro m the chord. The late ral load (H ) was
applied b y im posing c y c lic a lly va ryin g displacem ents (under displacem ent co n tro l) at
81
the top o f the test-length by a 1000 k N — capacity hydraulic ram . As shown in Figure
3.50, the hyd rau lic ram was connected to the beam -colum n specimen and the reaction
w a ll b y clevis and p in type connections. The rem aining length o f the specimen (0.5 m )
below the test-length was connected to specimen tie-dow n beams b y post-tensioned
bolted end-plate connections. The tie-dow n beams were post-tensioned to the test-bed
flo o r through a concrete b lo ck and steel base plate. Thus, the test-length o f the beam-
colum n specimen was fixe d at the base. A s m entioned previously, additional details o f
the com ponents o f the test-setup are provided in Ream (2000).
In s tru m e n ta tio n L a y o u t
Figure 3.52 shows the instrum entation layout fo r the cyc lic beam -colum n tests.
The in-plane displacem ents and the a xia l shortening o f the specimen test-length were
measured using L V D T s as shown in Figure 3.52. Rotations along the test-length o f the
specimen were measured using rotation meters. The rotations o f the a xia l tension rods
were also measured b y rotation meters (not shown in Figure 3.52). As shown in Figure
3.52, lo n g itu d in a l strain gages were bonded to the steel tubes o f the beam -colum n
specimens at sections A , B, C, and D . These strain gages were used to measure the
lo n g itu d in a l strains in the steel tubes at d iffe re n t locations along the height. The axial
load (P) applied b y the h o llo w core ja c k and the lateral load (H ) applied b y the
h yd rau lic ram w ere measured using load cells (see Figure 3.50).
The in-plane displacem ents o f the specim en and the rotations o f the axial tension
rods were used to determ ine the displacem ents o f the specimen test-length from the
chord o f the displaced shape. These displacem ents were used to evaluate the second-
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order bending m om ents caused b y the constant a xia l load. The rota tio n m eters m ounted
along the specimen were used to determ ine the curvature o f segments along the
specim en test-length.
The fle x ib ility o f the test-setup foundation causes rig id -b o d y tra n slatio n o f the
specim en test-length. Therefore, the late ral displacem ent at the top o f the specim en
test-length was calculated b y subtracting the rota tio n o f the base measured b y rota tio n
m eter 1 (Figure 3.5.2) m u ltip lie d b y the test-length (1.5 m ) fro m the m easured in-plane
displacem ent at the top.
C yc lic L o a d in g H is to ry
The c yclic beam -colum n specimens w ere subjected to an axial load (P ) that was
m aintained constant throughout the c y c lic late ral loading h isto ry. The alignm ent o f the
axia l load (P) w ith respect to the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens was v e rifie d by
m o n ito rin g the increm ental lon g itu d in a l strains in the steel tubes as the a x ia l load was
applied. The alignm ent o f the a xia l load was considered satisfactory i f the increm ental
lo n g itu d in a l strains varied b y less than 5% o f the average increm ental lo n g itu d in a l
strain in the steel tube.
F o llo w in g the application o f the a xia l load, the beam -colum n specimens w ere then
subjected to the c y c lic lateral loading h is to ry shown in Figure 3.53. The c y c lic lateral
loading h isto ry is s im ila r (but not ide n tica l) to the A T C guidelines fo r c y c lic testing o f
com ponents o f steel structures (A T C -2 4 1992). The c y c lic loading h isto ry consisted o f
elastic and inelastic cycles, where the specimens were displaced in the n o rth d ire ctio n
firs t. The elastic cycles were conducted under load co n tro l at lateral load leve ls o f 0.25
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H u-P, 0.50H U.P, and 0.70 H u.p, where H u.p was the estim ated lateral load capacity o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. F or the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens subjected to an
a x ia l le ve l o f 20% , H u.p was based on the m om ent capacity (M u) o f the corresponding
m onotonic beam -colum n specimen (values in Table 3.8) d ivid e d b y the test-length (1.5
m ). F or the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens subjected to an a xia l load level o f 10%,
H u.p was based on the m om ent capacity (M Acr) predicted using the current A C I
p ro visio ns fo r C FT beam -colum ns divid e d b y the test-length (1.5 m ). Tw o cycles were
im posed at each o f the lateral load levels o f 0.25 H u.p, 0.50 H u.p, 0.70 H u.p.
The secant fle xu ra l stiffness (K sec) o f the specim en du rin g the firs t 0.70 H u.p cycle
was used to calculate the y ie ld level lateral displacem ent (A y). K sec was calculated using
the average o f the lateral displacem ents at the top o f the specim en test-length during the
firs t 0.70 H u.p north and south half-cycles. The y ie ld leve l lateral displacem ent (Ay) was
estim ated as H u.p d ivid e d b y K sec. The inelastic cycles were conducted under
displacem ent co n tro l at lateral displacem ent levels o f 1.0 Ay, 1.5 Ay, 2.0 Ay, 3.0 Ay, 5.0
A y, 7.0 Ay, and 8.0 Ay. Three cycles were im posed at each displacem ent level o f 1.0 Ay,
1.5 A y, and 2.0 Ay. Tw o cycles were im posed at each displacem ent level o f 3.0 A y, 5.0
Ay, 7.0 Ay, and 8.0 Ay. A d d itio n a lly , an elastic h a lf-cycle was im posed upon com pletion
o f each set o f inelastic cycles (see Figure 3.53). The elastic h a lf-cycle was conducted
b y d isp la cin g the specim en in the south d ire ctio n up to a lateral load equal to 25% o f the
peak lateral load resistance during the corresponding inelastic displacem ent level.
Testing was conducted u n til the specim en fa ile d due to tension cracking o r fracture
o f the steel tube com ers o r u n til the lateral load resistance reduced to 50% o f the lateral
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load capacity. U pon com pletion o f the c y c lic lateral loading h isto ry show n in Figure
3.53, i.e., after tw o displacem ent cycles at 8.0 Ay, i f the fa ilu re c rite rio n was not m et,
then the specimen was subjected to a d ditio n al c y c lic loading u n til fa ilu re occurred.
These a dditional loading cycles w ere required fo r o n ly three c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens and w ill be presented in Section 3.5.2 along w ith the behavior o f the
specimens.
3.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVTOR OF CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN
SPECIMENS
id e n tify each cy c lic beam -colum n specim en were presented in Section 3.2 and
sum m arized in Table 3.6. The cy c lic lateral load-lateral displacem ent (H -A ) response o f
each c y c lic beam -colum n specimen is presented. S ig nifica n t events that occurred
d u rin g the cy c lic beam -colum n tests are as fo llo w s:
• A : Concrete goes into tension.
• B : Y ie ld in g o f steel tube flanges in com pression.
• C: Extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reaches fa ilu re strain suc-
• D : Y ie ld in g o f steel tube flanges in tension.
• E: In itia l concrete crushing.
• F: Local b u cklin g o f steel tube flange
• G : Local b u cklin g o f steel tube webs

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• H : Local b u cklin g o f steel tube comers
• I: Tension cracking o r fra ctu re o f steel tube comers
Events A , B , C, D , and F were established using the lo n g itu d in a l strains (and strain-
gradient) that were measured at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the specimen
test-length b y the lo n g itu d in a l stra in gages. F o r events B and D , the y ie ld strain o f the
steel tube flanges was assumed as s y.f (values given in Table 3.4). F or event C, suc was
assumed as 0.00269 (see Section 3.2.2). Event F indicates w hen loca l b u cklin g o f the
steel tube flange occurred and w as established using the lo n g itu d in a l strains that were
measured at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the specim en test-length. Local
b u cklin g was said to occur when th e longitudinal strain at the center o f the steel tube
flange deviated s ig n ific a n tly fro m the lo n g itu d in a l strains at the com ers. Local
d isto rtio n o f the steel tube flanges was observed vis u a lly at approxim ately the same
tim e as this strain deviation occurred. Therefore, Event F indicates when loca l b u cklin g
o f the steel tube flanges was established using measured lo n g itu d in a l strains and visual
observations.
Events E, G, H, and I were experim ental observations. E vent E indicates when
concrete crushing was heard d u rin g the experim ent. E vent G indicates w hen local
d isto rtio n o f the steel tube webs w as visu a lly observed du rin g the experim ent. E vent H
indicates when local d isto rtio n o f the steel tube comers was v is u a lly observed during
the experim ent. Event I indicates when tension cracking o r fracture o f the steel tube
comers was v is u a lly observed d u rin g the experim ent. O n ly events D , E, F, G, H , and I
are indicated on the lateral load — lateral displacem ent (H -A ) responses o f the c y clic
86
beam -colum n specimens. However, a ll the events A to I are used in discussing the
behavior o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
A ll the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens fa ile d at the base o f the specim en test-
length. The length o f the failure segment was a p pro xim ate ly equal to 305 m m . The
m om ent-curvature (M-<j)) response o f the 305 m m fa ilu re segment at the base o f the
specim en test-length is presented along w ith the H -A response o f the c y c lic beam -
co lu m n specimens. The moment (M ) at the m id -h e ig h t o f the fa ilu re segment (150 mm
above the base o f the specimen test-length) was calculated using E quation (3 .3 ), w h ich
includes the p rim a ry bending m om ent caused b y the lateral load H and the second-order
bending m om ent caused b y the constant a xia l load P.
M = H (h —0.15) + P 5 (3.3)
In E quation (3.3) 8 is the displacem ent o f the specim en fro m the chord o f the lateral
displaced shape and h is distance (1.5 m ) o f the p o in t o f a pplication o f lateral load fro m
the base. The curvature (<j>) o f the fa ilu re segment was calculated using Equation (3.4),
w h ich uses the rotations measured b y ro ta tio n meters 1 (9 i) and 3 (0 3) shown in Figure
3.52. The rotations measured b y ro ta tio n m eter 2 w ere influenced b y the loca l
d is to rtio n o f the steel tube. Therefore, it could n o t be used to calculate the curvature o f
the fa ilu re segment.
<j) = ( 0 3 — 0 0 / 3 0 5 ( 3 .4 )
87
CBC-32-80-20
Specim en C B C -32-80-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 3050 kN . H u.
p was determ ined fo r th is specim en to be equal to 627 kN . The lateral load - lateral
displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specim en is shown in Figure 3.54. The m om ent-
curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length is shown in
F igure 3.55. D u rin g the 0.70 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent into tension
(E vent A ) at the cross-section 75 mm above the base o f the test-length and concrete
cra ckin g was heard. Ay was estim ated fo r th is specim en as 14.6 m m . D u rin g the 1.0 Ay
cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in com pression (E vent B ) and the strain in the
extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C ) at the cross-section 75 m m
above the base o f the test-length. W ith increasing lateral displacem ents beyond Ay, the
fle x u ra l stiffness o f the specim en decreased due to concrete tension cracking and steel
tube y ie ld in g at the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the 1.5 Ay cycles, the steel tube
flanges yielded in tension (E vent D ) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the
test-length and concrete crushing was heard (E vent E ). D u rin g the firs t 2.0 Ay cycle,
lo c a l b u cklin g o f the steel tube flanges (E vent F) occurred 75 m m above the base o f the
test-length. Figure 3.56 (a) shows the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube flange. D u rin g
the firs t 3.0 A y cycle, lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs (Event G ) was observed 75
m m above the base o f the test-length and the specim en achieved its lateral load capacity
(H u) equal to 746 kN . The specim en lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly w ith
fu rth e r c y c lic loading. D u rin g the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle, loca l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
com ers (E vent H ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.56
88
(b) shows the loca l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube webs and com ers. One o f the steel tube
flanges fractured (E vent I) a b ru p tly during the firs t 7.0 Ay cycle. Figure 3.56 (c) shows
the fractured steel tube flange o f the specimen. The test was concluded at this point.
The steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the specimen test-
length. As shown in Figure 3.57 extensive crushing o f the concrete in fill was observed
in the fa ilu re segment o f the specim en test-length.
CBC-32-80-10
Specimen C B C -32-80-10 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 2525 kN .
H u.p was determ ined fo r th is specim en to be equal to 564 kN . The lateral load - lateral
displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specimen is shown in Figure 3.58. The m om ent-
Figure 3.59. D u rin g the 0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete went into tension
(Event A ) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length and concrete
cracking was heard. Ay was estim ated fo r this specimen as 15.3 m m . D uring the 1.5 Ay
cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in com pression and tension (Events B and D,
respectively) and the strain in the extreme concrete com pression fiber reached suc
(Event C ) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. D uring the firs t
2.0 Ay cycle, local b u cklin g o f the steel tube flanges (E vent F) occurred 75 m m above
the base o f the test-length. Concrete crushing was heard (E vent E) throughout the 2.0
Ay cycles. Figure 3.60 (a) shows a photograph o f the lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube
flanges. The specimen lateral load capacity (H u) equal to 159.8 k N was reached during
89
the firs t 3.0 Ay cycle. D u rin g the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle, lo ca l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube webs
(E vent G ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. The specim en lateral
load resistance decreased ra p id ly a fte r web local b u c k lin g had occurred. D uring the
firs t 7.0 A y cycle, local b u c klin g o f the steel tube com ers (E ve n t H ) was observed 75
m m above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.60 (b ) shows the loca l b u cklin g o f the
steel tube webs and com ers. D u rin g the second 7.0 Ay cycle, tension fracture o f the
steel tube com ers (Event I) occurred 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. Figure
3.60 (c) shows the tension fracture o f a steel tube com er. The test was concluded at this
point. The steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the specimen
test-length. A s shown in F igure 3.61 extensive crushing o f the concrete in fill was
observed in the fa ilu re segment o f the specimen test-length.
CBC-48-80-20
Specim en C BC -48-80-20 was subjected to a constant a x ia l load o f 2715 kN . H u_
p was determ ined fo r this specim en to be equal to 470 k N . The lateral load — lateral
displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specimen is shown in F ig u re 3.62. The m om ent-
Figure 3.63. D uring the 0.70 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent into tension
cracking was heard. Ay was estim ated fo r this specimen as 11.7 m m . D u rin g the 1.0 Ay
cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in com pression (E ve n t B ) and the strain in the
extreme concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C ) at the cross-section 75 m m
90
above the base o f the test-length. W ith increasing la te ra l displacem ents beyond Ay, the
fle xu ra l stiffne ss o f the specim en decreased, due to concrete tension cracking and steel
tube y ie ld in g at the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the 1.5 Ay cycles, concrete crushing
was heard (E vent E). D u rin g the firs t 2.0 A y cycle, lo ca l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
com pression flanges (E vent F) and yie ld in g o f the steel tube tension flanges (Event D )
occurred 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. F igure 3.64 (a) shows the local
b u cklin g o f the steel tube flange. The specim en achieved its late ral load capacity (H u)
equal to 538 k N d u rin g the firs t 2.0 Ay cycle. D u rin g the firs t 3.0 Ay cycle, local
b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs (Event G ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the
test-length. The specim en lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly a fte r web local
b u cklin g had occurred. D u rin g the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle, lo c a l b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
comers (E ve n t H ) was observed 75 mm above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.64
(b) shows the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs and com ers. Tension fracture o f the
steel tube com ers occurred d u rin g the firs t 7.0 Ay cycle. Figure 3.64 (c) shows the
tension fracture o f a steel tube com er. The test was concluded at th is p o in t. The steel
tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the specim en test-length. As
shown in F ig u re 3.65 extensive concrete crushing o f the concrete in f ill was observed in
the fa ilu re segm ent o f the specim en test-length.
CBC-48-80-10
Specim en C B C -48-80-10 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 1355 kN . H u.p
was determ ined fo r this specim en to be equal to 460 kN . The lateral load - lateral
91
displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specimen is shown in Figure 3.66. The m om ent-
Figure 3.67. D u rin g the 0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent in to tension
(E vent A ) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length and concrete
cracking was heard. Ay was estimated fo r this specim en as 14.0 m m . D u rin g the 1.0 Ay
cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in com pression (E ve n t B ) and the strain in the
extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C) at the cross-section 75 mm
above the base o f the test-length. D uring the 1.5 Ay cycles, the steel tube flanges
yielded in tension (E vent D) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-
length and concrete crushing was heard (Event E ). A d d itio n a lly , during the second 1.5
Ay cycle, lo ca l b u ck lin g o f the steel tube flanges (E vent F) occurred 75 m m above the
base o f the test-length. Figure 3.68 (a) shows the loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube flange.
The specim en achieved its lateral load capacity (H u) o f 497.3 kN du rin g the firs t 2.0 Ay
cycle. D u rin g the second 3.0 Ay cycle, local b u c klin g o f the steel tube webs (E vent G)
was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle,
loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube comers (Event H ) was observed 75 m m above the base
o f the test-length. Figure 3.68 (b) shows the lo ca l b u c klin g o f the steel tube webs and
com ers. The specim en lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly a fter loca l b u ck lin g o f
the webs had occurred. D uring the second 7.0 Ay cycle, tension fracture o f the steel
tube com ers occurred 75 mm above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.68 (c) shows
the tension fracture o f a steel tube com er. The test was concluded at th is p o in t. The
steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the test-length o f the
92
specimen. As shown in Figure 3.69 extensive crushing o f the concrete infill was
observed in the failure segment o f the specimen test-length.
CBC-32-46-20
Specimen C BC-32-46-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 2515 kN . H u.p
was determ ined fo r this specimen to be equal to 409 k N . The lateral load — lateral
displacem ent response o f the specimen is shown in Figure 3.70. The m om ent-curvature
response o f the fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length is shown in Figure 3.71.
D uring the 0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent in to tension (E vent A ) at the
cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length and concrete cracking was heard.
Ay was estim ated fo r this specimen as 9.9 m m . D urin g th e 1.0 Ay cycles, the steel tube
flanges yielded in com pression (Event B ) at the cross-section 75 mm above the base o f
the test-length. W ith increasing lateral displacem ent th e specim en fle x u ra l stiffness
decreased due to concrete cracking and yie ld in g at the base o f the steel tube. D u rin g the
1.5 Ay cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in tension (E ve n t D ). D u rin g the firs t 2.0 Ay
cycle, the strain in the extreme concrete com pression fib e r reached suc (Event C),
concrete crushing was heard (Event E), and local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube flanges
(Event F) occurred 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.72 (a) shows the
local b u cklin g o f the steel tube flange. The specimen achieved its lateral load capacity
(H u) o f 470.6 kN during the firs t 2.0 Ay cycle. D u rin g the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle, local
bu cklin g o f the steel tube webs (Event G ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the
test-length. The specimen lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly after lo ca l b u cklin g
93
o f the webs had occurred. D u rin g the firs t 7.0 Ay cycle, local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube
com ers (E vent H ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.72
(b) shows the lo ca l b u c klin g o f the steel tube webs and comers. The specimen lateral
load resistance increased s lig h tly d u rin g the 8.0 Ay cycles. This m ay have been caused
b y the strain hardening o f the steel tube and extensive d is to rtio n o f the C FT cross-
section close to the base o f the test-length. A t the end o f tw o cycles to 8.0 Ay, the lateral
load resistance o f the specim en was equal to 62% o f the peak load. Therefore, this
specim en was subjected to one 10.0 Ay displacem ent cycle. H ow ever, the displaced
shape o f the test-setup du rin g the 10.0 Ay cycle was considered unsafe and the specimen
was cycled at 8.0 Ay t i l l failure. Tension cracking o f the steel tube com ers (Event I)
occurred d u rin g the firs t a dditional cycle to 8.0 Ay. Figure 3.72 (c) shows the tension
fracture o f a steel tube com er. The test was concluded at this p o in t. The steel tube was
rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the test-length o f the specimen. As
shown in Figure 3.73 extensive crushing o f the concrete in f ill was observed in the
fa ilu re segment o f the specim en test-length.
CBC-32-46-10
Specim en C B C -32-46-10 was subjected to a constant axial load o f 1255 kN . H u.p
was determ ined fo r th is specimen to be equal to 361.6 kN . F igure 3.74 shows the
lateral load — lateral displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specim en. The m om ent-
Figure 3.75. D u rin g the 0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent into tension
94
cracking was heard. Ay was estimated fo r th is specim en as 8.1 m m . D u rin g the 1.0 Ay
cycles, the steel tube flanges yielded in com pression (E vent B ) at the cross-section 75
m m above the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the 1.5 Ay cycles, the steel tube flanges
yielded in tension (E vent D ) and the strain in the extrem e concrete com pression fib e r
reached euc (E vent C) at the cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length.
Concrete crushing was heard (Event E) throughout the 1.5 Ay cycles. D u rin g the firs t
3.0 Ay cycle, lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube flanges occurred 75 m m above the base o f
the test-length and the specim en achieved its peak late ral load capacity (H u) o f 424.3
kN . Figure 3.76 (a) shows the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube flange. D u rin g the firs t
7.0 Ay cycle, lo ca l b u ck lin g o f the steel tube webs was observed 75 m m above the base
o f the test-length. The specim en lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly after local
b u cklin g o f the webs had occurred. D urin g the second 8.0 Ay cycle, local b u cklin g o f
the steel tube com ers (E vent H ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length.
Figure 3.76 (b) shows the loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs. A t the end o f two
cycles to 8.0 Ay, the specim en had a lateral load capacity equal to 83% H u. Therefore,
three a d ditio n al cycles at 8.0 Ay and one cycle at 10.0 Ay were im posed on the
specimen. Tension cracking o f the steel tube com ers (E vent I) 75 m m above the base o f
the test-length was observed d u rin g the 10.0 Ay cycle. F igure 3.76 (c) shows the tension
cracking o f a steel tube com er. The test was concluded at this point. The steel tube was
rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base o f the test-length o f the specimen. As
95
shown in Figure 3.77 extensive crushing o f the concrete infill was observed in the
failure segment o f the specimen test-length.
CBC-48-46-20
Specim en C BC -48-46-20 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 2270 kN . H u.p
was determ ined fo r this specimen to be equal to 404 kN . Figure 3.78 shows the lateral
load - lateral displacem ent (H -A ) response o f the specimen. The m om ent-curvature
response o f the fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length is shown in Figure 3.79.
D u rin g the 0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent into tension (Event A ) at the
cross-section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length and concrete cracking was heard.
A y was estim ated fo r this specimen as 10.4 m m . D urin g the 1.0 Ay cycles, the steel tube
flanges yielded in com pression and tension (Events B and D , respectively) at the cross-
section 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. The specimen fle xu ra l stiffness
decreased w ith increasing displacements due to concrete cracking and y ie ld in g at the
base o f the steel tube. D u rin g the firs t 1.5 Ay cycle, the strain in the extrem e concrete
com pression fib e r reached suc (E vent C) and concrete crushing was heard (E vent E).
A d d itio n a lly , during the firs t 1.5 Ay cycle, the specimen reached its lateral load capacity
(H u) o f 410 k N and local b u cklin g o f the steel tube flanges (Event F) occurred 75 mm
above the base o f the test-length. Figure 3.80 (a) shows the local b u cklin g o f the steel
tube flange. D u rin g the firs t 2.0 Ay cycle, loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs (Event
G ) was observed 75 m m above the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the firs t 3.0 Ay cycle,
loca l b u ck lin g o f the steel tube com ers (E vent H ) was observed 75 m m above the base
96
o f the test-length. Figure 3.80 (b) shows the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs and
com ers. The specim en late ral load resistance decreased ra p id ly a fte r lo ca l b u cklin g o f
the steel tube webs and com ers had occurred. The specimen peak lateral load resistance
was approxim ately equal to 0.5 H u d u rin g the firs t 7.0 Ay cycle. Therefore, the test was
concluded at this p o in t. The steel tube was rem oved to inspect the concrete at the base
o f the test-length o f the specim en. A s shown in Figure 3.81 extensive crushing o f the
concrete in fill was observed in the fa ilu re segment o f the specim en test-length.
CBC-48-46-10
Specimen C B C -48-46-10 was subjected to a constant a xia l load o f 1178 kN . H u.p
was determ ined fo r th is specim en to be equal to 366 kN . The specim en lateral load —
lateral displacem ent response is shown in Figure 3.82. The m om ent-curvature response
o f the fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length is shown in Figure 3.83. D u rin g the
0.50 H u.p cycles, the steel and concrete w ent into tension (E vent A ) at the cross-section
75 mm above the base o f the test-length and concrete cracking was heard. Ay was
estim ated fo r th is specim en as 10.7 m m . D uring the 1.0 Ay cycles, the steel tube flanges
yielded in com pression and tension (Events B and D , respectively) and the strain in the
extrem e concrete com pression fib e r reached euc (Event C) at the cross-section 75 m m
above the base o f the test-length. D u rin g the firs t 1.5 Ay cycle, lo ca l b u cklin g o f the
steel tube flanges (E vent F) occurred 75 m m above the base o f the test-length and the
specimen achieved its lateral load capacity (H u) o f 393.6 kN . Figure 3.84 (a) shows the
loca l bu cklin g o f the steel tube flange. Concrete crushing was heard (E vent E) during
97
the 2.0 Ay cycles. D u rin g the firs t 3.0 Ay cycle, local b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs
(E vent G ) was observed 75 mm above the base o f the test-length. The specimen lateral
load resistance decreased ra p id ly a fte r loca l b u cklin g o f the webs had occurred. D u rin g
the firs t 5.0 Ay cycle, lo c a l b u c klin g o f the steel tube comers (E vent H ) was observed 75
m m above the base o f the test-length. F igure 3.84 (b) shows the lo c a l bucklin g o f the
steel tube webs and com ers. A fte r tw o cycles at 8.0 Ay, the specim en lateral load
resistance was equal to 71% o f H u- Therefore, additional 8.0 Ay cycles were im posed on
the specimen. D u rin g the fifth 8.0 Ay cycle, tension cracking and fracture o f the steel
tube com ers (E vent I) was observed 75 nun above the base o f the test-length. The
testing was concluded at this p o in t. Figure 3.84 (c) shows the tension cracking and
fracture o f a steel tube com er. The steel tube was removed to inspect the concrete at the
base o f the test-length o f the specim en. As shown in Figure 3.85 extensive crushing o f
the concrete in f ill was observed in the fa ilu re segment o f the specim en test-length.
S u m m a ry o f E x p e r im e n ta l B e h a v io r
C y c lic beam -colum n specimens fa il w ith the form ation o f approxim ately 305 m m
fa ilu re segments at the base o f the test-length. The fle xu ra l stiffness o f the specimens
decreases due to tension cracking o f the concrete in fill and y ie ld in g o f the steel tube at
the base o f the test-length. The lateral load capacity is reached due to inelastic behavior
o f the steel and concrete m aterials com bined w ith local b u c klin g o f the steel tube
com pression flange and crushing o f the concrete in fill. Local b u c klin g o f the steel tube
webs occurs w ith increasing lateral displacem ents. The specimen la te ra l load resistance
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decreases ra p id ly a fte r loca l buckling o f the webs has occurred. L o cal b u ck lin g o f the
steel tube com ers and tension cracking o r fracture o f the steel tube com ers occurs w ith
a dditional lateral displacem ents. A n a ly tic a l m odels fo r CFT beam -colum ns must
account fo r these aspects o f the behavior.
3.5.3 EVALUATION OF CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMEN RESULTS
The envelopes o f the m om ent-curvature responses o f the 305 mm fa ilu re segments
at the base o f the specim en test-length were used to determ ine the in itia l (K f.ini^) and
se rvice a b ility-le ve l (Kf.sec-c) section fle xu ra l stiffness, the m om ent capacity (Mu-c), and
curvature d u c tility (p^-c) o f the c yclic beam -colum n specimens. F or exam ple, Figure
3.86 shows the envelope o f the cyclic m om ent-curvature response o f a c y c lic beam-
colum n specimen. The m om ent capacity (Mu-c) was defined as the average o f the peak
moments in the tw o (north and south) loading directions. The in itia l section flexural
stiffness (K f-ini-c) corresponds to the section fle xu ra l stiffness before concrete cracking
(E vent A ) occurs. The serviceability-level section fle xu ra l stiffness (Kf.sec-c) was
defined as the secant section fle xu ral stiffness corresponding to 60% o f the moment
capacity (M u_c).
The envelopes o f the cyclic m om ent-curvature responses were also used to
determ ine the curvature d u c tility (p<j,-c) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. The
curvature d u c tility o f the c yclic beam -colum n specimens was defined as 4>u_c d ivid e d by
((jy-c, where (j)u.c is the average curvature corresponding to the moment o f 0.90 M uk: (post-
99
peak) and (f>y - c is the curvature o f the fa ilu re segment corresponding to M u-c and K f . sec-c ,
i.e., <J)y-c = M u</K f-seCK:■ Figure 3.86 shows a graphical representation o f th e d e fin itio n o f
curvature d u c tility fo r the cyclic beam -colum n specimens. As shown in Figure 3.86,
p^-c is based on an ultim ate curvature equal to the num erical average o f curvature
corresponding to 0.90 M u_c in the north (<f)ui) and south (<j)U2 ) directions. Therefore, the
curvature d u c tility (p^-c) fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n specim ens is equal to
(<f) u l ^ u 2 ) / — (f>y - c -
The envelopes o f the lateral load —lateral displacem ent (H —A) responses were used
to determ ine the displacem ent d u c tility (p A) o f the c yclic beam -colum n specim ens. The
d e fin itio n o f displacem ent d u c tility (p A) is sim ila r to the d e fin itio n o f p ^ presented
above. Displacem ent d u c tility was defined as Au^ d ivided b y Ay-c, w here Au-c is the
num erical average o f the displacements corresponding to 0.90 H u (post-peak) in the
n orth and south directions, and Ay.c is the displacem ent corresponding to H u and K sec-c,
i.e., Ay-c = H u/K sec-c. K sec-c is the secant stiffness o f the colum n corresponding to 0.60
H u. The length o f a colum n has a sig n ifica n t influence on its displacem ent d u c tility . As
a result, pA values cannot be used to compare the d u c tility o f colum ns w ith d iffe re nt
lengths. Curvature d u c tility p ^ is a length independent and m ore fundam ental measure
o f the d u c tility o f a colum n. However, some researchers use pA values to compare the
d u c tility o f d iffe re n t colum ns. Therefore, pA values were calculated and reported along
w ith the p ^ values.
100
The envelopes o f the m om ent-curvature responses o f the c y c lic beam -colum n
specim ens are shown in Figures 3.87 to 3.94, respectively. The m om ent-curvature
responses o f the m onotonic beam -colum n Specimens BC-32-80-20, BC-48-80-20, BC -
32-46-20, and BC-48-46-20 are also included in Figures 3.87, 3.89, 3.91, and 3.93,
respectively. Table 3.10 sum m arizes the experim ental results from the eight c y c lic
beam -colum n specimens. In Table 3.10 Kf-jm--c, Kf-sec-c, M u-c, m,-c, P-a, M u, ETr-tr, EIo- are
equal to experim entally determ ined in itia l section fle x u ra l stiffness, the experim entally
determ ined se rvice a b ility-le ve l section fle x u ra l stiffness, the mom ent capacity o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens, the curvature d u c tility o f the cyclic beam -colum n
specim ens, the displacem ent d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens, the
m om ent capacity o f the corresponding m onotonic beam -colum n specimens, the section
fle x u ra l stiffness predicted using uncracked transform ed section properties, and the
section fle xu ra l section stiffness predicted using cracked transform ed section properties
corresponding to 0.60 M u-c, respectively.
C o m p a ris o n o f m o n o to n ic a n d cyclic b e a m -c o lu m n sp ecim en s
Com parisons o f the m om ent capacities (M u-c) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
(subjected to a xia l load levels o f 20% ) w ith the m om ent capacities (M u) o f the
corresponding m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are shown in Table 3.10. C y c lic
loa d ing does not have a sig n ific a n t influence on the m om ent capacity o f the C FT beam-
colum n specimens (subjected to a xia l load levels o f 20% ). Comparisons o f the
envelopes o f the c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses o f c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
subjected to axial load levels o f 20% w ith the m om ent-curvature responses o f the
101
corresponding m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are shown in Figures 3.87, 3.89,
3.91, and 3.93. These figures indicate that c y c lic loading does not have a sign ifica nt
influence on the section fle xu ra l stiffness and m om ent capacity o f the CFT beam-
colum n specimens. H ow ever, the post-peak m om ent resistance o f the beam -colum n
specimens decreases m ore ra p id ly under cyclic lo a d in g conditions. A s a result, the
curvature d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens is often low er than that o f the
corresponding m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
Figure 3.95 shows the influence o f cyclic loading on the curvature d u c tility o f the
beam -colum n specimens. In Figure 3.95 the m onotonic and cyclic curvature d u c tility o f
the C FT beam -colum n specimens subjected to an a xia l load level o f 20% are plotted
w ith respect to the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube. The corresponding
m onotonic and c y c lic specimens are connected b y dotted lines. Figure 3.95 indicates
that cyclic loading reduces the curvature d u c tility o f the beam -colum n specimens.
H ow ever, this reduction is sig n ifica n t o n ly fo r the specimens w ith a nom in a l b /t ratio o f
32.
The results fo r the 48-46-20 specimens are unexpected. In F igure 3.95 the
curvature d u c tility o f m onotonic beam -colum n specim en B C -48-46-20 and B C -48-46-
22 are compared w ith the curvature d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specim en C BC -
48-46-20. As m entioned previously, a sign ifica nt va ria tio n in the curvature d u c tility o f
the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens B C -48-46-20 and B C -48-46-22 was observed.
A s a result, the curvature d u c tility o f the cyclic beam -colum n specimen C BC -48-46-20
is bounded b y the curvature d u c tility o f the tw o s im ila r m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens.
102
S tiffn e s s
The values fo r section stiffness show n in Table 3.10 indicate that increasing the
n om inal y ie ld stress o f the steel tube o r the level o f a xia l load does not have sig n ifica n t
influence on K f.jni-c. H ow ever, increasing the nom inal b /t ratio o f the steel tube replaces
some area o f steel in the C FT cross section b y concrete, w hich has a low e r m odulus o f
e la sticity, and results in a slig h t reduction in Kf-t-ni-c. Comparisons o f Kf-ini-c w ith
predictions based on the uncracked transform ed section (E ltr) are shown in Table 3.10.
The experim entally determ ined Kf-ini-c is predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y using
the uncracked transform ed section.
The values shown in Table 3.10 indicate that Kf.sec-c increases w ith h igher levels o f
a xia l load acting on the specimen. A t higher a xia l load levels more area o f concrete is
in com pression and thereby a c tive ly p a rticip a tin g in resisting the a xia l and fle x u ra l
loads at 0.60 M u-c, thus increasing K f.sec-c- Com parisons o f Kf_sec-c w ith predictions
based on the cracked transform ed section (E Icr-tr) are shown in Table 3.10. The
experim entally determ ined K f.sec-c is predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y using the
cracked transform ed section corresponding to 0.60 M u_c.
S tre n g th
The values shown in Table 3.10 indicate that the moment capacity (M u-c) o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens increased w hen the nom inal yield stress o f the steel tube
was increased (fro m 317 to 552 M Pa), w h ile m aintaining the nom inal b /t ra tio and a xial
103
load level. F o r cyclic beam -colum n specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ratio o f 32 th is
increase is approxim ately 62% . H ow ever, fo r specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 48
the increase in M u-c is o n ly 28% . Increasing the nom inal b /t ratio o f the steel tube (fro m
32 to 48), w h ile m aintaining the nom inal y ie ld stress o f the steel tube and a xia l load
level decreases the m om ent capacity o f the beam -colum n specimens. For the cyc lic
beam -colum n specimens made fro m conventional strength steel (nom in al y ie ld stress o f
317 M Pa) th is reduction is o n ly 9%. H ow ever, fo r the beam -colum n specimens made
fro m h ig h strength steel (nom inal yie ld stress o f 552 M Pa) th is reduction is alm ost 28% .
D u c tility
The p^-c values fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens are given in Table 3.10.
Figure 3.96 shows the influence o f the leve l o f a xia l load, the measured w id th -to -
thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube, and the measured y ie ld stress o f the steel tube on
the curvature d u c tility (p^-c) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. Figure 3.96 (a)
indicates that increasing the a xia l load level (fro m 10% to 20% ) reduces the curvature
d u c tility o f the cy clic beam -colum n specimens. This reduction is greater fo r the
specimens made fro m conventional strength (317 M Pa) steel. Figure 3.96 (b) indicates
th a t the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube has a sm all influence on the
curvature d u c tility o f cyclic beam -colum n specimens. Figure 3.96 (c) indicates that the
y ie ld stress o f the steel tube has a n e g lig ib le influence on the curvature d u c tility o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens subjected to an a xia l load level o f 20% . H ow ever,
increasing the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube (fro m 317 to 552 M Pa) reduces the curvature
104
ductility o f the cyclic beam-column specimens subjected to an axial load level o f 10%.
Thus, the experim ental results show n in Table 3.10 and Figure 3.96 ind ica te that
the curvature d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens decreases s ig n ific a n tly
w ith an increase in the axial load le ve l. The b /t ratio and nom in a l y ie ld stress o f the
steel tube have a n e gligib le influence on the curvature d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens subjected to h ig h e r a xia l load levels. A t low e r a xia l load levels,
increasing the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube reduces the curvature d u c tility o f the cyclic
beam -colum n specimens. A d d itio n a lly , at lo w e r axial load levels and y ie ld stress (317
M Pa), increasing the b /t ratio o f the steel tube reduces the curvature d u c tility o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens s lig h tly .
E la s tic S tiffn e ss D e g ra d a tio n
As m entioned previously, the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were subjected to an
elastic h a lf cycle a fte r the com pletion o f cycles at each ine la stic displacem ent le ve l (see
the displacem ent loading h isto ry show n in Figure 3.53). The elastic h a lf-c y c le was
conducted b y displacing the specim en up to a lateral load equal to 25% o f the peak
lateral load resistance during the corresponding inelastic displacem ent leve l. The cyclic
m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment was used to determ ine the section
fle x u ra l stiffness (E Ie-d) during the elastic half-cycles.
Figures 3.97 (a) and (b) show the influence o f damage due to c y c lic loa d ing on the
elastic section fle x u ra l stiffness (E Ie-d) o f the c yclic beam -colum n specim ens. In
Figures 3.97 (a) and (b), the elastic section fle x u ra l stiffness (EIe-d) has been norm alized
105
w ith respect to the section fle x u ra l stiffness o f the steel tube (E IS). The norm alized
uncracked transform ed section fle xu ra l stiffness (E Itr/EIs) is also indicated in Figure
3.97 (a) and (b). Figure 3.97 (a) and (b) indicate that the elastic section fle xu ra l
stiffness (E Ie-d) o f the c yclic beam -colum n specimens is in itia lly (approxim ately) equal
to Eltr and decreases ra p id ly to E ISdue to damage caused b y c y c lic loading. W ith cyclic
loading beyond 2.0 Ay, El^d decreases fu rth e r below E IS. ET-d decreases fro m EIq- to E IS
m ostly due to extensive tension cracking o f the concrete in fill under the c y c lic loading.
EIe-d decreases fu rth e r below E ISdue to extensive local b u cklin g o f the steel tube.
E n e rg y D is s ip a tio n
The late ral load — lateral displacem ent response o f each c y c lic beam -colum n
specimen was used along w ith Equation (3 .5 ) to calculate the energy dissipated (E d ) by
the specimen.
E d = Z H |+ ,H m (Am - A , ) (3 .5 )
i L
In Equation (3.5), H,-, H I+i, A;, and A,+i are the lateral load at loa d ing step i, the lateral
load at loading step i+ 1 , the lateral displacem ent at loading step i, and the lateral
displacem ent at loading step i+ 1 , respectively. E d was calculated u n til fa ilu re (as
defined in S ection 3.5.1) occurred in the specimens and the test was concluded.
The c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f each c y c lic beam-
colum n specim en was used along w ith E quation (3.6) to calculate the energy dissipated
b y the fa ilu re segment o f the specim en (E d -f)-
106
E d_f (<{),>! -(jjJ x S O S m m (3.6)
t L
In E quation (3.6) M,-, M 1+i, <j),-, and <{>i+l are the m om ent at loading step i, the m om ent at
loading step i+ 1 , the curvature at loading step i, and the curvature at loading step i+ 1 .
E d-f was calculated u n til fa ilu re (as defined in Section 3.5.1) occurred in the specimens
and test was concluded.
Table 3.11 summarizes the energy dissipated b y the cyclic beam -colum n
specimens. The results in Table 3.11 indicate that alm ost a ll o f the energy is dissipated
in fle xu re in the fa ilu re segment. Figure 3.98 shows the influence o f the level o f axial
load, the measured w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ra tio , and the measured yie ld stress o f the
steel tube on the energy dissipated ( E d -f) b y the fa ilu re segments o f the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens. Figure 3.98 (a) indicates that increasing the a xia l load level (from
10% to 20% ) reduces the energy dissipated b y the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
Figure 3.98 (b) indicates that increasing the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel
tube decreases the energy dissipated by the c y clic beam -colum n specimens
s ig n ifica n tly. Figure 3.98 (c) indicates that the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube has a sm all
influence on the energy dissipated by the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. Thus, Figure
3.98 indicates that the energy dissipated b y the fa ilu re segments o f the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens decreases sig n ifica n tly w ith an increase in the axial load level and
the w idth-to-thickness (b/t) ratio o f the steel tube.
107
A xial Shortening
A s m entioned previously, the a x ia l shortening o f the test-length o f each c y c lic
beam -colum n specim en was also m easured (see Section 3.5.1). Figures 3.99 (a) and (b)
show the axial shortening — lateral displacem ent response o f Specimens C BC -32-80-10
and C BC -32-80-20, respectively. In Figures 3.99 (a) and (b ), a x ia l shortening is shown
as a percentage o f the specimen test-length (1.5 m ). The a x ia l shortening — lateral
displacem ent responses o f the re m ain ing c y c lic beam -colum n specimens subjected to an
a xia l load level o f 10% were s im ila r to the axial shortening — lateral displacem ent
response shown in Figure 3.99 (a ). The a xia l shortening — lateral displacem ent
responses o f the rem aining cyclic beam -colum n specimens subjected to an a xia l load
leve l o f 20% were s im ila r to the a xia l shortening —lateral displacem ent response shown
in Figure 3.99 (b).
Figures 3.99 (a) and (b) indicate that specimens subjected to an axial load le ve l o f
10% do not undergo a xia l shortening u n til the lateral displacem ent levels become
re la tiv e ly large (greater than 5 .0 A y) . The c y c lic b e a m - c o lu m n specimens subjected to
an a xia l load leve l o f 20% undergo sig n ifica n t a xia l shortening after the lateral
displacements exceed 3 .0 A y.
The permanent a xia l shortening, as a percentage o f the test-length, o f each c y c lic
beam -colum n specim en upon co m p le tio n o f testing and rem oval o f the a xia l load is
shown in Figure 3.100. Figure 3.100 indicates that specimens subjected to the larger
a xia l load level o f 20% undergo m ore permanent a xia l shortening than the specimens
subjected to the sm aller axial load le v e l o f 10%. The average a xia l shortening o f the
108
specim en subjected to an a x ia l load level o f 20% is equal to 0.65% o f the test-length
(1.5 m ). The average a xia l shortening o f the specimens subjected to an axial load leve l
o f 10% is equal to 0.28% o f the specim en test-length (1.5 m ).
3.5.4 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH PREDICTIONS
BASED ON THE CURRENT CODE PROVISIONS
A x ia l load —bending m om ent capacity (P -M ) inte ractio n curves were developed fo r
the fo u r C FT specimen types according to the current A IS C -L R F D (1993), A C I (1995),
AJJ (1987) and EC4 (1996) code provisions fo r CFT c o lum ns in Section 3.4.4. These
P -M in te ra ctio n curves fo r the fo u r specimen types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46,
and C FT-48-46 are shown again in Figures 3.101, 3.102, 3.103, and 3.104, respectively.
The experim ental results fro m the corresponding m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens are also shown in Figures 3.101 to 3.104. C om parisons o f the experim ental
m om ent capacities (M u^ ) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith predictions based
on the code provisions are presented in Table 3.12. C om parisons o f the experim ental
m om ent capacities (M u) o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specim ens w ith predictions
based on the code provisions w ere presented earlier in Table 3.9.
C o m p a riso n s w ith cyclic b e a m -c o lu m n specim ens
Figures 3.101 to 3.104 and Table 3.12 indicate that the A IS C -L R F D provisions
s ig n ific a n tly underestim ate the m om ent capacity o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
These pro visio ns do not appropriately account fo r the co n trib u tio n o f the concrete in f ill
109
to the moment capacity.
The A C I predicted m om ent capacity is reasonably accurate and conservative fo r the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32. The A C I predicted
m om ent capacity is reasonably accurate and s lig h tly unconservative fo r the specimens
w ith n o m in al b /t ratios o f 48.
The ALT predicted m om ent capacity is: (1) reasonably accurate fo r the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens belonging to the specim en type CFT-32-80; (2 ) unconservative fo r
the specimens belonging to the specimen type C FT-48-80; (3) m ore conservative fo r the
specimens belonging to the specimen type C FT-32-46, and (4) reasonably accurate but
s lig h tly unconservative fo r the specimens belonging to the specimen type C FT-48-46.
The EC4 predicted m om ent capacity is: (1) reasonably accurate and conservative
fo r the specimens belonging to the specim en type CFT-32-80, (2) unconservative fo r
the specimens belonging to the specimen type C FT-48-80, (3) m ore conservative fo r the
specimens belonging to the specim en type C FT-32-46, and (4) reasonably accurate but
s lig h tly unconservative fo r specimens belonging to the specimen type C FT-48-46.
S u m m a ry o f co m p ariso n s w ith m o n o to n ic a n d cyclic b ea m -c o lu m n specim ens
The experim ental results from the m onotonic and cyclic beam -colum n specimens
shown in Figures 3.101 to 3.104 also indicate that cyclic loading does not have a
s ig n ifica n t influence on the m om ent capacity o f CFT beam -colum n specimens.
H ow ever, Figure 3.104 indicates that a v a ria b ility in the m om ent capacity o f CFT
beam -colum n specimens belonging to the specim en type C FT-48-46 can occur, as
observed fo r Specimens BC -48-46-20 (M u = 596.7 kN -m ), B C -48-46-22 (M u = 629.4

110
kN -m ), and C BC-48-46-20 (M u^ = 549 kN -m ). These specimens had id e n tica l m aterial
and geom etric properties, and the a xia l loads d iffe re d b y 2% o f P0- H ow ever, the
m om ent capacities o f these specimens va rie d appreciably.
Figures 3.101 to 3.104 and Tables 3.9 and 3.12 indicate th a t the A IS C -LR F D
provisions sig n ific a n tly underestim ate the m om ent capacity o f the C FT beam -colum n
specimens. The A C I predicted m om ent capacity is reasonably accurate and
conservative fo r the CFT beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32. The
A C I predicted m om ent capacity is also reasonably accurate fo r the specimens w ith
nom inal b /t ratios o f 48.
The A IJ code provisions are: (1) reasonably accurate but s lig h tly unconservative
fo r specimens belonging to the specim en type C FT-32-80, (2) too unconservative fo r
specimens belonging to specimen type C FT-48-80, (3) neither consistently conservative
nor unconservative fo r specimens belonging to specimen type C FT-32-46, and (4)
reasonably accurate but s lig h tly unconservative fo r specimens belo n g in g to specimen
type C FT-48-46.
The EC4 code provisions are: (1 ) neither consistently conservative nor
unconservative fo r specimens belonging to specimen type C FT-32-80, (2) more
unconservative fo r specimens belo n g in g to the specimen typ e C FT-48-80, (3)
conservative fo r specimens belonging to specim en type C FT-32-46, and (4) reasonably
accurate fo r specimens belonging to specim en type C FT-48-46.
The com parisons o f the m onotonic and c y c lic experim ental results w ith predictions
based on the current code provisions indicate that the current A C I code provisions fo r
C FT colum ns can be used fo r p re d ictin g the m om ent capacity o f square C FT colum ns

111
made fro m hig h strength m aterials.
3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS FROM EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS
The behavior o f h ig h strength square C FT colum ns subjected to a x ia l loading
con ditio n s (stub colum ns), com bined constant a x ia l load and m o n o to n ica lly increasing
fle x u ra l loading conditions (m onotonic beam -colum ns), and com bined constant axial
load and c y c lic a lly va ryin g fle xu ral loading conditions (c y c lic beam -colum ns) was
e xp erim e nta lly investigated. The influence o f the w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ra tio , the
y ie ld stress o f the steel tube, and the le ve l o f a x ia l load on the perform ance o f the CFT
beam -colum n specimens was studied.
The C FT specimens were three-fourth scale m odels o f the base colum ns o f a 6-
sto ry perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram e designed fo r the U.S.-Japan theme structure.
The C FT specimens consisted o f 305 m m square steel tubes fille d w ith h ig h strength
(110 M P a) concrete. The steel tubes had nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 o r 48 and were made
fro m e ith er conventional (317 MPa) o r h ig h strength (552 M Pa) m aterial. F our stub
colum n specimens, eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens (a xia l load leve l o f 20%
and 40% ), and e ig h t c y c lic beam -colum n specimens (a x ia l load level o f 10% and 20% )
were tested. A d d itio n a lly , m aterial tests w ere conducted in accordance w ith A S T M
standards to determ ine the m aterial properties fo r the steel tubes and concrete in f ill o f
the C FT specimens.
The a xia l load — displacem ent response o f the stub colum n specimens was nearly
112
lin e a r alm ost up to peak load. The peak load was reached due to inelastic behavior o f
the steel and concrete m aterials and was accom panied b y loca l b u c klin g o f the steel tube
and crushing o f the concrete in fill. The stub colum n specimens fa ile d a b ru p tly sh o rtly
after reaching peak load due to extensive local b u cklin g and crushing o f the concrete
in fill. The a xia l section stiffness o f the stub colum n specimens was predicted w ith
reasonable accuracy b y the transform ed section properties. The a xia l load capacity o f
the stub colum n specimens was predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y superposing the
y ie ld strength o f the steel tube w ith 85% o f the com pressive strength o f the concrete
in f ill (i.e ., Pgs). Ps5 is also recomm ended b y the current A C I provisions fo r p re dictin g
the a x ia l load capacity o f C FT colum ns.
The m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were subjected to constant a xia l load and
m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle x u ra l loading conditions. The m id-h e igh t m om ent
a v e ra g e end ro ta tio n response o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens was presented.
The m om ent capacity was accom panied b y inelastic behavior o f the steel and concrete
m aterials and was accom panied b y crushing o f the concrete in f ill and lo ca l b u cklin g o f
the steel tube flanges close to the m id-h e igh t o f the specimen test-length. The fle xu ra l
resistance o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens decreased w ith increasing
deform ations and was accom panied b y loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube webs. T y p ic a lly ,
a m onotonic beam -colum n specim en fa ile d w ith the form ation o f an approxim ately 305
m m lo n g inelastic fa ilu re segment close to the m id-height o f the specim en test-length.
The m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segments was used to evaluate the
perform ance o f each m onotonic beam -colum n specimen. The in itia l section fle xu ra l
stiffness and the se rvice a b ility-le ve l section fle xu ra l stiffness was predicted w ith
113
reasonable accuracy b y the uncracked transform ed section properties and cracked
transform ed section properties corresponding to 60% o f the mom ent capacity,
respectively. The moment capacity was predicted w ith reasonable accuracy and
con serva tive ly using the current A C I provisions fo r C FT beam-columns. The A U
predicted m om ent capacity was accurate but s lig h tly unconservative fo r the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens made fro m hig h strength steel tubes w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f
32. The A U predicted m om ent capacity was m ore unconservative fo r the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens made fro m hig h strength steel tubes w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f
48. The curvature d u c tility decreased s ig n ific a n tly w ith an increase in the a xia l load
le ve l and b /t ra tio o f the steel tube. H ow ever, the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube does not
seem to have a sign ifica nt influence on the curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic beam -
colum n specimens.
The test-lengths o f the cyclic beam -colum n specimens were fixe d at the base and
subjected to a constant axial load and c y c lic a lly varying lateral loading at the top. The
lateral loading h isto ry consisted o f elastic and inelastic cycles and was based on the
A T C (A T C -2 4 1992) guidelines fo r eye he testing o f structural steel components. The
c y c lic lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f the c yclic beam -colum n specimens
was presented. The fle xu ral stiffness o f the specimens decreased due to tension
cracking o f the concrete in fill and yie ld in g at the steel tube at the base o f the test-length.
The lateral load capacity was reached due to inelastic behavior o f the steel and concrete
m aterials com bined w ith local b u cklin g o f the steel tube compression flange and
crushing o f the concrete in fill. Local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube webs occurred w ith
increasing lateral displacements. The specim en lateral load resistance decreased ra p id ly

114
after lo c a l b u c k lin g o f the webs had occurred. Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube com ers
and tension cracking o r fracture o f the steel tube cornered occurs w ith a dditional lateral
displacem ents. Each c y c lic beam -colum n specim en fa ile d w ith the fo rm a tio n o f an
a pproxim ately 305 m m long inelastic fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length.
The envelope o f the m om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f each
specim en was used to evaluate the perform ance o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
Com parisons o f the m om ent-curvature responses o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -
colum n specimens indicated that c y c lic lo a d in g does not have a s ig n ific a n t influence on
the stiffness and m om ent capacity o f C F T beam -colum ns. H ow ever, the post-peak
m om ent resistance o f the beam -colum n specimens decreases m ore ra p id ly under c y c lic
loading conditions. Therefore, c y c lic loading conditions have a s ig n ific a n t influence on
the curvature d u c tility o f C FT beam -colum n specimens, especially those w ith nom in a l
b /t ratios o f 32.
The curvature d u c tility of the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens decreases
s ig n ific a n tly w ith an increase in the a xia l load level. The b /t ra tio and nom inal y ie ld
stress o f the steel tube do not have a s ig n ific a n t influence on the curvature d u c tility o f
the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens subjected to higher a xia l load levels. A t lo w e r a x ia l
load levels, increasing the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube reduces the curvature d u c tility o f
the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. A d d itio n a lly , at low e r a xia l load levels and y ie ld
stress (317 M P a), increasing the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube also reduces the curvature
d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens slig h tly .
The m om ent capacity o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios
o f 32 are predicted w ith reasonable accuracy and conservatively using the current A C I
115
provisions fo r C FT colum ns. The A C I predicted m om ent capacity is accurate but
s lig h tly unconservative fo r c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f
48. The A U predicted m om ent capacity is accurate fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens made fro m h ig h strength steel tubes w ith nom in al b /t ratios o f 32. However,
the A U predicted m om ent capacity is m ore unconservative fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens made fro m h ig h strength steel tubes w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 48.
The com parisons o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n specimen results w ith
predictions based on several current code provisions indicate that the current A C I code
provisions fo r C FT colum ns are appropriate fo r p re dictin g the m om ent capacity o f
square C FT colum ns made fro m hig h strength m aterials.
3.7 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGH STRENGTH SQUARE CFT
COLUMNS
S tre n g th
The current A C I (1995) code provisions fo r com posite colum ns are recommended
fo r p re dictin g the a xia l load and bending m om ent capacity o f h ig h strength square CFT
columns.- H ow ever, the resistance fa cto r o f 0.7, w hich is cu rre n tly recommended b y the
A C I code provisions fo r com posite colum ns, is considered to be conservative fo r high
strength square C FT colum ns. Therefore, a resistance fa cto r o f 0.85, w hich is
recommended b y the cu rren t A IS C -L R F D (1993) provisions fo r com posite columns, is
recommended fo r the h ig h strength square C FT colum ns.
116
S tiffn e ss
The cracked transform ed section (Elcr-tr-o) corresponding to 70% o f the nom inal
moment capacity is recommended fo r p redicting the se rvic e a b ility le ve l fle xu ra l section
stiffness o f h ig h strength square CFT colum ns.
A v a ila b le c u rv a tu re d u c tility
The curvature d u c tility o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens was
reevaluated using the recommended design provisions fo r C FT beam -colum ns. Table
3.13 shows the stiffness (E Icr.tr-D) and nom inal m om ent capacity (0.85 M Ac i ) o f the
m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens predicted using the recommended
design provisions. The nom inal m om ent capacity is equal to the resistance factor (0.85)
m u ltip lie d b y the m om ent capacity ( M Ac i ) predicted using the current A C I code
provisions. The experim ental m om ent capacities (M u o r M u-c) and the se rvice a b ility
level fle xu ra l section stiffness (Kf-Sec o r Kf.scc-c) o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens are also shown in Table 3.13
Figure 3.105 (a) shows a com parison o f the experim ental and design m om ent -
curvature responses o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specim en B C -48-80-20. The
design m om ent — curvature response is assumed to be elastic — plastic w ith stiffness
equal to EIcr-tr-D and m om ent capacity equal to 0.85 M aci- The available curvature
d u c tility (p^-a) o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specim en is equal to <j)u_D d ivid e d b y <j)y.D,
where (j)u_D is equal to the curvature corresponding to 0.85 M aci (post-peak) and <j)y_D is
the curvature corresponding 0.85 M aci and E I cr.tr.D, i.e., (j)y.D = 0.85 M Ac i/E Ic r_tr-D- A
117
graphical representation o f the d e fin itio n o f pâ is also shown in Figure 3.105 (a). The
a vailable curvature d u c tility pâ fo r the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens is shown in
Table 3.13. The post-peak m om ent resistance o f Specimens BC -32-80-20, BC -32-46-
20, and BC-48-46-22 was greater than 0.85 M aci when testing was concluded.
Therefore, 4>u_d was assumed fo r these specimens to be equal to the curvature at the end
o f the test. The p<t,_a values given in Table 3.13 fo r these specimens are lo w e r bound
estim ates o f the available curvature d u c tility .
F ig u re 3.105 (b) shows a com parison o f the envelope o f the cyclic m om ent-
curvature response o f Specimen CBC-48-80-20 and the corresponding design m om ent —
curvature response. The available curvature d u c tility (p^-a) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n
specim en is defined as <j>u-D d ivided b y <{)y-D, where (f)u_D is the num erical average o f the
curvatures corresponding to 0.85 M aci in the north and south d ire ctio n and <j>y.D is the
curvature corresponding to 0.85 M aci and EIcr.tr.D, i.e., (j)y.D is equal to 0 .8 5 M Aci/EIcr-tr-D-
A g raphical representation o f the d e fin itio n o f p<j,.a fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens is also shown in Figure 3.105 (b). The available curvature d u c tility (p<j,-a) fo r
the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens are shown in Table 3.13.
F ig u re 3.106 shows the influence o f the a xia l load level, the measured w id th -to -
thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube, and the measured yie ld stress (cry) o f the steel tube
on the available curvature d u c tility o f the c y clic beam -colum n specimens. As
m entioned previously, the available curvature d u c tility o f three m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens subjected to an a xia l load level o f 20% could not be calculated.
118
Therefore, the influence o f parameters on the availalable curvature ductility o f the
monotonic beam-column specimens is not presented.
Figure 3.106 (a) shows that increasing the a x ia l load le ve l has a sig n ifica n t
influence on the p^-a o f c y c lic beam -colum n specimens made from conventional
strength steel tubes w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32. Figure 3.106 (b) indicates that
increasing the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube s ig n ific a n tly reduces the pâ o f c yclic beam-
colum n specimens. Figure 3.106 (c) indicates that increasing the y ie ld stress o f the
steel tube reduces the p<j,-a o f cyclic beam -colum n specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ratio o f
32. Increasing the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube s lig h tly increases the m,_a o f cyclic
beam -colum n specim ens w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 48. T his m ay have been caused b y
the better confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill b y the h ig h e r strength steel tube.
Figure 3.106 indicates that the w idth-to-thickness ra tio is the most im portant
param eter in flu e n c in g the p^.a o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. A t lo w e r axial
load levels and b /t ra tio , the yie ld stress o f the steel tube also has a sign ifica nt influence
on p<j>.a o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
119
Table 3.1 Limits on b/t ratio according to current code provisions
Specimen Steel tube Nominal b/t lii nits

type b/t ratio LRFD ACI AIJ EC4
C FT-32-80 A500 Grade-80 32 33.0 33.0 46.8 33.9
C FT-48-80 A500 Grade-80 48 33.0 33.0 46.8 33.9
C FT-32-46 A500 Grade-B 32 43.5 43.5 61.8 44.7
C FT-48-46 A500 Grade-B 48 43.5 43.5 61.8 44.7
Table 3.2 Test-m atrix, nom inal dim ensions, and m aterial properties
Specimen Nominal Nominal Test Nominal

ED b/t ratio CTy length axial load
(MPa) (m) (P/Po)
SC-32-80 32 552 1.2 1.00
SC-48-80 48 552 1.2 1.00
SC-32-46 32 317 1.2 1.00
SC-48-46 48 317 1.2 1.00
B C -32-80-20 BC -32-80-40 32 552 1.5 0.2 0.4
B C -48-80-20 BC -48-80-40 32 552 1.5 0.2 0.4

B C -32-46-20 BC -32-46-40 32 317 1.5 0.2 0.4
B C -48-46-20 BC-48-46-22 32 317 1.5 0.2 0.2
C B C -32-80-10 C BC-32-80-20 48 552 1.5 0.1 0.2

C B C -48-80-10 C BC-48-80-20 48 552 1.5 0.1 0.2
C B C -32-46-10 C BC-32-46-20 48 317 1.5 0.1 0.2
C B C -48-46-10 CBC-48-46-20 48 317 1.5 0.1 0.2
120
Table 3.3 Average material properties for steel tubes o f CFT specimens
Specimen tm Es Es-h C7y CTu YR sy Me

type (mm) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (mm/mm)
C FT-32-80 8.9 197 1450 560 642 0.86 0.0028 42
C FT-48-80 6.1 194 1200 660 737 0.90 0.0033 36
C FT-32-46 8.6 197 2640 259 412 0.62 0.0013 139
C FT-48-46 5.8 204 1320 471 534 0.88 0.0024 63
Table 3.4 Average m aterial properties fo r steel tube flanges o f C FT specimens
Specimen CTy-r cru-f S y-f He-r O’y-m O’u-m
type (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

C FT-32-80 600 674 0.00300 39.7 603 651
C FT-48-80 660 737 0.00330 36.4 660 737
C FT-32-46 269 429 0.00135 169.3 326 415
C FT-48-46 471 534 0.00235 63.0 383 530
Table 3.5 M aterial properties o f cored concrete cylinders
Core Ec fc Sue
number (GPa) (MPa) (mm/mm)
1 41.1 107.3 0.00265
2 42.0 110.5 0.00269
3 42.9 113.9 0.00275
121
Table 3.6 Test matrix with measured material properties and dimensions
Specimen Measured Measured Measured fc Axial

ID (mm) b/t °y CTy-f (MPa) load
ratio (MPa) (MPa) (P/Po)
SC-32-80 8.9 34.29 560 600 1.00
SC-48-80 6.1 50.00 660 660 1.00
SC-32-46 8.6 35.29 259 269 110 1.00
SC-48-46 5.8 52.17 471 471 1.00
BC -32-80-20 8.9 34.29 560 600 0.21
BC -32-80-40 8.9 34.29 560 600 0.43
BC -48-80-20 6.1 50.00 660 660 0.22
BC -48-80-40 6.1 50.00 660 660 0.44
BC -32-46-20 8.6 35.29 259 269 110 0.22
BC -32-46-40 8.6 35.29 259 269 0.44

BC -48-46-20 5.8 52.17 471 471 0.20
BC -48-46-22 5.8 52.17 471 471 0.22
C BC -32-80-20 8.9 34.29 560 600 0.21
C BC-32-80-10 8.9 34.29 560 600 0.11
CBC-48-80-20 6.1 50.00 660 660 0.22
CBC-48-80-10 6.1 50.00 660 660 110 0.11

C BC-32-46-20 8.6 35.29 259 269 0.22
C BC-32-46-10 8.6 35.29 259 269 0.11
CBC -48-46-20 5.8 52.17 471 471 0.20
CBC-48-46-10 5.8 52.17 471 471 0.10
122
Table 3.7 Stub column specimen results
Specimen ID Po Kax-cxp Po Po Kax-exp

(kN) (kN) P85 Pioo EAtr
SC -32-80 14116 5.4746 x 106 1.04 0.95 1.05
SC -48-80 12307 4.9490 x 106 0.96 0.86 1.02
SC -32-46 11390 5.2028 x 106 1.10 0.97 1.00
SC -48-46 11568 4.8643 x 106 1.02 0.90 1.01
Average 1.03 0.92 1.02
C o e fficie n t o f V a ria tio n 0.06 0.05 0.02
Table 3.8 M onotonic beam -colum n specimen results
Specimen Ef-ini K f.scc Mu p* Kf-ini Kf-sec

ID (kN-mm2) (kN-mm2) (kN-m)
x lO 10 x 1010 E Itr Elcr-tr
BC-32-80-20 5.57 4.20 933 13.9 1.02 0.93
BC-32-80-40 5.10 5.22 806 2.9 0.93 0.98
BC-48-80-20 4.97 3.74 700 5.3 1.05 1.03
BC-48-80-40 4.83 4.95 574 1.7 1.02 1.07
BC-32-46-20 5.20 4.35 606 13.8 0.96 0.97
BC-32-46-40 5.00 4.35 543 2.5 0.93 0.83
BC-48-46-20 5.05 3.57 597 2.9 1.08 1.00
BC-48-46-22 5.01 3.81 629 5.9 1.07 1.07
123
Table 3.9 Comparisons o f the experimental moment capacities o f the mono tonic beam-
colum n specimens w ith predictions based on the current code provisions
Specimen Mu M„ Mu Mu Mu
ID (kN-m)
M lr fD M aci M A ij M e C4
B C -32-80-20 933 1.33 1.10 0.97 0.98
B C -32-80-40 80 6 1.56 1.17 0.91 0.91
BC -48-80-20 700 1.26 1.00 0.87 0.91
BC -48-80-40 574 1.37 0.99 0.72 0.74
BC -32-46-20 606 1.96 1.12 1.10 1.19
B C -3 2-46-40 543 2.51 1.06 0.95 1.04
BC -48-46-20 597 1.54 1.00 0.97 1.04
BC -48-46-22 629 1.66 1.05 1.01 1.08
Average 1.65 1.06 0.94 0.98
Coefficient of Variation 0.41 0.07 0.11 0.13
Table 3.10 C yclic beam -colum n specim en results
Specimen Kf-ini-c Kf-scc-c M u.c m-c Mm: Kf-ini-c Kf-sec-c

ID (k N -m m 2) (k N -m m 2) (kN -m )
x 10'° x 10 Mu E ltr Elcr-tr
C B C -32-80-20 5.24 4.32 954 4.2 3.2 1.02 0.96 1.00
C B C -32-80-10 5.65 3.55 926 6.0 4.3 - 1.03 0.96
C B C -48-80-20 4.83 3.65 712 4.2 3.2 1.02 1.02 1.06
C B C -48-80-10 4.97 3.10 645 6.0 4.2 - 1.05 1.00
C B C -32-46-20 5.42 3.90 606 4.7 3.4 1.00 1.00 0.93
C B C -32-46-10 5.65 3.45 553 8.1 5.8 - 1.05 0.90
C B C -48-46-20 5.05 3.90 549 4.7 3.3 0.92 1.08 1.07
C B C -48-46-10 5.01 3.22 512 7.1 5.3 - 1.07 1.03
124
Table 3.11 Energy dissipated by cyclic beam-column specimens
Specimen Ed E d -f
ID (kN-m) (kN-m)
CBC-32-80-20 488.0 404.8
C BC-32-80-10 603.5 500.2
CBC-48-80-20 222.0 204.5
CBC-48-80-10 392.7 335.7
CBC-32-46-20 479.5 458.1
CBC-32-46-10 558.5 516.1
CBC-48-46-20 241.4 232.7
CBC-48-46-10 454.6 427.0
Table 3.12 Com parisons o f the experim ental m om ent capacities o f the c yclic beam-
colum n specimens w ith p redictions based on the current code provisions
Specimen M u-c Mu-c Mu-c Mu-c M u,

ID (kN-m)
M lr fd M aci M a ij M e C4
C B C -32-80-20 954 1.36 1.13 0.99 1.01
C BC -32-80-10 926 1.31 1.08 1.06 1.05
C BC -48-80-20 712 1.28 1.02 0.89 0.92
C BC -48-80-10 645 1.17 0.94 0.92 0.91
C BC -32-46-20 606 1.96 1.12 1.10 1.19

C BC -32-46-10 553 1.76 1.15 1.21 1.25
C BC -48-46-20 549 1.42 0.92 0.90 0.96
CBC -48-46-10 512 1.35 0.94 0.99 0.99
Average 1.45 1.04 1.01 1.03
Coefficient of Variation 0.27 0.09 0.11 0.12
125
Table 3.13 S tiffness, strength, and available curvature d u c tility o f m onotonic and
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens according to recommended design
provisions
Specimen M„ or M u-c Kf-sec o r 0.85 M a ci EIcr-tr-D Pcj>—

a
ID (kN-m) kf-sec-c (kN-m) (kN-mm2)
(kN-mm2) x lO 10
x lO 10
B C -32-80-20 933 4.20 718 4.51 g r e a te r than
4 9 .4
B C -32-80-40 806 5.22 584 5.23 8.9
B C -48-80-20 700 3.74 593 3.79 22.9
B C -48-80-40 574 4.95 499 4.61 2.0
B C -32-46-20 606 4.35 462 4.58 g r e a te r than
1 8 .9
B C -32-46-40 543 4.35 426 4.30 3.5
B C -48-46-20 597 3.57 507 3.73 6.8
B C -48-46-22 629 3.81 511 3.81 g r e a te r than
2 7 .0
C B C -32-80-20 954 4.32 718 4.51 9 .9
C B C -32-80-10 926 3.55 732 4.07 9.8

C B C -48-80-20 712 3.65 593 3.79 6.6
C BC -48-80-10 645 3.10 591 3.26 6.3
C BC -32-46-20 606 3.90 462 4.58 10.8
C B C -32-46-10 553 3.45 410 4.20 18.1
C B C -48-46-20 549 3.90 505 3.69 4.4
C B C -48-46-10 512 3.22 461 3.23 5.7
126
N
W-
B D
35.2 in
SO
*
6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 in 6.4 m 6.4 m
38.4 m
► .* rig id connection
• .- p in connection
Figure 3.1 S tructural flo o r plan o f 6 -sto ry C FT m om ent-resisting-fram e b u ild in g
127
3.6 m
W18x35----- —►
3.6 m
\V24x84---- —►
3.6 m
c \V24x84 — —
s
TT 3.6 m
X \V24x84----- — x
ion in
rr o
TT
X 3.6 m
m VV24x84---- — X
o m
TT o
TT
£ £ 4.6 m
U o
+H- -* + * - -*K- -+H- -H + -

6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m
VV18x35-
3.6 m
W18x35-
3.6 m
YV24x84-
3.6 m
\V24x84-
3.6 m
x W24x84 - x
m m
o
3.6 m
\V24x84- X
m in
e o
T
£ 4.6 m
Pin Pin -
u
//rs // 77777V / / / / / / / / / / / / 77777V 777777
— — H«—
6.4 m 6.4 m 9.6 m 6.4 m 6.4 m
Figure 3.2 S tructural elevation o f perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram es: (a) East-W est
Frame; (b) N orth-S outh Frame
128
(D Start with steel coils (5)—►(?) Formation o f comers (D Seam welding
Figure 3.3 F abrication o f steel tubes from coils
F igure 3.4 P lacing concrete in steel tubes o f CFT specimens
129
840
® ,®
700-
560-
150 mm
Weld
420-
280- 01 ©
1401
V © (6) J
4 150 mm »~|
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

S train (m m /m m )
Figure 3.5 Locations o f tension coupons and measured stress-strain curves fo r steel
tube o f specim en type C FT-32-80
840
700
560 150 m m
Weld
01 I®
280
140 V © ® J
- 150 mm . I
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

S train (m m /m m )
Figure 3.6 Locations o f tension coupons and measured stress-strain curves fo r steel
130
56b
(D,0 ®,®
420-
Weld
® l C
D
140-
V CD C6) J
4 150 m m .
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
Strain (m m /m m )
F igure 3.7 Locations o f tension coupons and measured stress-strain curves fo r steel
560
420
150 mm
es Weld
® l I® ;
140
150 mm
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
F igure 3.8 Locations o f tension coupons and measured stress-strain curves fo r steel
131
124.0"
o o
0 ------------ e--------
110. 0 - "O" g-
o
8
87.5-
es
£-
CD
« 55.0-1
27.5- O C ylinders cured in p lastic molds
A C ylinders cured in lim estone bath
0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112
T im e (Days)
Figure 3.9 M easured com pressive strength o f concrete cylinders w ith respect to
curing tim e and conditions
137.5-
C o re # 3
110. 0 -
C ore # 1
i 5 87.5-
5/3 55.0-
27.5- C o re num ber 1

C o re num ber 2
C o re num ber 3
0. 0-
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003
Strain (m m /m m )
Figure 3.10 M easured u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r cored concrete cylinders

132
Applied Axial Load - P
M a c h in e H e a d
String pot
150 mm ,,
300 mm
300 mm LVDT
<D
300 mm Longitudinal
strain gage
150 m m >r
Seam weld
F ig u re 3.11 Stub colum n test-setup and instrum entation layo u t
F igure 3.12 Photograph o f stub colum n test-setup
133
18000
| Initial concrete crushing

0 i Steel yields in compression
13500-i J TD Extensive local buckling and concrete crushing
Axial Load (k N )
4500-
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

A xial D isplacem ent (m m )
F ig u re 3.13 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC-32-80
Figure 3.14 Stub colum n specimens after testing: (a) S C -32-80; (b) SC-48-80
134
18000
i
| In itia l concrete crushing

13500
■£ CD Extensive local buckling and concrete crushing

z
s
J 9000
3 Seam w eld tear initiated
Q Tube split open at bottom
4500
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

A xial Displacem ent (m m )
F igure 3.15 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC-48-80

18000
13500
Steel yields in compression
p. In itia l concrete crushing
\ / \ Extensive local buckling and concrete crushing
9000
4500-
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

A xial Displacem ent (m m )
F igure 3.16 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC-32-46
135
Figure 3.17 Stub column specimens after testing: (a) SC-32-46; (b) SC-48-46
18000
Local buckling observed

1 3500'
Extensive local buckling and concrete crushing

Axial Load (k N )
9000
4500 !
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0
A xial D isplacem ent (m m )
Figure 3.18 A x ia l load-shortening response o f SC-48-46
136
Applied a x ia llo aud^lP
P
Overhead test machine
Cylindrical bearing
X — ►Lateral bracing 4 >
M =3 Q
Clevis with pin L oad cell
Load cell
4.0 m
M =3 Q
W 2 7 x 94
^ -J-4- Cylindrical! bearing
'Test bed floor

1.5 m 1.5 m
Figure 3.19 M ono to n ic beam -colum n test-setup
Cylindrical bearing
© Rotation meter
iI o7
380 mm
1
LVD T
op 190 mm ;
o 05
190 mm ,^ (D
o ----0 4 - i wm -
H 190 mm i Longitudinal
03 :
190 mm strain gage
--- 0-2—
!
380 mm
Seam weld
1r OI
Cylindrical bearing (~
Figure 3.20 Instrum entation fo r m onotonic beam -colum n specimens

137
F igure 3.21 Photograph o f m onotonic beam -colum n test-setup and instrum entation
layout
138
A: Concrete goes in to tension
B: Yielding o f steel compression flange
C : Extrem e concrete fib e r reaches suc
D : Yielding o f steel tension flange
E: In itia l concrete crushing
F: Local buckling o f compression flange
G : Local buckling o f webs
0T 1----------------- 1----------------- I----------------- 1------------------ 1-----------------
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Average E n d Rotation (rad .)
Figure 3.22 M id -h e ig h t moment - average end rotation response o f BC -32-80-20
Figure 3.23 L o ca l buckling and concrete crushing in B C -32-80-20

139
Moment (k N - 111) 900
675 J
450-j
225-
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 1(H (1/m m )
Figure 3.24 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f B C -32-80-20
1125
900
Mid-Height Moment (kN-m)
675
A : Concrete goes into tension

450 B: Yielding o f steel compression flange
C : Extrem e concrete fib e r reaches suc
D : Y ield in g o f steel tension flange
225 E: In itia l concrete crushing
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

A verage E n d Rotation (ra d .)
Figure 3.25 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f B C -32-80-40
140
F igure 3.26 L o ca l buckling and concrete crushing in B C -32-80-40
Moment (k N -n i)
225-
0.8 1.6 2.4

C u rva tu re x 10"* (1/m m )
F igure 3.27 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f BC -32-80-40
141
1125
A : C oncrete goes into tension
B: Y ie ld in g o f steel compression flange
900 C : E x tre m e concrete fib e r reaches euc
Mid-Height Moment (k N -m )
675
450-

225
G : L o cal buckling o f webs
H : Tension cracking o f corners
0 0.02 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 8 0.1 0.12

Average End R o tation (ra d .)
Figure 3.28 M id -h e ig h t moment - average end ro ta tio n response o f B C -48-80-20
...
ensio
F igure 3.29 L o ca l buckling and concrete crushing in BC -48-80-20
142
1125
co
co
s 450-j
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.8 5.4

C u rv a tu re x 1 (H (1 /m m )
F igure 3.30 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f BC -48-80-20
1125

B: Yield in g o f steel compression flange
C : E x trem e concrete fib e r reaches euc
E : In itia l concrete crushing
F : Local buckling o f compression flange
G : L ocal buckling o f webs
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

A verage End R o tation (ra d .)
Figure 3 .31 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f BC -48-80-40

143
F igure 3.32 L o ca l b u cklin g and concrete crushing in B C -48-80-40
9001
|
I
| 675 -
c
e
£
225 i
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

C u rv a tu re x 10 *4 (1/m m )
F igure 3.33 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f B C -48-80-40
144
1125
900
B
S)
675
s
o
s
.2P
*3
3 450
S■ A : C oncrete goes into tension
-s B: Y ie ld in g o f steel compression flange
C : E x tre m e concrete fib e r reaches suc
225 D : Y ie ld in g o f steel tension flange
F: L o ca l buckling o f compression flange
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

A verage End R otation (ra d .)
Figure 3 .34 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f BC -32-46-20
1125T
9 00 '
z 675-
s
s
o
s
225
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

C u rv a tu re x 10" 4 (1 /m m )
Figure 3.35 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f BC -32-46-20

145
1125
900-
M id-Height Moment (k N -n i)
675
A : Concrete goes into tension

450-
B: Yielding o f steel compression flange
C : Extrem e concrete fib er reaches euc
D : Yielding o f steel tension flange
225 E : In itia l concrete crushing
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Average E n d R otation (rad.)
Figure 3.36 M id-h e igh t m om ent - average end rotation response o f BC -32-46-40
Figure 3.37 Local b u cklin g and concrete crushing in BC -32-46-40

146
1125 T
9001
a"
C
Z 6751
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

C u rv a tu re x 10 "4 (1/m m )
F igure 3.38 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f B C -32-46-40
1125

B : Y ield in g o f steel compression flange
900
C : E xtrem e concrete fib e r reaches 8 UC
Z D : Y ield in g o f steel tension flange
C 675
5
s
'3
3 450
Xt
i
225
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

A verage E n d R o ta tio n (rad .)
F igure 3 .39 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f B C -48-46-20

147
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0
C u rv a tu re x lO - 4 (1 /m m )
Fisure 3.40 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f BC -48-46-20

1125

, B: Y ie ld in g o f steel compression flange
900 ! C : E x tre m e concrete fib e r reaches euc
D : Y ie ld in g o f steel tension flange
M id-Height Moment (k N -m )
675-
/ & N_ ? H
r f C, E
450- / B

225- F: L o ca l buckling o f compression flange
f A
G : L o cal buckling o f webs
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Average End R otation (rad .)
Figure 3.41 M id -h e ig h t m om ent - average end ro ta tio n response o f BC -48-46-22

148
Figure 3.42 L o c a l b u c k lin g and concrete crushing in B C -48-46-22
1125
900-
Moment (k N -in )
6751
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0

C u rv a tu re x 10 "4 ( 1 /m m )
Figure 3.43 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f BC -48-46-22
149
sec
0.9M ,
Moment (k N -m )
0.6M ,
C u rva tu re (1/m m )
F igure 3.44 D e fin itio n o f curvature d u c tility fo r m onotonic beam -colum n specimens
150
•C l.
w
3
a
Si
3
R
>
I.
3
u
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

A x ia l L o ad L evel, P/PD
•q
3
a
Q
U
3
u
% r----
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W idth-to-thickness ratio, b /t
a
C
J
U
3
U
3
u ET
0 100 300 500 700

Yield Stress (MPa)
• B C -32-80-20 ■ B C -32-80-40 A B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0 ♦ B C -4 8-80 -40

O B C -32-46-20 E B C -32-46-40 A B C -4 8 -4 6 -2 0 O B C -48-46-22
F ig u re 3.45 Influence o f parameters on curvature d u c tility o f m ono to n ic beam -colum n

specim ens: (a) a xia l load leve l; (b) w idth-to-thickness ra tio ; (c) steel y ie ld stress
151
17800
® A IS C - L R F D
0 ACI
@ A IJ
@ EC4
13350-
A M onotonic specimens
© 8900-
445 0-
0 225 450 675 900 1125 i

M o m en t (k N -m )
F igure 3.46 C om parison o f mono to n ic beam -colum n test results w ith P - M
17800
© A IS C - L R F D
0 ACI
® A IJ
® EC4
13350
Axial Load (k N )
8900
4450
0 225 450 675 900 1125

Figure 3.47 C om parison o f m ono to n ic beam -colum n test results w ith P - M
152
17800
(D A IS C - L R F D
(D A C I
( D A IJ
13350- @ EC4
R 8900-
4450-
0 225 450 675 900 1125

M o m e n t (k N -m )
Figure 3.48 Com parison o f m onotonic beam -colum n test results w ith P - M
interaction curves fo r specimen type C FT-32-46
17800
® A IS C - L R F D
(D A C I
( D A IJ
13350- @ EC4
® 8900-
4450-
0 225 450 675 900 1125

Figure 3.49 Com parison o f m onotonic beam -colum n test results w ith P - M
interaction curves fo r specimen type C FT-48-46
153
►N Reaction
W a ll
C y lin d ric a l
bearing
A x ia l Loading Beam
H o llo w C o re
J ack
Clevis w ith P in
Load cells H y d ra u lic R a m
A xial Tension Rods

1 .3 m
Clevis w ith Pm ,
Specimen Tie-dow n
4 l / Beam
0.5 m
ii— x / B lock
rm I f
Steel Base
8> p jaê
-77 77 77 77 7 77 77 77 77 77 7 77 77 77 77 77 7 77 77 , 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 /s
Test Bed F lo o r
Figure 3.50 C yclic beam -colum n test-setup
154
C ylin d rica l,
:
b earing
• A x ia l Loading Beam
Hollow Core Jack
7;
Hydraulic Ram
CFT
Axial Tension;: .. -
Rods A ulhor
Clevis and Pin

■ ecimen
r» Tie-dow
' n
A
/C
C oncrete
. '. i.'
B lo c k V
Steel Base
P late
Figure 3.51 Photograph o f c y clic beam -colum n test-setup
155
300 m m © Rotation meter
LVDT
300 m m
Longitudinal
150 m m strain gage
Seam weld
5 mini
150 m m
—
150 m m
r>nun 1 w m -
Figure 3.52 Instrum entation fo r c y c lic beam -colum n specimens

Lateral Displacement at top as a multiple of Ay
N o rth
Elastic cycle
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Cycle N u m b er
Figure 3.53 Loading h isto ry fo r c y c lic beam -colum n tests
156
900
O: Tension yielding o f steel tube flange
£ : In itia l concrete crushing
675
450
Lateral Load, H (RiS)
225
-450
F : Local buckling o f steel tube flange
-675 G : L o cal buckling o f steel tube webs
H : Local buckling o f steel tube corners
I : Tension frac tu re o f steel tube corners
-900
3A, 7 A,
y
L a te ra l D isplacem ent, A
F igure 3.54 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -32-80-20
1125
847.5
565.0
282.5
0.0
S -282.5
-565.0
-847.5
-1125
-24 -16 8 0 8 16 24
C u rva tu re x 10‘5 ( l/m m )
F ig u re 3.55 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f C BC-32-80-20

157
F igure 3.56 L o ca l b u ck lin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f C BC-32-80-20
at displacem ent levels o f (a) 2Ay; (b ) 5Ay; (c) 7Ay
lediconcrei
F igure 3.57 Concrete crushing in C B C -32-80-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
(b) A fte r rem oval o f loose concrete
158
900
D : Tension yielding o f steel tube flange
675
450
-225
-450
F : L o ca l buckling o f steel tube flanges
-675 G : L o cal buckling o f steel tube webs
E ,F H : L o cal buckling o f steel tube corners
I : Tension fra c tu re o f steel tube corners
-900
-9A y -7A y -5Ay -3A y
Figure 3.58 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -32-80-10

1125
847.5
565.0
ct 282.5
Z
r o.o
0
c
1 -282.5
-565.0
-847.5
-1125
-24 -16 ■8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10*s( l/m m )
F igure 3.59 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f C BC-32-80-10
159
'i'
bTensiormracturi
a5«sio*g>-Ba8»<fec=ggg^
Figure 3.60 L o c a l b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f C BC-32-80-10
at displacem ent levels:(a) 2Ay; (b) 7 Ay firs t cycle; (c) 7Ay second cycle
(a) (b)
Base or .
Test-length
Figure 3.61 Concrete crushing in C B C -32-80-10: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
160
675r
D, F
450
Lateral Load, H (kN )
225
-2 2 5
-4 5 0 F : L o cal buckling o f steel tube flanges

G : L o cal buckling o f steel tube webs
D ,F H : Local buckling o f steel tube corners
I: Tension fra c tu re o f steel tube corners
-6 7 5
-9A„ - 7\ -5 A y -3 Ay -Ay Ay 3Ay 5Ay 7Ay 9 Ay
F igure 3.62 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -48-80-20
8 47.5
5 65.0
2 82.5
Moment (kN-m)
-2 8 2 .5
-5 6 5 .0
-8 4 7 .5
-2 4 -1 6 8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10's (1/m m )
Figure 3.63 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f C BC -48-80-20
161
fTensionffracturi
F igure 3.64 L o ca l b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f C BC -48-80-20
at displacem ent levels o f: (a) 2Ay; (b) 5Ay; (c) 7Ay
F igure 3.65 Concrete crushing in C B C -48-80-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
162
675
E : In itia l concrete crushing D, E
450
225
Lateral Load (k N )
-2 2 5
F : Local buckling o f steel tube flanges

-4 5 0
G : Local buckling o f steel tube webs
D, E H : Local buckling o f steel tube corners
I : Tension fra c tu re o f steel tube corners
-6 7 5
-9 A y -7Ay -5Ay -3Ay
L a te ra l Displacement
Figure 3.66 Lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C B C -48-80-10

847.5
565.0
Moment (kN-111)
282.5
-2 8 2 .5
-5 6 5 .0
-8 4 7 .5
-2 5 .5 -1 7 -8 .5 0 8.5 17 2 5.5
C u rv a tu re (1/m m )
Figure 3.67 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f C BC -48-80-10
163
(a)
SSI nn
ensionlffacm ri
Figure 3.68 L o c a l b u cklin g and tension fracture o f the steel tube o f C BC -48-80-10
at displacem ent levels of: (a) 2Ay; (b) 5Ay; (c) 7 Ay
(a) (b)
'hjrr 11
Base of \
TesMlength \ r Base of '
Test-length
Figure 3.69 C oncrete crushing in C BC -48-80-10: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
(b ) A fte r rem oval o f loose concrete
164
675
Lateral Load, H (kN ) 450
225
-2 2 5
-4 5 0
E ,F F : L o ca l buckling o f steel tube flanges
G : L ocal buckling o f steel tube webs
H : L ocal bucklin g o f steel tube corners
-6 7 5
-12A y -9 A y -6 A y -3A y 0 3A y 6A V 9A y 12Ay
L ate ral D isplacem ent, A
F igure 3.70 L a te ra l load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -32-46-20

675
450
225
Moment (kN-in)
-2 2 5
-4 5 0
-6 7 5
-3 2 -2 4 -1 6 -8 0 8 16 24 32
C u rva tu re x I t ) ' 3 (1 /m m )
Figure 3.71 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f C B C -32-46-20
165
(a) (b)
HIGH STBEMCTH C5T CC:
C*IJW
AXlAi-'-CAL-
LATERA LlC
rO
tc?sts?tAirn
*..'
3 f-
S^sioliffcactuS
at displacem ent levels o f; (a) 2Ay; (b) 7Aj,; (c) 8Ay
Figure 3.73 C oncrete crushing in C B C -32-46-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
166
675
Lateral Load, H (k N ) 450
225
-2 2 5
-4 5 0 F: Local buckling o f steel tube flanges

I: Tension fra c tu re o f steel tube corners
-6 7 5
-!2 A y -9A y -6A„ -3Ay 0 3Ay 9^ 12^
L a te ra l Displacement, A
Figure 3.74 La te ral load - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC-32-46-10

675
450
225
Moment (kN-m)
-2 2 5
-4 5 0
-675
-3 2 -1 6 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10 ° (1/m m )
Figure 3.75 M om ent-curvature response o f fa ilu re segment o f CBC-32-46-10
167
(a) (b)
Figure 3.76 L o ca l b u c klin g and tension cra ckin g o f the steel tube o f C BC -32-46-10
at displacem ent levels o f; (a) 3Ay; (b ) 8Ay; (c) lOAy
(a) (b)
Base o f | Base of
test-length test-Iength
Figure 3.77 Concrete crushing in C B C -32-46-10: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
168
450.0
D : Tension yielding o f steel tub e flange
337.5
225.0
§ 112.5
1 0.0
o
-J
J - H 2 .5
a
-J
-225.0
F : L o ca l buckling o f steel tube flanges

-337.5
G : L o cal buckling o f steel tube webs
H : L o c a l buckling o f steel tube corners
-450J
-9.0Ay -7.0Ay -5.0Ay -3.0Ay -l.OAy l.OAy 3.0Ay 5.0Ay 7.0Ay 9.0Ay
L a te ra l Displacem ent, A
Figure 3.78 Lateral load - late ral displacem ent response o f C B C -48-46-20
675
450
225
I
Z
B
O
-225
-450
-675
-24 -16 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10 ' 5 (1/m m )
F igure 3.79 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f C B C -48-46-20
169
HIGH STRENGTH C FT
AXUU.10A0
UTEBALLOAD
TCPCISPLACEMENT
«<«:_// U
F ig u re 3.80 L o ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube o f C BC-48-46-20 at displacem ent

levels o f: (a) 1.5Ay; (b) 5.0Ay
(a) (b)
ionctei
F ig u re 3.81 Concrete crushing in C BC -48-46-20: (a) A fte r rem oval o f steel tube;
170
450.0
337.5
225.0
1. l12-5
X
ie. o.o
-I
J -1 1 2 . 5
cs
_i
-225.0
F: Local buckling o f steel tube flanges

-337.5
-450.0
-9.0Ay -7.0Ay -5-OAy -3.0 Ay -l.OAy l.OAy 3.0Ay 5.0Ay 7.0Ay 9.0 Ay
L a te ra l Displacement, A
Figure 3.82 Lateral loa d - lateral displacem ent response o f C BC -48-46-10

675
450
_ 225
sI
2
¥Ci o
e
o
%
-225
-450
-675
-24 -16 -8 0 8 16 24
C u rvatu re x 10's (1/m m )
Figure 3.83 M om ent-curvature response o f the fa ilu re segment o f C BC -48-46-10
171
acting
faWMawt
at displacem ent levels o f : (a) 1.5 Ay; (b) 7Ay; (c) 8Ay
(a) (b)
Base of .,
test-length
F igure 3.85 Concrete crushing in C B C -48-46-10: (a) A fte r re m ova l o f steel tube;
(b ) A fte r rem oval o f loose concrete
172
'f-sec-c
0.9M,u-c
^y-c M0./K t a -c
M-iJ-c = (* „, * *t*u2^ ^ ^ y -c Envelope of cyclic
sI
M-<j) response
z
o
2
0.9M,u-c
^112 ♦ul
C u rv a tu re x 10"5 (1/m m )
Figure 3.86 D e fin itio n o f curvature d u c tility fo r cyclic beam -colum n specimens
173
1125
B C -32-80-20
0 .9M ,
845
565
C B C -32-80-20
sI 280
Z
-a:
5
s
o
S -280
-565
-845
0 .9M ,
1125
-2 4 -1 6 8 0 8 16 24
Figure 3.87 Envelope o f c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f Specim en C B C -32-
80-20 and m onotonic m om ent-curvature response o f B C -32-80-20
1125
0.9M ,
845
565
S 280
S -280
-845
0.9M ,
-1125L
-2 4 -1 6 ■8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10*s (1/m m )
Figure 3.88 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f Specim en C BC-32-80-10
174
845
•BC -48-80-20
0 .9M ,
565
C B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0
280
m
cI
2
#
>•
e
o
s
-2 8 0
-5 6 5
0 .9M ,
-8 4 5 u2 7 u1
-2 4 -1 6 ■8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10~5 (1/m m )
Figure 3.89 Envelope o f cy clic m om ent-curvature response o f Specim en C B C -48-
845
0 .9 M ,
280
s1
Z
<u
o
s
-2 8 0
-565
0 .9 M ,
u2? u1
-8 4 5
-2 4 -1 6 ■8 0 8 16 24
Figure 3.90 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f Specim en C B C -48-80-10

175
675
B C -32-46-20
0 .9 M ,
450
C B C -32 -46 -2 0
225
sI
Z
£6
a
£
o
S
-225
-450
0.9M ,
ui
-675
-24 -16 8 0 S 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10'5 (1/m m )
Figure 3.91 Envelope o f c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f Specimen C BC -32-

675
0 .9M ,
450
225
I
z
c
s
c
s
-225
-450
0.9M ,
-675
-24 -16 ■8 0 8 16 24
Figure 3.92 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f Specimen C BC-32-46-10
176
675
0.9M , B C -48-46-20
450
225 C B C -48 -46 -2 0

EI
z
s
©
2
-225
-450
0.9M ,
-675
-24 -16 -8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10 s (1/m m )
Figure 3.93 Envelope o f c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f Specim en C BC -48-
675
450 0.9M ,
225
I
Z
jx
-225
-450
0 .9M ,
-675 ui
-24 -16 -8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10‘5 (1/m m )
Figure 3.94 Envelope o f m om ent-curvature response o f Specimen C BC -48-46-10

177
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W idth-to-thickness ratio, b/t
■ CB C-32-80-20 ♦ C B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0 A C B C -32-46-20 • C B C -48 -46 -2 0
□ B C -32-80-20 O B C -48-80-20 A B C -3 2 -4 6 -2 0 O B C -4 8-46 -20 o B C -48-46-22
Figure 3.95 Influence o f cyclic loading on curvature d u c tility
178
10.0‘
L.
3
ec
L
*m 2.5-
3
<y
0.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
A x ia l L o ad L ev el, P/P 0
10.0
7.5
5.0 B-
2.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W idth-to-thickness R atio , b/t
10.0
7.5- £r-
5.0- o- o-
2.5-
0.0
0 100 300 500 700
Y ie ld Stress (M P a )
■ C B C -32-80-20 • C B C -32-80-10 ♦ C B C -48-80-20 a CB C-48-80-10

B C B C -32-46-20 o C B C -32-46-10 o C B C -48-46-20 a CB C-48-46-10
Figure 3.96 In flu e n ce o f parameters on c y c lic curvature d u c tility : (a) A x ia l load

le ve l; (b) W idth-to-thickness ra tio ; (c) Y ie ld stress o f steel tube
179
2.0
E l,/E l,
MS
0.5 -i *o
0.0
0 2 4 6 8
D isplacem ent D u c tility Level, A /A v
CBC-32-80-20 —■ — C B C -32-80-10 - o - C B C-32-46-20 - a - CBC-32-46-10
2.5
A-
0 2 4 6 8
Displacem ent D u c tility L evel, A/Ay
j—* — CBC-48-80-20 —♦— C B C -48-80-10 - A- CBC-48-46-20 - o - CBC-48-46-10
Figure 3.97 Influence o f damage due to c y c lic loading on elastic section fle x u ra l
stiffness (E Ie_d) o f c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith : (a) nom inal
b/t=32; (b) nom inal b/t=48
180
625
500
T 375'
250
125
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

A x ia l L o ad Level, P/P
625
5001
s
I 375
z
125
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W idth-to-thickness ratio, b/t
625
500 ' e-
o—
=I 375 '
Z
5 250 ■ ©-
125 ‘
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Y ie ld Stress (M P a )
• C B C -32-80-20 ■ C B C -32-80-10 A C B C -48-80-10 ♦ C B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0

o C B C -32-46-20 0 C B C -32-46-10 A C B C -48-46-10 o C B C -48 -46 -2 0
Figure 3.98 Influence o f parameters on energy dissipation : (a) A x ia l load level;

(b) W idth-to-thickness ra tio ; (c) Y ie ld stress o f steel tube
181
0.2
DA
g -0.2
-0.4
- 0.6
- 0.8
“ - 1.0
- 1.2
-1.4
-10A, -6Ay -2Ay 6Ay 10 Ay

y
L a te ra l Displacem ent
0.2
- 0.2
-0.4
- 0.6
g -0.8
U
o
- 1.0
- 1.2
-1.4
-lOAy -6Ay 2A,V

L a te ra l D isplacem ent
Figure 3.99 A x ia l shortening - lateral displacem ent response o f Specimens: (a)

C BC -32-80-10; (b) C B C -32-80-20
182
Permanent Axial Shortening as a % of tcst-lcngth
Figure 3.100 Permanent a x ia l shortening o f c y c lic beam -colum n specimens as a

percentage o f the specimen test-length
17800
© A IS C - L R F D
© ACI
© A IJ
© EC4
13359-
A M on o to nic specimens
© C yclic specimens
<5 8900-
4450'
0 225 450 675 900 1125 .

M o m e n t (k N -m )
Figure 3.101 C om parison o f m onotonic and c yclic experim ental results w ith P - M
in te ra ctio n curves fo r specimen type C FT-32-80
17800
© A IS C - L R F D
© ACI
© A IJ
0 EC4
13350-
O C yclic specimens
8900
4450-
t©
0 225 450 675 900 1125

Figure 3.102 C om parison o f m onotonic and c y c lic experim ental results w ith P - M
in te ra ctio n curves fo r specimen type C FT-48-80
184
17800
® A IS C - L R F D
(D A C I
( D A IJ
(D EC4
13350-
O C yclic specimens
8900-
4450-
0 225 450 675 900 1125 ,

M om ent (k N -m )
Figure 3.103 C om parison o f m onotonic and eye Lie experim ental results w ith P - M
inte ractio n curves fo r specimen type C F T -32-46
17800
® A IS C - L R F D
(2 ) A C I
( D A IJ
@ EC4
13350-
O C yclic specimens
8900-
4450-
0 225 450 675 900 1125 I

M om ent (k N -m )
Figure 3.104 C om parison o f m onotonic and c y c lic experim ental results w ith P - M
inte ractio n curves fo r specimen type C F T -48-46
185
847.5'
B C -48-80-20 (a)
M onotonic
M-ij) response Design
M-<j> response
0.85M
— ACI
565.0-
't’y -D 0 -85M aCI / E I cr.tr.D

282.5-
= ^ u -D ! ‘t’ y-D
8 16 24 32 40
C u rv a tu re x 10"s (1 /m m )
847.5
C B C -4 8 -8 0 -2 0 (b)
o_______ Design M-<j>
response
565.0
‘i’ y -D = 0 -8 5 M aci / E Icr_tr_D U
Fij>-a = (ûI-D ” ^ u2-d) ^ ^ ‘t’ y -D p Envelope o f cyclic

282.5
I M-<j) response
Z
■= 0.0
-282.5
-565.0.
Design
response ,
tu 2 -D i ^ u l-D
-847.5
-24 -16 -8 0 8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10"5 (1 /m m )
Figure 3.105 C om parison o f experim ental and design m om ent-curvature responses

and the d e fin itio n o f available curavture d u c tility fo r: (a) m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens; and (b) c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
186
20'
ss
3
es Q
o
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

A x ia l L o ad Level, P/P Q
20 (b)
cs
>
CK
W
3
es a
>
<
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
W id th -to -T hickn ess R atio , b/t
20 (c)
«
es
D-
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Steel Y ie ld Stress, crv
■ C B C -32-80-20 • C B C -32-80-10 ♦ C B C -48-80-20 ^ CBC-48-80-10
a C B C -32-46-20 ° C B C -32-46-10 o C B C -48-46-20 * CBC-48-46-10
Figure 3.106 Influence o f parameters on ava ila ble curvature d u c tility o f c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens: (a) A x ia l loa d leve l; (b) W idth-to-thickness ra tio ;
(c) Y ie ld stress o f steel tube
187
CHAPTER 4. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FEM ANALYSIS OF HIGH
The results fro m the experim ental investigations o f high strength square C FT
colum ns were presented in Chapter 3. The experim ental behavior and the influence o f
the y ie ld stress and w idth-to-thickness (b /t) ratio o f the steel tube, and the level o f a xia l
load on the perform ance o f the high strength square C FT beam-columns was presented
in Chapter 3. D esign recomm endations fo r h ig h strength square C FT colum ns were
developed b y com paring the experim ental results w ith predictions that were based on
some o f the current code provisions.
The results fro m the experim ental investigations and the comparisons w ith the
current code p rovisions add sign ifica nt know ledge to the existing database fo r square
C FT colum ns made fro m high strength m aterials. However, the results fro m the
experim ental investigations do not provide com plete knowledge o f the behavior o f CFT
colum ns made fro m h ig h strength m aterials. Therefore, three-dim ensional (3 -D ) fin ite
elem ent m ethod (F E M ) m odels were developed and analyzed to gain additional in sig h t
in to the behavior o f h ig h strength square C FT colum ns.
188
4.1 SYNOPSIS
The analytical investigation o f the h ig h strength square C FT colum n specimens is
presented in this chapter. Three-dim ensional (3 -D ) fin ite elem ent m ethod (FE M )
m odels o f the stub colum n specimens w ere developed using A B A Q U S V ersion 5.8
(A B A Q U S 1998a, b). The FE M m odels accounted fo r the local b u ck lin g o f the steel
tube and the com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete i n f i ll.
Results fro m the analyses o f these F E M m odels offered sig n ifica n t in sig h t into the
behavior o f square C FT colum ns. The results also compared fa vo ra b ly w ith the
experim ental results. Section 4.2 presents the developm ent o f the 3-D F E M m odels fo r
the stub colum n specimens. Section 4.3 presents the results from the F E M analyses o f
the stub colum n specimens.
3-D F E M models o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens w ere also developed
using A B A Q U S . H ow ever, the analyses o f these models could n o t be com pleted due to
the lim ita tio n s o f the concrete m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a, b ). Section 4.4
presents the FEM m odels fo r the beam -colum n specimens and the d iffic u ltie s that were
encountered in conducting the FE M analyses.
189
4.2 FEM MODELS OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS
F E M m odels o f the 1.2 m lon g C FT stub co lu m n specimens were developed, and
the analyses were conducted using A B A Q U S V e rsio n 5.8 (A B A Q U S 1998a). The F E M
m odels accounted fo r the effects o f local b u cklin g o f the steel tube, confinem ent o f the
concrete in fill, and the com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. As shown in Figure 4.1 (a) one-fourth o f the C FT cross-section was modeled.
The appropriate sym m etry boundary conditions w ere enforced at the planes o f
sym m etry. In Figure 4.1 (b) u i, U2 , U3 , r i, r 2 , and r 3 are the displacem ents and rotations
about the global 1-2-3 axes, respectively. Plane sections w ere enforced to rem ain plane
at the a x ia lly loaded and supported ends. The ends o f the C F T colum ns were restrained
against rotation. The F E M analyses were conducted under displacem ent control using
the m o d ifie d R iks a lg o rith m (A B A Q U S 1998a). The details o f the F E M models o f the
steel tube, concrete in fill, and com posite interaction are presented below .
4.2.1 FEM MODEL OF STEEL TUBE
The steel tubes (in c lu d in g the com ers) o f the stub co lu m n specimens were modeled
b y S-4 shell elem ents. The S-4 shell elements have s ix deform ation degrees o f freedom
per node (three displacem ents and three rotations). The fo rm u la tio n o f these elements is
presented in the A B A Q U S theory manual (A B A Q U S 1998b). The S-4 shell elements
are recom m ended fo r nonlinear analysis o f plates and shells subjected to fin ite inelastic
190
strains.
The outside com er ra d ii o f the steel tubes w ere measured and found to be equal to
three tim es the tube thickness, w h ich is in accordance w ith the standards fo r structural
steel tube shapes (A S T M A500 1997). Therefore, the steel tubes were m odeled w ith a
com er outer radius equal to three tim es the tube thickness. The S-4 shell elements were
defined w ith an offset to the inside surface o f the steel tube. This was done to fa cilita te
the m o deling o f the com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
The elastic behavior o f the steel tube m aterial was idealized b y an isotropic
m u ltia x ia l elastic m odel w ith m odulus o f e la s tic ity (Es) equal to 200 GPa and Poisson’ s
ra tio (v s) equal to 0.3. The inelastic behavior was idealized by a m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity
m odel w ith a V on M ises y ie ld surface, iso tro p ic hardening behavior, and an associated
flo w rule. The uniaxial stress-strain re lationship o f the m aterial was required to
com p le te ly define the inelastic co n stitu tive m odel. Therefore, idealized stress-strain
curves were developed (based on the e xperim entally measured stress-strain curves) fo r
the steel tubes o f the stub colum n specimens.
The va ria tio n in the measured stress-strain curves around the perim eter o f the steel
tube was not modeled. The residual stresses in the steel tube were also neglected.
C urre n tly, there is a lack o f experim ental data on the residual stress d istrib u tio n s in
tubes made from A500 Grade-80 steel b y the Form Square-W eld Square process.
A d d itio n a lly , research conducted b y Zhang and Shahrooz (1997) indicates that the
residual stresses in the steel tube have a sm all influence on the force-deform ation
response o f C FT columns.
191
4.2.1.1 Idealized Stress-Strain Curves for Steel
The experim entally measured stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the fo u r
C FT specimen types (corresponding to the fo u r stub colum n specimens) w ere presented
in Section 3.2.2.1. Figures 3.5 to 3.8 showed the measured stress-strain curves fo r the
steel tubes o f the fo u r C FT specimens types. Table 3.3 sum m arizes the average
measured m aterial properties fo r the steel tubes o f the four C FT specimen types.
Figure 4.2 shows the idealized stress-strain curve that was used to m odel the
measured stress-strain curves. As shown in Figure 4.2, the idealized stress-strain curve
consists o f three branches that could be com pletely defined b y sp ecifying the values o f
fo u r parameters; the y ie ld stress (cry), the strain at onset o f hardening (sSh), the ultim ate
stress (cru), and the ultim ate strain (su). The firs t branch is lin e a r elastic w ith Es equal to
200 GPa. The second branch begins w ith the onset o f y ie ld in g (s = sy) and is a yie ld
plateau w ith a constant stress equal to cjy. The th ird branch begins at the onset o f strain
hardening (s = eSh) and fo llo w s the pow er-hardening rule given in E quation 4.1.
W hen s > sSh ; (4.1)
The average measured m aterial properties fo r the steel tubes (Table 3.3) were used
as the values fo r the fo u r parameters (cry, eSh, eu, cju) d e fining the idealized stress-strain
curves. Table 4.1 summarizes the values o f the fo u r parameters that were used fo r the
192
steel tubes o f the fo u r C FT specim en types. Com parisons o f the ide a lize d and measured
stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f C FT specim en types C F T -32-80, C FT-48-80,
C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are show n in Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4 .6. Figure 4.7
sum m arizes these idealized stress-strain curves, w h ich w ere used fo r the steel tubes o f
the F E M m odels o f the corresponding stub colum n specimens.
4.2.2 LOCAL BUCKLING AND GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTION
The lo ca l b u cklin g behavior o f the h o llo w steel tubes o f the C F T stub colum n
specimens was investigated separately. The results fro m the local b u c k lin g studies were
used to develop the geom etric im p e rfe ctio n shapes fo r the FE M m odels o f the steel
tubes o f the stub colum n specimens.
The F E M analyses o f the h o llo w steel tubes were also conducted fo r pure axial
loa d ing conditions. The F E M m odel o f the h o llo w steel tube along w ith the boundary
conditions is shown in Figure 4.8. O n ly one-fourth o f the h o llo w tube cross-section was
m odeled. The appropriate sym m etry boundary conditions were enforced along the
planes o f sym m etry. The ends o f the h o llo w steel tubes were restrained against rotation
and plane sections were enforced to rem ain plane at the a x ia lly loaded and supported
ends. The idealized stress-strain curves shown in Figure 4.7 were used.
The a xia l load —displacem ent (P -A ) response from the F E M analysis o f the h o llo w
steel tube (w ith o u t any geom etric im perfections) corresponding to SC -32-80 is shown
in Figure 4.9. Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube d id not occur in the absence o f geom etric
im perfections.
193
A sm a ll geom etric perturbation was introduced at the m id -sid e nodes located at the
m id -h e ig h t o f the steel tubes. The P-A response fro m the F E M analysis o f the h o llo w
steel tube (corresponding to SC-32-80) w ith a sm all geom etric perturbation is also
show n in F igure 4.9. The displaced shape o f the h o llo w steel tube at 90% o f the peak
load (post-peak) is shown in Figure 4.10. The displaced shape indicates that a h o llo w
steel tube buckles w ith one side displacing inw ards and the adjacent side displacing
outw ards.
h i a C FT colum n the concrete in fill restrains the in w a rd displacem ent o f the steel
tube w a lls. A s a result, the steel tube o f a C FT colum n cannot deform into the shape
shown in F igure 4.10. The restraint offered b y the concrete in f ill was accounted fo r in a
F E M m odel. The F E M m odel o f the constrained h o llo w steel tube was s im ila r to the
m odel show n in F igure 4.8, but included u n ia xia l gap-contact elements w ith hard
frictio n le s s contact behavior as shown in F igure 4.11. The gap-contact elements were
connected to the nodes o f the steel tube and to the planes o f sym m etry. The gap-contact
elem ents w ere placed along the length o f the h o llo w steel tubes and prevented the
inw a rd displacem ent o f the steel tube nodes.
The P-A response from the FEM analysis o f the constrained h o llo w steel tube
corresponding to SC-32-80 is also shown in Figure 4.9. The displaced shape o f the
constrained h o llo w steel tube at 90% o f the peak load (post-peak) is shown in Figure
4.12. The displaced shape shows that the constrained h o llo w steel tube buckles w ith a ll
sides displacing outw ards.
194
The local buckling displaced shape fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT stub colum n
specimens is sim ila r to the shape shown in Figure 4.12. The shape o f the geom etric
im perfection shape in the F E M models o f the steel tubes o f the stub colum n specimens
reflected this local b u cklin g shape. Equation (4.2), w hich approxim ates the local
b u cklin g shape shown in Figure 4.12, was used to determine the geom etric perturbation
(in itia l out-of-plane displacem ent, 5) o f the nodes o f the o f the steel tube w alls.
8= — 1+COS (4.2)
4
In Equation (4.2) aQ is the am plitude o f the geom etric im perfection. Experim ental
measurements indicated that the m axim um in itia l out-of-plane displacem ent o f the steel
tubes w alls o f the C FT specimens was approxim ately equal to 2.5 m m . Therefore, this
value was used as the am plitude (a<j) o f the geom etric im perfection fu n ctio n . The
geom etric im perfection was introduced at the m id-height o f a ll the tube w alls o f the
FEM m odel o f the stub colum n specimens. Figure 4.13 shows the geom etric
im perfection fo r each w a ll o f the steel tubes o f the stub colum n specimens.
4.2.3 F E M M O D E L O F C O N C R E T E IN F IL L
The concrete in fill o f the C FT specimen was modeled using elem ent types C3D6
and C 3D 8. These elements are three dim ensional continuum elements. Elem ent type
C3D6 (6 node tetrahedral) and C3D8 (8 node b rick) have three displacem ent degrees o f
freedom per node. The elem ent form ulations are given in the A B A Q U S theory manual
(A B A Q U S 1998b).
195
The ‘C O N C R ETE’ m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S was used fo r the concrete
elements o f the F E M m odels. The ‘C O N C R E TE ’ m aterial m odel uses an isotropic
m u ltia x ia l elastic m odel in the elastic range, and a m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel in the
inelastic range. The m u ltia x ia l p la sticity m odel consists o f a 2 param eter D rucker-
Prager com pression y ie ld surface, isotropic hardening o r softening behavior, and an
associated flo w rule. The relevant details o f the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel are
presented below .
4.2.3.1 Concrete Multiaxial Plasticity Model
The concrete m u ltia x ia l p la sticity m odel uses Equations (4.3) and (4.4) to account
fo r the influence o f hydrostatic pressure on the com pression y ie ld surface and the strain
d u c tility , respectively (A B A Q U S 1998b). E quation (4.3) is the the D rucker-P rager
com pression y ie ld surface. Equation (4.4) is the expression used to calculate the plastic
strain increm ent. It is based on the associated flo w rule.
(4.3)
(4.4)
In Equations (4.3) and (4.4);
a = S + Ii/3 I (4.5)
II —CJpi + Gp2 + Gp3 (4.6)
196
5F R
c - - +01 (4.8)
2 '2D
In E quations (4.3) to (4.8); a is the stress tensor, I t is the firs t in va ria n t o f or,
S is the stress de v ia to r tensor, J2 D is the second in va ria n t of S,
k ( X c) is a hardening o r softening param eter, Xc is the p la stic deform ation variable,
§p is the p lastic strain tensor, Fc is the com pression y ie ld surface,
c p[ is the firs t p rin c ip a l stress, crP 2 is the second p rin cip a l stress, <tP 3 is the th ird p rin cip a l
stress, I is the id e n tity m a trix, and 0 and cD are constants.
The D rucker-P rager com pression y ie ld surface (E quation (4 .3 )) is a straight lin e
w ith slope equal to - 0 in I i- y J 2d space. The constant 0 governs the influence o f I i on
the y ie ld surface ( Ii is p ro po rtio n al to the hydrostatic pressure), k (w h ich is a fu n ctio n
o fX c) is the size o f the yie ld surface on the AyJ2D -axis when is equal to zero. Thus, k
is the y ie ld stress in a state o f pure shear stress (A B A Q U S 1998b). The constant cQ in
E quation (4.4) governs the influence o f It on the p la stic strain tensor.
The k -X c relationship accounts fo r the strain hardening o r softening behavior o f the
concrete and is obtained im p lic itly fro m the stress-strain curve under u n ia xial
com pression as fo llo w s. F or the u n ia xia l stress-state shown in Table 4.2, Equations
(4.3) and (4.4) can be s im p lifie d to Equations (4.9) and (4.10), respectively.
( 1
k = cruni -7= -e "i (4.9)
IV3
197
e 0 0
( n \iin i 1
dspJ = dX c 1 + ^2. 0 (4.10)
9 2V3
0 0
2V3
Equation (4.9) gives a d ire ct relationship between K and the lo n g itu d in a l stress under
uniaxial com pression (ctuiu). Equation (4.10) indicates that the plastic strain increm ent
in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n is:
\uni
deu p) =dX t (4.11)
Equation (4.11) can be rearranged and integrated to give:
x = kill (4.12)
Equation (4.12) gives a direct relationship between X c and the lo n g itu d in a l plastic strain
under u n ia xia l com pression (e u p)um. Equations (4.9) and (4.12), and the values o f 0 and
c0, are used im p lic itly to obtain the k -)i c relationship fro m the stress-strain curve under
uniaxial loa d ing conditions. The k-Ac relationsip is a hydrostatic pressure independent
psuedo shear stress - effe ctive plastic strain relationship that is used to m odel the
hardening and softening behavior o f the concrete.
The m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity model uses Equations (4.3), (4.4), and the k -X c
relationship to m odel the inelastic behavior o f the concrete m aterial. Values o f 0, c0,
and the u n ia xia l stress-strain curve are required to com pletely define the m u ltia x ia l
p la sticity m odel. The default values o f 0 and cQ in A B A Q U S are 0.07 and 7.34,
198
respectively. These values were obtained b y cahbrating the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel
w ith the experim ental results from equally loaded (crpi = 0 ^ 2 ) b ia x ia l com pression tests
and are appropriate fo r s im ila r loading conditions (A B A Q U S 1998b).
4.2.3.2 Idealized Stress-Strain Curve for High Strength Concrete
A s noted in Section 3.2.2.2, u n ia xial com pression tests were conducted on concrete
cylinders that were cored fo r an untested high strength C FT specimen. A representative
measured stress-strain curve is also shown in Figure 4.14 (a). The measured stress-
strain response was nearly linear up to the peak stress (110 M Pa). The peak stress was
reached at an average strain o f 0.0027 m m /m m . The post-peak po rtion o f the stress-
strain curve could not be measured because the concrete cylinders fa ile d in a b rittle after
reaching the peak stress.
The e m p irica l stress-strain models proposed b y C o llin s and Porasz (1989) and Oh
and Sause (2001) were used to develop uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r high strength
concrete (110 M Pa). These em pirical stress-strain models are shown in Figure 4.14 (a).
The detailed em pirical expressions o f C ollins and Porasz (1989) and Oh and Sause
(2001) were presented earlier in Section 2.4.
A n idealized un ia xial (com pressive) stress-strain curve was developed based on the
experim ental stress-strain curves and em pirical m odels. As shown in Figure 4.14 (b),
the idealized stress-strain curve consists o f fo u r branches and can be com pletely defined
b y sp e cifyin g the values o f three parameters; the m odulus o f e la sticity (Ec), the peak
stress ( f c), and the strain at the onset o f unloading (suc). The firs t branch is lin e a r elastic
199
w ith slope equal to E c. The second branch begins w hen stress reaches f c and is a
residual plateau w ith constant stress. The th ird branch begins w hen the strain reaches
suc and has a constant negative slope o f -Ec- The fo u rth branch begins when the stress
reaches 6.25% f c and is also a y ie ld plateau w ith constant stress.
The values o f the three parameters (Ec, f c, suc) fo r the h ig h strength concrete were
estim ated using the experim ental stress-strain curves and the e m p irica l models. The
experim entally measured values o f f c and Ec, equal to 110 M Pa and 42.0 GPa,
respectively, w ere used fo r the idealized stress-strain curve. A s m entioned earlier, suc
(the strain at onset o f unloading) could not be measured exp erim e nta lly. Therefore, the
e m p irica l expression recom m ended b y C o llin s and Porasz (1989) was used to estimate
the value o f suc as 0.00305. The idealized stress-strain curve fo r the high strength
concrete is also show n in Figure 4.14 (a). The idealized stress-strain curve is a
reasonable approxim ation o f the experim ental stress-strain curves and em pirical models.
4.2.4 FEM MODEL OF COMPOSITE INTERACTION
C om posite in te ra ctio n between the steel tube and concrete in f ill in the transverse
and lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n s was modeled. In the transverse d ire c tio n com posite action
occurs due to contact between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill. In the lon g itu d in a l
d ire ctio n inte ractio n occurs due to bond between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
200
4.2.4.1 FEM Model o f Transverse Interaction
Transverse in te ra ctio n between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill was m odeled
b y u n ia xia l gap-contact elements. As shown in Figure 4.1 (c), the gap-contact elements
connect corresponding nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The gap-contact
elements had a hard frictio n le ss contact behavior and w ere closed (in-contact) at the
beginning o f the F E M analyses.
4.2.4.2 FEM Model of Longitudinal Interaction
The lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill was m odeled
using spring elem ents. A s shown in Figure 4.1 (d ), these elements also connect
corresponding nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete in f ill. The spring elements act in
the lo n g itu d in a l d ire c tio n and o ffe r resistance to slip (re la tiv e m otion) between the
connected nodes. A n elastic-plastic force-relative displacem ent behavior was used fo r
the spring elements, w here the yie ld force was equal to the contact area m u ltip lie d b y
the bond strength (Tbond) between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
Tbond was estim ated using the e m pirical equations (E quation 2.1) proposed b y
Roeder et al. (1999) and was found to be equal to 1.69 M Pa and 1.38 M Pa fo r
specimens w ith no m in a l b /t ratios o f 32 and 48, respectively. The relevant details o f the
research conducted b y Roeder et al. (1999) on the com posite inte ractio n between the
steel tube and the concrete in fill o f CFT colum ns w ere presented earlier in Section
2.1.1. The elastic stiffness o f the spring elements (175 kN /m m ) was an order o f
201
m agnitude larger than the values measured b y Roeder et al. (1999). Thus, the spring
elements e ffe c tiv e ly had a rig id -p la stic behavior.
The behavior o f the lon gitudinal bond between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill
o f CFT colum ns is re la tiv e ly more com plex than the m odel used in this research, as
indicated b y the research conducted b y R oeder et al. (1999). H ow ever, the objective o f
this study was to investigate the behavior o f the com posite C FT cross-section and a
rig id -p la stic id e a liza tio n o f the lon g itu d in a l bond behavior was considered to be
adequate.
4.2.5 CONCRETE CONFINEMENT IN SQUARE CFT COLUMNS
P relim inary analyses o f the C FT stub colum ns were conducted using the F E M
models o f the steel tube, concrete in fill, and com posite interaction. The A B A Q U S
default values o f 0 and cQ (0.07 and 7.34, respectively) w ere used fo r the concrete
m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity m odel. Geom etric im perfections were not included in the F E M
models o f the steel tubes. The FE M analyses were conducted under displacem ent
control using the m o d ifie d R iks algoritm (A B A Q U S 1998a)
The axial load-displacem ent (P-A) response o f Specim en SC-32-80 from the F E M
analyses is shown in Figure 4.15. The experim ental P-A response is also shown in
Figure 4.15. The peak load in the F E M analyses was reached due to the inelastic
behavior o f the steel and concrete m aterials. In the FE M m odel, local b u cklin g o f the
steel tube d id n o t occur and the strain and stress-state o f the C FT cross-section was
202
uniform along the column length.
The steel tube and the concrete in f ill are subjected to u n ia xia l stress-states in the
elastic range because the Poisson’ s ratio o f steel (v s) is greater than the Poisson’ s ratio
o f concrete (v c) , w h ich results in separation (gap-opening) between the steel tube and
the concrete in f ill. The volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in f ill in the inelastic range
results in contact between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill (gap-closure). C ontact
forces develop betw een the steel tube and the concrete in fill, p rim a rily at the comers o f
the square cross-section. The contact forces increase w ith the d ila tio n o f the concrete
in fill and transverse tensile membrane (hoop) stresses develop in the steel tube and
transverse com pressive (con fin in g) stresses develop in the concrete in fill.
The stress-state o f the CFT cross-section at 80% o f the peak load (post-peak) fro m
the FE M analyses is shown in Figure 4.16. In F igure 4.16 crpl, ctP2 , crP3 , <n, and Oh are
the firs t, second, and th ird p rin cip a l stresses in the concrete in fill, and the lo n g itu d in a l
and transverse m em brane stresses in the steel tube, respectively. crpi was equal in
m agnitude and d ire ctio n to the lo n g itu d in a l stress ( 0 3 3 ) in the concrete in fill. The
m agnitude o f <tpi in the concrete in fill is shown in F igure 4.16 (a). The variation in <rpi
over the cross-section is caused b y the va ria tio n in the co n fin in g pressure over the
concrete elem ents, m and Oh in the steel tube are show n in Figure 4.16 (b). The tensile
hoop stresses in the steel tube reduce the lo n g itu d in a l com pressive stress to values less
than the u n ia x ia l y ie ld stress in accordance w ith the V o n M ises yie ld crite rio n . The
magnitudes o f crP 2 and ctP 3 are shown in Figures 4.16 (c) and 4.16 (d), respectively. The
directions o f crP 2 and crP 3 are shown in Figures 4.16 (e) and 4.16 (f), respectively. The
203
values o f crP 3 are m uch sm aller than the corresponding values o f crp 2 in m ost o f the
concrete in fill. H ow ever, a core p o rtio n o f the concrete cross-section indicated in
Figures 4.16 (c) and (d ) is subjected to s im ila r values o f crP 2 and -, .

0 53 Thus, a core
re g io n o f the concrete in f ill is subjected to tria x ia l confinem ent (a P 2 s im ila r to ctP3 ) and
the rem aining p o rtio n o f the concrete is subjected p rim a rily to b ia x ia l confinem ent (a P 2
m uch larger than crP3 ).
Results fro m the p re lim in a ry F E M analyses indicated that contact forces between
the steel tube and the concrete in f ill develop p rim a rly at the com ers o f the C FT cross-
section. The contact forces result in tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube and tria x ia l
confinem ent o f the core region and b ia x ia l confinem ent o f the rem aining p o rtio n o f the
concrete in fill. A n ide a liza tio n o f the concrete in fill o f a square C FT cross-section into
core and non-core regions is shown in F igure 4.17.
The A B A Q U S default values o f 9 and cQ are appropriate fo r equal (crpi = crP2 )
b ia x ia l loading conditions and are inappropriate fo r m odeling the concrete in f ill o f a
C FT cross-section subjected to increasing tria x ia l and b ia x ia l com pression. Thus, the
results fro m the p re lim in a ry F E M analyses indicate a need fo r ca lib ra tin g the m u ltia x ia l
p la s tic ity m odel fo r concrete.
204
4.2.6 CALIBRATION OF CONCRETE MATERIAL MODEL
The m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the core concrete was calibrated so the tria x ia lly
confined concrete strength o f the m odel is s im ila r to that given b y the em pirical
expression proposed b y R ich a rt et al. (1928). Equations (4.13) and (4.14) were
developed b y R ichart et al. (1928) and are recommended b y C o llin s (1992) fo r
p re d ictin g the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress ( f cc. r ) and the lo n g itu d in a l strain (e cc. r ) at the
peak lo n g itu d in a l stress fo r h ig h strength concrete under constant tria x ia l com pression.
Equations (4.13) and (4.14) were used to calibrate the values o f 0 and c0 fo r the
m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the core concrete.
(4.13)
= 1+ 20.5 — (4.14)
s UC fc
In Equations (4.13) and (4.14), a t is the constant transverse co n fin in g pressure and suc is
the lo n g itu d in a l strain at peak lo n g itu d in a l stress ( f c) under u n ia xia l com pression.
The non-core concrete is subjected to increasing b ia x ia l com pression. C urrently,
there is a la c k o f experim ental data that can be used to calibrate the inelastic m u ltia xia l
co n stitu tive m odel fo r the non-core concrete. The defalt value o f 0 (0.07) is v a lid fo r
equal b ia x ia l com pression and is too conservative fo r the non-core concrete. A n
interm ediate value o f 0 and the default value fo r c0 were used fo r the non-core concrete
as discussed below .
205
4.2.6.1 Values of 0 for Core and Non-core Concrete
The m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r concrete was used to m odel the equal b ia x ia l
com pression and constant tria x ia l com pression stress-states shown in Table 4.2. F or the
equal b ia x ia l com pression stress-state, the com pression yie ld condition, E quation (4.3),
can be s im p lifie d to Equation (4.15). The expressions fo r and J2 D fro m Table 4.2 and
E quation (4.9) are substituted into Equation (4.3) to derive Equation (4.15). F o r the
constant tria x ia l com pression stress-state, the com pression yie ld condition, Equation
(4.2), can be s im p lifie d to Equation (4.16) s im ila rly . Equations (4.15) and (4.16)
represent the y ie ld co n ditio n under the equal b ia x ia l and contant tria x ia l com pression
stress-state, respectively.
a
bi = <Juni 1 - V 3 0 (4.15)
1-2V30
(4.16)
In Equations (4.15) and (4.16), crum, crbl, cr1", and a r are the lon gitudinal y ie ld stress
under u n ia xia l com pression, the lo n g itu d in a l y ie ld stress under equal b ia xia l
com pression, the lon g itu d in a l yie ld stress under constant tria x ia l compression, and the
transverse co n fin in g pressure in the constant tria x ia l compression stress-states,
respectively.
Equations (4.15) and (4.16) indicate that the peak longitudinal stresses under the
equal b ia x ia l ( f be) and constant tria x ia l ( f cc) com pression stress-states are given b y
Equations (4.17) and (4.18):
206
fbc = f c r CTbi (4.17)
and f cc = f c + To-0 1 o-c (4.18)
where, f c is the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress under u n ia xia l com pression
and rCTbi = 1~ ^ _ (4.19)

1-2V30
and r * = 1 + 2 ^ 9 (4.20)
1-V30
The va ria tio n o f rCTbl and rCTtn w ith 0 is shown in Figure 4.18. The value o f rabl
becomes singular w hen 0 approaches 0.288. A com parison o f Equations (4.13) and
(4.18) indicates that the target value fo r r ^ is 4.1. A value o f 0 equal to 0.276, w h ich
results in r ^ 01 equal to 3.75 was chosen fo r the core concrete. H ig h e r values o f 0 are not
recomm ended because o f the sin g u la rity as 0 approaches 0.288. A value o f 0 equal to
0.192, w h ich results in r j * 1 equal to 2.0 was chosen fo r the non-core concrete. This was
the sm allest value o f 0 that could be used to obtain consistently converged results fro m
the F E M analyses o f the C FT colum ns. As show n in Figure 4.18, th is value o f 0 was
larger than the default value and sm aller than the value fo r the core concrete.
4.2.6.2 Values of c0 for Core and Non-core Concrete
The associated flo w rule, Equation (4.4), can be s im p lifie d to Equation (4.21) fo r
the equal b ia x ia l com pression stress-state. The expression fo r I i fro m Table 4.2, and
Equations (4.9) and (4.15) are substituted into E quation (4.4) to derive Equation (4.21).
S im ila rly , E quation (4.22) can be derived fo r the constant tria x ia l com pression stress-
207
state b y substituting the expression fo r I i fro m Table 4.2, and Equations (4.9) and (4.16)
in to E quation (4.4).
0 0 0
2V3
4c 1-V39 1
(dsp)bl = d K i + — *■ 0 0 - 0 (4.21)
1-2V30 2V 3
0 0 0
s .
r
0
__r
V3
dk. 1 + ^2. 0 0+ 0 (4.22)
9 V 1-V30 2 V3
v
0 0 0+
2V3
W hen the peak lo n g itu d in a l stresses are reached under the equal b ia xia l (fb C) and
constant tria x ia l ( f cc) stress-states, the corresponding p la stic strains are obtained b y
in te g ra tin g Equations (4.21) and (4.22). In E quation (4.22) c uni is equal to f c along the
y ie ld plateau (second branch) o f the idealized uniaxial stress-strain curve.
Therefore, the p la stic strain in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n (sn p )peak at the peak
lo n g itu d in a l stress (fb c ) fo r the equal b ia x ia l com pression stress-state is given b y
E quation (4.23). The plastic strain in the lon g itu d in a l d ire ctio n (su p )peak at the peak
lo n g itu d in a l stress ( f cc) fo r the constant tria x ia l stress-state is given b y Equation (4.24).
r 1— \ ^ ^
1-V39 ^
(e
V U /p e a k = X c -p e a k (4.23)
1 - 2 V3 0 2>/3.
208
A d d itio n a lly , E quation (4.12) provides a relationship between the plastic strain variable
( D \u n i
£a /peak at tîe Pea^ stress ( f c) fo r the uruaxxal
com pression stress-state.
uni
(e
Vs n p h
)peak
‘•c -p e a k r y i
(4.25)
S ubstitution o f Equation (4.25) into Equation (4.23) and (4.24) enables the ratios o f
the lo n g itu d in a l p la stic strains at the peak lo n g itu d in a l stresses to be obtained. Equation
(4.26) provides the ratio o f (euP)pea!c and (eHp )peak, rEbl, and E quation (4.27) provides
tn
the ratio o f (su p t k and ( s „ p t k,
\2
1-V 3 e e
bi
(8 p ) bl
I 8 I I /pepeak
1-2 S e 2V3.
rF
e
= #
/ \uni
(4.26)
L P>
v8n hpeak 1+ ^ e
9 / Vs.
\2
L p) 1+ ^ - 1 + — x
tn VS11 rpeak 9 fc 1 - V 3 0
rs =
(4.27)
ium
L p> + ^
VS l I J\peak 1
9
The va ria tio n o f rsbt w ith c0, where 0 is equal to 0.07 (d e fa ult) and 0.192 (non-core),
is shown in F igure 4.19. The default value o f c0 equal to 7.34, w h ich results in rEbl equal
209
to 1.94, was chosen fo r the non-core concrete. The va ria tio n o f r ^ w ith cQ, where 0 is
equal to 0.07 (default) and 0.276 (core), and w ith c V f c is equal to 0.125 is shown in
Figure 4.20. Figure 4.20 shows that increasing the value o f c0 beyond 50 does not have
have a s ig n ific a n t influence on retn.
A com parison o f Equations (4.14) and (4.27) indicates that the concrete m u ltia x ia l
p la s tic ity m odel in A B A Q U S cannot be calibrated to the £ Cc-r value proposed b y
R ichart et al. (1928). As cQbecomes large, E quation (4.27) reduces to:
L p) V
tn Is n peak
r S - .uni
1+ — X lim (4.28)
L p)' fc 1-V3 0 c O—>co
V8 11 hpeak
W ith 0 = 0.276, the lo n g itu d in a l plastic strain at the peak stress is:
lim (4.29)
v ‘c; cQ ->oo
and the to ta l lo n g itu d in a l s tra in (s[ t ) ^ al_predicted b y the m odel is:
£'
+ ^ lim (4.30)
C c CO
A com parison o f (sl l ) ! ^ k/( s l l )“^ k predicted using Equation (4.30) and the target
s cc-r/Suc proposed b y R ich a rt et al. (1928), E quation (4.14), is shown in F igure 4.21 as a
function o f a V f c. Figure 4.21 shows that the m u ltia x ia l p la sticity m odel cannot achieve
the target strain (s cc-r) even as c0 approaches in fin ity . Therefore, a value o f cQ equal to
100, w hich results in r£tn equal to 2.8 (fo r 0 equal to 0.276 and a 7 fc equal to 0.125) was
chosen fo r the core concrete.
210
The e ffect o f a 13.8 M P a constant tria x ia l c o n fin in g pressure on the lo n g itu d in a l
stress-strain beha vio r o f the core concrete (0 = 0.276, co=100) is shown in Figure 4.22.
The confined concrete strength (fcc-tO predicted using the e m p irica l expression
proposed b y R ich a rt et al. (1928), Equation (4.13), is also show n in the fig u re. The
strength o f the calibrated core concrete m odel compares fa vo ra b ly w ith the result from
the em pirical expression proposed b y R ichart et al. (1928). The e ffe ct o f a 13.8 M Pa
constant b ia x ia l con fin in g pressure on the lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain behavior o f the non
core concrete (0 = 0.192, cQ = 7.34) is also shown in Figure 4.22. As show n in Figure
4.22, confinem ent has a sig n ific a n t influence on the lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain behavior
o f high strength concrete. Constant tria x ia l con fin em ent results in greater strength and
d u c tility than constant b ia x ia l confinem ent o f the concrete.
4.3 F E M A N A L Y S E S O F S T U B C O L U M N S P E C IM E N S
FE M analyses o f the stub colum n specimens were conducted using the FEM
models o f the steel tube, concrete in fill, and com posite interaction. The concrete in fill
was idealized in to core and non-core regions as shown in F ig u re 4.17. The calibrated
values o f 0 and cQ w ere used fo r the core and non-core regions o f the concrete. The
F E M m odel o f the C FT stub colum n specimens is shown in F igure 4.1. The FEM
analyses were conducted under displacem ent control w ith the m o d ifie d R iks algorithm .
FE M analyses o f the C FT stub colum n specim en m odels w ith o u t any geom etric
im perfections were conducted firs t. The results from the F E M analysis o ffe r sign ifica nt
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in sig h t in to the b e ha vio r o f C FT colum ns and the transverse in te ra ctio n between the
steel tube and the concrete in fill. H ow ever, the F E M m odels w ith o u t geometric
im perfections do n o t accurately m odel the experim entally observed fa ilu re mode that
includes local b u c k lin g o f the steel tubes.
Therefore, F E M analyses o f the C FT stub colum n specim en m odels w ith geom etric
im perfections w ere conducted. The results fro m the FE M analysis o f the models w ith
geom etric im perfections o ffe r sig n ifica n t insig h t into the b e ha vio r o f C FT colum ns and
the lo n g itu d in a l in te ra ctio n between the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The complete
post-peak p o rtio n o f the a xia l load —displacem ent (P-A) response co u ld n o t be obtained
fro m these F E M analyses.
As a result, F E M analyses o f o n ly the inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the CFT stub
colum n specimens w ere conducted. The results from these F E M analyses were used to
obtain the com plete P-A response o f the C FT stub colum n specim ens.
4.3.1 FEM ANALYSES OF MODELS WITHOUT IMPERFECTIONS
The a xial load — displacem ent (P-A) response fro m the F E M analysis o f SC-32-80
w ith o u t geom etric im perfections is shown in Figure 4.23. The experim ental P-A
response is also show n in F igure 4.23. In the elastic range, v s is greater than vc, w hich
results in separation (gap-opening) between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
Consequently, the steel tube and concrete in fill are subjected to u n ia x ia l stress-states.
The volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in the inelastic range results in contact between the
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steel tube and the concrete in fill (gap-closure). C ontact forces develop between the
steel tube and the concrete in f ill causing transverse tensile membrane (hoop) stresses in
the steel tube and confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The contact forces develop
p rim a rily at the comers o f the C FT cross-section and increase w ith larger inelastic
lo n g itu d in a l strains. The peak load was reached due to the inelastic behavior o f the
steel and concrete m aterials. Local b u cklin g o f the steel tube d id not occur. The strain
and stress-state o f the C FT cross-section was u n ifo rm along the colum n length.
The lo n g itu d in a l stresses (0 3 3 ) in the concrete in f ill and the lon g itu d in a l ( cti) and
transverse (<7h) membrane stresses in the steel tube o f Specimen SC-32-80 at 92% o f
the peak load (post-peak) are shown in Figure 4.24. These stresses correspond to a
lo n g itu d in a l strain (S 3 3 ) o f 0.0042, w h ich is equal to 1.4 tim es suc, where suc is the strain
at the onset o f unloading in the concrete stress-strain curve as shown in Figure 4.14 (b).
The v a ria tio n in the concrete lon g itu d in a l stresses was caused b y the va ria tio n in the
con fin ing pressure over the elements. The tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube reduce
the lo n g itu d in a l com pressive stress to values less than the u n ia xia l yie ld stress in
accordance w ith the V o n M ises y ie ld crite rio n . Thus, the com posite interaction
between the tw o m aterials causes confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill but reduces the
lo n g itu d in a l com pressive stress capacity o f the steel tube.
The behavior o f the F E M models o f the other stub colum n specimens was sim ila r
to the behavior o f the FE M m odel o f SC-32-80. The P-A responses from the FEM
analyses o f Specimens SC-48-80, SC-32-46, and SC-48-46 are shown in Figures 4.25,
4.27, and 4.29, respectively. The experim ental P-A responses o f the corresponding stub
213
colum n specimens are also shown in these figures. The lo n g itu d in a l stresses (0 3 3 ) in the
concrete in fill and the lo n g itu d in a l (< ti) and transverse (cTh) m em brane stresses in the
steel tubes o f Specimens SC-48-80, SC -32-46, and SC -48-46 at 92% o f the peak load
(post-peak) are show n in Figures 4.26, 4.28, and 4.30, respectively. These stresses
correspond to a lo n g itu d in a l strain (S 33 ) o f 0.0042 (1.4 tim es euc).
4.3.2 FEM ANALYSES OF MODELS WITH GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS
The geom etric im perfections presented in Section 4.2.2 w ere introduced in the
F E M models o f the steel tubes and analyses o f the stub co lu m n specimens were
conducted. The P-A response from the F E M analysis o f Specim en SC-32-80 w ith
geom etric im perfections is shown in Figure 4.31. The experim ental P-A response is
also shown in Figure 4.31. The peak load in the F E M analysis was accompanied b y
local b u cklin g o f the steel tube com bined w ith inelastic b e h a vio r o f the steel and
concrete m aterials.
The geom etric im pe rfe ctio n causes a concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strains in the
steel tube near the region o f the im perfection. T his concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strain
in the tube com bined w ith the lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the concrete
in f ill results in a concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strains in the concrete in fill near the
region o f the geom etric im perfection. As a result, the specim en fa ils due to the
form ation o f an inelastic fa ilu re segment in the region o f the geom etric im perfection
w h ile the rem aining length o f the colum n unloads ela stica lly. The lo n g itu d in a l strains
214
in concrete in f ill ( 8 3 3 ) and the average lo n g itu d in a l m em brane strains (se2 ) in the steel
tube o f Specim en SC-32-80 at 97% o f the peak load (post-peak) are shown in Figure
4.32. The concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strains can be seen in the figure.
Transverse inte ractio n also occurs between the steel tube and the concrete in fill in
the ine la stic fa ilu re segment o f the colum n. The vo lu m e d ila tio n o f the concrete is
restrained b y the steel tube causing contact forces at the com ers o f the C FT cross-
section, and tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube and confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill.
The lo n g itu d in a l stresses (0 3 3 ) in the concrete in f ill and the average lo n g itu d in a l
membrane stresses (c J i-av g ) in the steel tube o f Specim en SC -32-80 at 97% o f the peak
load (post-peak) are shown in Figure 4.33. The e ffe c t o f c o n fin in g forces on the
concrete in f ill and the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube in the inelastic fa ilu re segment o f
the colum n can be seen in Figure 4.33.
The fo rm a tio n o f the inelastic fa ilu re segment com bined w ith the elastic unloading
o f the re m ain ing length o f the colum n reduced the m em ber a xia l d u c tility o f Specimen
SC-32-80 s ig n ific a n tly . As a result, the analysis o f the F E M m odel o f SC-32-80 w ith a
geom etric im p e rfe ctio n d id not achieve converged results in the post-peak region o f the
P-A response.
The b e h a vio r o f the F E M models o f the other stub colum n specimens w ith
geom etric im perfections was s im ila r to the behavior o f the F E M m odel o f the Specim en
SC-32-80 w ith geom etric im perfections. The experim ental and analytical P-A
responses o f Specim en SC-48-80 are shown in Figure 4.34. The lo n g itu d in a l stresses in
the concrete in f ill and the average lo n g itu d in a l m em brane stresses in the steel tube o f
215
Specim en SC -48-80 at 96% o f the peak load (post-peak) are shown in Figure 4.35. The
experim ental and analytical P-A responses o f Specimen SC-48-46 are shown in Figure
4.36. The lo n g itu d in a l stresses in the concrete in fill and the average lo n g itu d in a l
membrane stresses in the steel tube o f Specimen SC-48-46 at 98% o f the peak load
(post-peak) are shown in Figure 4.37. The experim ental and analytical P-A responses o f
Specim en SC -32-46 are shown in Figure 4.38.
The post-peak portions o f the P-A responses could not be obtained fro m the
analyses o f the F E M models o f the com plete stub colum n specimens w ith geom etric
im perfections. Therefore, FE M models o f the inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the stub
colum n specimens were developed and analyzed separately fo r pure a xia l loading
conditions. The a xia l load — displacem ent response o f the com plete stub colum n
specim en was obtained by adding the displacem ent contributions o f the elastic-
unloading and inelastic failure segments as presented in the fo llo w in g section.
4.3.3 F E M A N A L Y S E S O F IN E L A S T IC F A IL U R E S E G M E N T S
E xperim ental results indicate that each stub colum n specimen had fa ile d w ith the
fo rm a tio n o f approxim ately tw o inelastic fa ilu re segments, w h ile the rem aining length
o f the colum n unloaded elastically. The lengths o f the inelastic fa ilu re segments were
approxim ately equal to the w id th o f the C FT cross-section (305 m m ). For example,
Figure 4.39 shows the failure p ro file o f Specimen SC-32-80. The fa ilu re p ro file s o f the
other stub colum n specimens were s im ila r to that shown in Figure 4.39.
216
A n idealized m odel was developed fo r the a x ia lly loaded C FT stub colum n
specimens and is shown in Figure 4.40. A s shown in F igure 4.40, the idealized m odel
o f the stub colum n specimens consists o f tw o inelastic fa ilu re segments and tw o
e la stica lly unloading segments. The length o f the ine la stic fa ilu re segments was
assumed to be equal to the w id th (b = 305 m m ). The a xia l load — displacem ent
responses o f the inelastic fa ilu re segments (P-As) w ere obtained b y conducting FE M
analyses o f the inelastic fa ilu re segments separately. The a xia l load —displacem ent (P -
A) response o f the com plete stub colum n specimens was obtained b y adding the
displacem ent contributions o f the e la stica lly unloading and the inelastic fa ilu re
segments as explained below.
F E M models o f the 305 m m inelastic fa ilu re segments were developed and
analyzed fo r pure axial loading conditions. The FE M m odels fo r the inelastic fa ilu re
segments were identical to the F E M m odels o f the com plete stub colum n specimens
w ith geom etric im perfections except that the length o f the F E M m odel o f the inelastic
fa ilu re segment was equal to 305 m m . The geom etric im pe rfe ctio n was placed at the
m id-height o f the FE M m odel o f the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The a x ia lly loaded and
supported ends o f the FEM m odel o f the inleastic fa ilu re segment were restrained
against rotation and constrained to rem ain plane. The a xia l load — displacem ent (P-As)
responses o f the inelastic failure segments o f the stub colum n specimens (in clu d in g the
post-peak response) could be obtained fro m the FE M analyses. F or exam ple, Figure
4.41 shows a typ ica l P-As response obtained from the F E M analyses.
217
The a xia l load —displacem ent (P-Ae) response o f the e la s tic a lly unloading segment
was assumed based on the P-As response o f the ine la stic fa ilu re segment. As show n in
F ig u re 4.41, the a xia l displacem ent Ae o f the e la s tic a lly unloading segment was assumed
to be equal to As before the peak load Ppk (corresponding to displacem ent Apk) was
reached. In the post-peak range (As > APk), the e la s tic a lly unloading segment was
assumed to unload e la s tic a lly w ith its in itia l a xia l stiffness (Kps-ini)-
The to ta l a xia l displacem ent (A ) o f the com plete stub colum n specimen was
determ ined b y adding the displacem ent co n tribu tio n s o f the elastic unloading and
fa ilu re segments as shown in Equation (4.31).
A = 2 Ae + 2 As (4.31)
w here, Ae = As w hen As < APk (4-32)
and Ae = APk - (P Pk-P )/K Fs-mi w h e n A s > A pk (4.33)
Thus, the a xia l load — displacem ent (P-A) o f the com plete stub colum n specimen co u ld
be obtained fro m the P-As response o f the in e la stic fa ilu re segment. Figure 4.41
g ra p h ic a lly illustrates the determ ination o f the P -A response o f the com plete stub
co lu m n specimen.
The a xia l load —displacem ent (P-A ) response o f Specim en SC-32-80 was obtained
b y the procedure o u tlin e d above and is shown in Figure 4.42. The experim ental P-A
response is also included in Figure 4.42. The lo n g itu d in a l stress (<7 3 3 ) in the concrete
in f ill and the average lon g itu d in a l membrane stress (ci-avg) in the steel tube o f the
ine la stic fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-80 at 94% o f the peak load (post-peak) are show n in
F iguure 4.43. The confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill and the lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel
218
tube can be seen in Figure 4.43. The P-A response o f Specimens SC -48-80, SC-32-46,
and S C -48-46 are shown in Figure 4.44, 4,46, and 4.48, respectively. The stresses in the
concrete in f ill and the steel tubes o f Specim ens SC -48-80, SC-32-46, and SC-48-46 at
94% o f the peak load (post-peak) are show n in Figure 4.45, 4.47, and 4.49, respectively.
4.3.4 FINDINGS FROM FEM ANALYSES OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS
C o m p a ris o n o f e x p e rim e n ta l a n d a n a ly tic a l res u lts
The P-A responses fro m the analyses o f F E M m odels w ith o u t geom etric
im perfections, F E M m odels w ith geom etric im perfections, and F E M models o f the
ine la stic fa ilu re segments (w ith geom etric im pe rfe ctio n s) fo r Specimens SC-32-80, SC-
48-80, SC -32-46, and SC-48-46 are show n in Figure 4.50, 4.51, 4.42, and 4.53,
respectively. The corresponding experim ental P -A responses are also included in the
figures. The a xia l load — displacem ent (P -A ) responses obtained b y com bining the
results fro m the F E M analyses o f the ine la stic fa ilu re segments w ith the contributions o f
the e la s tic a lly unloading segments appear to p rovide good predictions o f the
experim ental P-A responses.
Table 4 .3 shows a com parison o f the experim ental results w ith those obtained fro m
the F E M analyses and the predictions based on the current code provisions. In Table
4 .3 P 0, Kax-exp, P fem > and K fem are the experim ental a xia l load capacity, the
e xp erim e nta lly determ ined in itia l section a x ia l stiffness, the peak load from the F E M
analyses, and the in itia l section axial stiffness determ ined from the F E M analyses. In
219
Table 4.3, P fem and K fem are values obtained fro m the analyses o f the F E M m odels o f
the com plete stub colum n specimens w ith geom etric im perfections. Table 4.3 indicates
that the results fro m the F E M analyses (P fem, K fem) compare fa vo ra b ly w ith the
experim ental results (P0, Ka.x^ xp). Therefore, the results fro m the analyses o f FE M
m odels w ith geom etric im perfections can be used w ith confindence to p re dict the axial
load capacity o f h ig h strength square CFT stub colum n specimens.
B e h a v io r
The F E M m odels o f the high strength square C FT stub colum n specimens and the
results fro m the F E M analyses indicate that the concrete in fill o f a C FT colum n delays
and changes the local buckling mode o f the steel tubes. G eom etric im perfections in the
steel tube lead to the developm ent o f local b u c k lin g in the steel tube, w h ich results in a
concentration o f lon g itu d in a l strains in the tube. This concentration o f lon g itu d in a l
strains in the tube com bined w ith the lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the
concrete in f ill results in a concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strains in the concrete in f ill near
the region o f the geom etric im perfection. A s a result, the stub colum n specimens fa il
w ith the fo rm a tio n o f an inelastic fa ilu re segm ent near the region o f the geom etric
im pe rfe ctio n w h ile the rem aining length o f the colum ns unloads e lastically.
Transverse interaction occurs between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill in the
inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the stub colum n specimens. The steel tube restrains the
inelastic vo lu m e tric d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill. C ontact forces develop between the
steel tube and the concrete in fill p rim a rily at the com ers o f the square C FT cross-
section. These contact forces increase w ith the inelastic lo n g itu d in a l strain and cause
220
tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube and confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The
concrete in f ill is subjected to con fin in g forces acting fro m the com ers o f the C FT cross-
section, w hich causes a core region o f the concrete to be subjected to tria x ia l
com pression w h ile the rem aining (non-core) p o rtio n o f the concrete is subjected
p rim a rily to b ia x ia l com pression. The tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube reduce its
lo n g itu d in a l com pressive stress capacity b e lo w the u n ia xia l y ie ld stress in accordance
w ith the V on M ises y ie ld crite rio n . Thus, the transverse inte ractio n between the steel
tube and the concrete in f ill results in confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill b u t reduces the
a xia l load capacity o f the steel tube.
The a xia l load - displacem ent (P-A) response o f the stub colum n specimens was
predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y co m b in ing the results fro m the F E M analyses o f
the inelastic fa ilu re segments w ith the contributions o f the e la stica lly unloading
segments.
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r m o d e lin g
The behavior o f a x ia lly loaded C FT colum ns can be investigated b y using the FE M
m odels that were developed in this chapter. A lte rn a te ly, F E M m odels can be developed
using other procedures. However, the im po rta n t aspects o f the C FT behavior that
should be included in the FE M m odels are the lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube, the
com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill, and the
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The geom etric im p e rfe ctio n governs the local
b u c k lin g behavior o f the steel tube and should be included in the F E M models. The
transverse and lo n g itu d in a l interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill
221
should be included in the FEM m odels. The concrete m aterial m odel m ust account fo r
the tria x ia l confinem ent o f the core re g io n and b ia x ia l confinem ent o f the non-core
re g io n o f the square concrete in fill. The calibrated concrete m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel
presented in Section 4.2.6 can be used fo r the concrete in f ill o f square C FT colum ns.
4.4 FEM ANALYSES OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
F E M m odels o f the 1.5 m test-lengths o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens
w ere developed and the analyses w ere conducted using A B A Q U S V e rsio n 5.8
(A B A Q U S 1998a). The FE M m odels accounted fo r the effects o f o f lo ca l bu cklin g,
com posite inte ractio n between the steel tube and the concrete in fill, confinem ent and
tension cra ckin g o f the concrete in fill. The F E M analyses o f the m onotonic beam-
co lu m n specimens could not be com pleted due to the lim ita tio n s o f the concrete
m a te ria l m odel. Section 4.4.1 presents the F E M m odels fo r the test-lengths o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. S ection 4.4.2 presents some o f the d iffic u ltie s that
w ere encountered in conducting the F E M analyses.
4.4.1 FEM MODELS FOR MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
F igure 4.54 shows the FE M m odel fo r the 1.5 m test-length o f the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens. As shown in Figure 4.54, sym m etry was considered and o n ly
o n e -h a lf o f the C FT cross-section was m odeled. The appropriate sym m etry boundary
co nditions were enforced along the plane o f sym m etry. In Figure 4.54 u i, U2 , U3 , r i, r2,
222
and r3 are the displacem ents and rotations about the global 1-2-3 axes respectively. The
ends o f the F E M m odel w ere constrained to rem ain plane using Equations (4.36) and
(4.37).
u3' = u3c+ dj ric (4.36)
r i‘ = r ic (4.37)
In Equations (4.36) and (4.37) u3', n 1, d,-, u3c, ri° are the u3 o f node i, r i o f node i,
distance o f node i fro m centroidal axis, u3 o f the centroidal node, and ri o f the centroidal
node, respectively. The ends o f the F E M m odel were s im p ly supported, where the
centroidal node o f E N D -2 (shown in F ig u re 4.54) was restrained in u3 and u3 and the
centroidal nodel o f E N D -1 was restrained o n ly in U2 -
A s show n in Figure 4.54, the a xia l load (P) was applied at the centroidal node o f
EN D -1 o f the FE M m odel. The a xia l load was m aintained constant during the FE M
analysis. M o n o to n ica lly increasing bending moments (M ) w ere applied, under
displacem ent control using the m o d ifie d R iks algorithm , at the centroidal nodes o f
EN D-1 and E N D -2. Thus, the FE M m odels o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens
were analyzed fo r the same loading conditions as the test specimens.
Some o f the relevant details o f the com ponents o f the F E M m odel o f m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens, i.e., the F E M m odel o f the steel tube, the F E M m odel o f the
concrete in fill, and the F E M models o f the com posite interaction are presented below .
223
F E M model o f steel tube
The steel tube was m odeled w ith fo u r node S-4 shell elem ents. The isotropic
m u ltia x ia l elastic m odel w ith m odulus o f e la sticity equal to 200 GPa and Poisson’ s ratio
equal to 0.3 was used in the elastic range. The m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity m odel w ith the V on
M ises y ie ld crite ria , isotropic hardening behavior, and an associated flo w rule was used
in the inelastic range. The u n ia xia l stress-strain relationship o f the m aterial was
required to com pletely define the m u ltia x ia l p la sticity m odel. The idealized stress-
strain curves that were presented in Section 4.2.1.1 were used fo r the m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens o f the corresponding C FT specimen types.
G eom etric im perfections were included in the FEM m odels o f the steel tubes o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. Equation (4.2), w h ich was developed and
presented earlier in Section 4.2.2, was used to determine the geom etric perturbation
(in itia l out-of-plane displacem ent) o f the nodes o f the FE M m odels o f the steel tube
w alls. The geom etric im perfection was introduced at the m id -h e ig h t o f the steel tube
com pression (top) flanges o f the F E M models o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens.
F E M m o d e l o f concrete in f ill
The concrete in fill was m odeled using three-dim ensional continuum elem ent types
C3D6 and C3D8R. The ‘ C O N C R ETE’ m aterial model in A B A Q U S was used fo r the
concrete elements. The ‘ C O N C R ETE’ m aterial m odel uses an isotropic m u ltia xia l
elastic m odel in the elastic range. In the inelastic range, the ‘ C O N C R E TE ’ m aterial
m odel uses a m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity m odel when the stress-state is dom inantly
224
com pressive and a m u ltia x ia l damaged e la sticity m odel w hen the stress-state is
d o m in a n tly tensile.
The m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel in com pression, w h ic h consists o f a compression
y ie ld surface, iso tro p ic hardening o r softening behavior, and an associated flo w rule was
presented e a rlie r in Section 4.2.3.1. As m entioned p re vio u sly, values o f 0, cQ, and the
u n ia x ia l com pression stress-strain curve are required to co m p le te ly define the m u ltia xia l
p la s itic ity m odel (see Section 4.2.3.1). The idealized u n ia x ia l com pression stress-strain
curve that was developed fo r h ig h strength 110 M Pa concrete in Section 4.2.3.2 and
shown in Figures 4.14 (a) and (b) was used fo r the concrete elem ents. The non-core
calibrated values o f 0 and c0 equal to 0.192 and 7.34, respectively, (see Section 4.2.6)
were used fo r the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel.
C racking dom inates the behavior o f concrete when the stress-state is predom inantly
tensile. The ‘ C O N C R E TE ’ m aterial m odel uses a m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel, w hich
consists o f a crack detection fa ilu re surface, to determ ine the onset and orientation o f
cracking. N u m e rica lly, the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel is used ju s t fo r the increm ent in
w h ich cra ckin g takes place. Once the crack’s presence and o rie n ta tio n have been
detected, m u ltia x ia l damaged e la sticity concepts are used to m odel the post-failure
behavior o f the cracked concrete. The details o f the concrete tension cracking m aterial
m odel are presented in the A B A Q U S theory m anual (A B A Q U S 1998b). A uniaxial
tension stress-strain curve is required to com pletely d efine the behavior o f the tension
cracking m odel. F o r exam ple, Figure 4.55 shows a ty p ic a l tension stress-strain curve
that can be specified fo r the concrete. A B A Q U S (1998b) recom m ends that the tension
225
s tiffe n in g p o rtio n o f the stress-strain curve should be calibrated fo r in d ivid u a l
applications and should account fo r the effects o f bond betw een the concrete and the
surrounding tension reinforcem ent.
The u n ia x ia l tension stress capacity (crtu) fo r the 110 M P a h ig h strength concrete
was not determ ined experim entally. Therefore, the A B A Q U S (1998a) recommended
value o f 0.09 f c was used in itia lly . Figure 4.56 shows the assumed u n ia xia l tension
stress-strain curve fo r the 110 M Pa high strength concrete.
F E M m o d e l o f com posite in te ra c tio n
U n ia xia l gap-contact elements were used to m odel the transverse interaction
between the steel tube and the concrete in fill. A s shown in Figure 4.54 (b), the gap-
contact elements connect the corresponding nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. The gap-contact elements had hard frictio n le ss contact behavior and were closed
(in-contact) at the beginning o f the FE M analysis.
The lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill was modeled
using spring elements. A s shown in Figure 4.54 (c), these elements also connect
corresponding nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The spring elements act in
the lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n and o ffe r resistance to slip (re la tive m otion) between the
connected nodes. A n elastic-plastic force —re la tive displacem ent behavior was used fo r
the spring elements, where the yie ld force is equal to the contact area m u ltip lie d b y the
bond strength (xb0nd) between the steel tube and the concrete in fill. T bond was estimated
using the e m p irica l equation, Equation (2.1), proposed b y R oeder et al. (1999). Tbond was
226
equal to 1.69 M Pa and 1.38 M Pa fo r the specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 and 48,
respectively. The elastic stiffness o f the spring elements (175 kN /m m ) was an order o f
m agnitude larger than the values reported b y Roeder et al. (1999). Thus, the spring
elements e ffe ctive ly had a rig id -p la stic behavior.
4.4.2 DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN FEM ANALYSES OF CFT BEAM-
COLUMNS
The F E M models o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were analyzed fo r the
same loading conditions as the test specimens. The applied m om ent — end rota tio n
responses from the F E M analyses o f specimens B C -32-80-40 and B C -32-80-20 are
shown in Figures 4.57 (a) and (b ), respectively. The corresponding experim ental
m om ent —rota tio n responses are also shown in the figures. C onverged results could not
be achieved from the F E M analyses beyond the last p o in t in the a nalytical m om ent —
ro ta tio n responses. Figures 4.58 (a) and (b), show the lo n g itu d in a l strains and stresses
at the last converged p o in t from the FEM analysis o f Specimen B C -32-80-40. Figures
4.59 (a) and (b), show the lon g itu d in a l strains and stresses at the last converged p o in t
fro m the FE M analysis o f Specimens BC -32-80-20. S im ila r results and comparisons
w ith experim ental results were obtained fo r the rem aining m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens.
The results from the F E M analyses indicate that converged results could not be
achieved a fter the extrem e concrete com pression elements w ent into the inelastic range.
227
Thus, converged results could not be achieved from the FEM analyses due to combined
tension cracking and compression inelasticity o f the concrete infill.
C o n crete T en sio n S tre ss -S tra in C u rve
As m entioned previously, the concrete tension stress-strain has a sig n ifica n t
influence on the tension cracking m odel fo r the concrete m aterial. The parameters
d e fin in g the tension stress-strain curve are:
• <jtu —the tension stress capacity
• post-peak tension stiffe n in g behavior
The post-peak tension stiffe n in g behavior o f the concrete shown in Figure 4.56 was
m o d ifie d to be elastic-plastic and the F E M analyses were conducted again. H ow ever,
the results fro m the F E M analyses were s im ila r to those shown in Figures 4.57 to 4.59.
The tension stress-capacity o f the 110 M Pa hig h strength concrete was varied from
0.05 f c to 0.12 f c, w h ile assuming an elastic-plastic tension stiffe n in g behavior, and the
F E M analyses were conducted again. H ow ever, the results fro m the F E M analyses
were s till s im ila r to those shown in Figure 4.57 to 4.59.
A ll the results fro m the F E M analyses indicate that converged results cannot be
achieved fo r the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens, w h ile using the concrete m aterial
m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a). Previous research conducted b y other researchers has also
indicated s im ila r lim ita tio n s o f the concrete m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a). For
exam ple, Baskar et al. (2000) developed F E M models o f steel — concrete com posite
girders, w h ile using the concrete m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a). Converged
228
results could not be achieved from the FEM analyses due to the combined tension
cracking and concrete inelasticity.
S u m m a ry
F E M m odels w ere developed fo r the m onotonic C FT beam -colum n specimens.
These F E M m odels w ere analyzed fo r the same loa d ing conditions as the test
specimens. H ow ever, the F E M analyses co u ld n o t be com pleted due to lim ita tio n s o f
the concrete m a te ria l m odel in A B A Q U S .
229
Table 4.1 Parameters for idealized steel stress-strain curves.
Specimen Steel tube Thickness °y £sh CT„ su

(mm) (MPa) (MPa)
SC-32-80 A 500 Grade-80 8.9 560 0.021 642 0.119
SC-48-80 A 500 Grade-80 6.1 660 0.023 738 0.12
SC-32-46 A 500 G rade-B 8.6 259 0.00129 412 0.18
SC-48-46 A 500 G rade-B 5.8 471 0.029 534 0.148
Table 4.2. U n ia xia l, b ia xia l, and tria x ia l stress-states.
Equal Constant
Stress Uniaxial biaxial triaxial
uni bi tri
C n —CTpi -a -<7 -cr
CT2 2 = crP2 0 -<Tbi -cr1

(constant)
033 = CTp3 0 0 -cr1
(constant)
_uni ^tri -Z<-) crt
-cr
II -CT -2 crbi
JlD ( u n i )- ( bi V ( tri —t) 2

F (cr - c r f
3 3 3
230
Table 4.3 Comparison o f Experimental and Analytical Results
Specimen Po Kax-exp Po Kax-exp

(kN) (kN) P fem K fe m
SC-32-80 14116 5.475 0.97 1.01
SC-48-80 12307 4.949 0.91 1.00
SC-32-46 11390 5.203 0.97 0.98
SC-48-46 11568 4.864 0.94 0.99
231
(a)
CONCRETE
U n ia x ia l gap-contact element —W V L o n g itu d in a l bond spring
Figure 4.1 F E M m odel fo r stub colum n specim ens: (a) Axes o f sym m etry;
(b) O ve ra ll m odel; (c) Transverse inte ractio n ; and (d) L o n g itu d in a l
in te ra ctio n
232
Branch 2 : Branch 3
►?-*
/B r a n c h !
e, s.’U
"y
S tra in , e
Figure 4.2 Idealized stress-strain curve fo r steel
840-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
700!
150 mm
560; ■ JL >V£ld - L -
Coupon 1 Coupon
to
r-»
305 m m g_
square C F T §
280-
140 150 mm
Idealized ct- s curve
Experimental ct- s curves
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
Figure 4.3 Idealized and experim ental stress-strain curves fo r steel tube o f
specim en type CFT-32-80
233
140
Idealized cr—s curve
Experimental cr-s curves
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
Strain (m m /m m )
840 j
700-
5601
280
140 Idealized cr—e curve

Experimental cr-s curves
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
Strain (m m /m m )
234
140
Idealized cr—e curve
Experimental cr—e curves!
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
S train (m m /m m )
828
SC -48-80
690 i
S C -32-80
552
S C -48 -4 6
es
414
SC -32-46
Vi
216-
138
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
S train (m m /m m )
Figure 4.7 Idealized stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f stub colum n specimens
235
L = 1.2 m
F igure 4-8 F E M m odel o f h o llo w steel tube
8900-
6675-
N o Im p erfectio n
Axial Load (kN )
Fig. 4.12
4450- C onstrained tube

Fig. 4.10
H o llo w tube
2225-
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0

Displacement (m m )
Figure 4.9 P-A responses fro m FE M analysis o f the h o llo w steel tube o f SC-32-80
236
Local B uckling
Figure 4.10 D isplaced shape from F E M analysis o f the h o llo w steel tube o f SC-32-80
2
STEEL TUBE
u
s
G ap-contact element
VI 6
X
<
Axis o f S ym m etry
Figure 4.11 F E M m odel o f constrained steel tube

237
nS,
e *.l2
aOal
y$is
°^ e
°Ol2.Stti
' ^ h oil,
Oty
steej
/ Equation 4.2
PLANE O F S Y M M E T R Y
l8Ur*4.l3
Te°m,
etric
lniPe*fe,
,
sha,
P Qfco r
stee/
Re, tUbe
Proa
Pcea 238 * * lls
With
PerfPis.•si0/1
ofth*
°°Pyin9ht
0 Wrier F
Prther
repn
0c,Uction
Pr°Pib,'tea
W
ith,out
Perrn,'issio
'n.
,
137.5
Brittle Failure
110.0-
cz:
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

S train (m m /m m )
Oh and Sause (2 0 0 1 ) Collins and Porasz (1989) — Experiment Idealized
o
t/5
f716
e.’UC
Strain (m m/mm )
Figure 4.14 Stress-strain curves fo r h ig h strength concrete: (a) E xperim ental,

e m p irica l, and idealized; (b) Idealized
239
17800
SC -32-80
13350J Stress-state shown

in Figure 4.16
Axial Load (k N )
8900 Experiment
Preliminary F E M
4450
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
Figure 4.15 Results fro m p re lim in a ry FE M analysis o f Specim en SC-32-80
240
Figure 4.16 Stress-state o f SC-32-80 at 80% peak load fro m F E M analyses:
(a) CTpl - contour plot; (b) stress-state o f steel tube; (c) crp2 - contour
p lo t; (d) crp3 - contour p lo t; (e) crp2 - vector p lo t; ( f) cjp3 - vector p lo t
241
Figure 4.17 Idealization o f concrete in f ill in to core and non-core regions
bi.*
tri
- e>J3
■O
s
cs
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

0
Figure 4.18 V a ria tio n o f rCTbtand w ith 0
242
0 = 0.192 (non-core)
3.51
3.0l
2.51
0 = 0 . 0 7 (default)
La» 2.0
1.5
1. 0 '
0 .5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Co
Figure 4.19. V a ria tio n o fr eb‘ w ith cQ.
0 = 0.276 (core)
2 .5 ]
0 = 0.07 (default)
1.0
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Co
Figure 4.20. V a ria tio n o f rg01 w ith c0.
243
cc-R uc
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

CTt
fc
Figure 4.21 V a ria tio n o f s ' cc- r / S uc and (el / (s n ) ^ Ilk w ith crV f'c
220
F c + 4 .1 ct22: R ic h a rtetal. (1928)

165
Stress, a,, (M P a )
C o re - calibrated
ct, , = cr„ = 13.8 M P a
110-
U niaxial
Non-core - calibrated
cr,, = 13.8 M P a
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
S train , eu (m m /ram )
Uniaxial —C3- B iaxial —O— Triaxial
F igure 4.22 C onfined and unconfined concrete stress-strain curves

244
222507
178001
Stress-state shown
in Figure 4.24
§ 13350;
■cso
o
-I
.5 8900
X
<
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
• Experiment — F E M w/o Imperfections;
Figure 4.23 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith o u t im perfections) o f SC-32-80
2+
(M P a ) cr, (M P a )
- 1 . 7 0 E + 02 -►1 S . 04E+-02
- 1 . 23E-02
- 1 . 1 3E + 02
cth = 103 M P a
- 1 . 0 4 E -*■0 2 ct, = -504 M P a
- 9 . 38E*01 cr. = 560 M P a
-8 .4 IE «■0
F igure 4.24 Stress-state o f SC-32-80 at 92% peak load (post-peak) fro m FE M

analysis w ith o u t im perfections
245
178001
Stress-state shown
§ 13350- in Figure 4.26
•s
css
-I
•| 8900-
<
4450-
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
■Experiment — FEM w/o Imperfection ;
24 -
cj33 (M P a ) ct, (M P a )
--1.75E -02 86E-02 -►1
- - 1 . 20E-02
- - 1 . 10E-02 crh = 134 M P a
^ r - 1-00^ 02 cr, = -586 M P a
- 9 . 10E+OL
ct„ = 660 M P a
Figure 4.26 Stress-state o f SC -48-80 at 92% peak load (post-peak) fro m F E M

246
2 22 50 -
I
i
i
17800i
13350-j
z
Stress-state shown
•a in Figure 4.28
es
o
d 8 900
n
x
<
4450
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Displacem ent (m m )
-0_ Experiment — F E M vv/o Imperfections
2f
cr33 (M P a ) cr, (M P a)
--1.S 7E -02 ^ k - - 2 . 14E+02 -►1
- 1 . 17E*02
- 1 . 08E -02
crh = 86 M P a
- - 9 . 83E -01 cr, = -214 M P a
- - 8 . 8 9E*01
cry = 259 M P a
- 7 . 9SE-0
Figure 4.28 Stress-state o f SC-32-46 at 92% peak load (post-peak) fro m F E M

247
22250,------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
i j
i !
; j
178001 |
3 13350- Stress-state shown

in Figure 4.30
8900
4450-
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

D isplacem ent (m m )
j Experiment — F E M w/o Imperfections |
Figure 4.29 P-A response from F E M analysis (w ith o u t im perfections) o f SC48-46
o 33 (M P a ) a , (M P a )
1 . 7 0 E * 02 -4 - 0 1 E -02
1 . 1 7E+ 02
- 1 . 0 8 E * 02 o h = 121 M P a
- 9 . 8 0 E+ 01
cr, = -4 0 1 M P a
— - 8 . 8 4 E + 01
ct. = 473 M P a
- 7 . 8 8E+-
Figure 4.30 Stress-state o f SC-48-46 at 92% peak load (post-peak) from F E M

analysis w itho u t im perfections
248
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
178001
Strain and stress-states shown

in Figures 4.32 and 4.33
g , 13350-
8900
4450
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
Experiment F E M vv Imperfection
Figure 4.31 P-A response fro m FE M analysis (w ith im perfections) o f SC-32-80
Figure 4.32 L o n g itu d in a l strains in SC-32-80 at 97% peak load (post-peak) from
FE M analysis w ith im perfections
249
cr33 (MPa) (M P a )
- - 5 . 54E-02
— 5 . 29E-02
F igure 4.33 Stress-state o f SC -32-80 at 97% peak load (post-peak) from

22250----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17800'
Stress-state shown
% 13350- in Figure 4.35
■9
es
O
_!
is
‘x 8900
<
4450-
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

i Experiment F E M - w Imperfection j
F ig u re 4.34 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith im pe rfe ctio n ) o f SC -48-80

250
<j 33 (M P a ) (M P a )
Figure 4.35 Stress-state o f SC -48-80 at 96% peak load (post-peak) fro m

22250-,-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17800-
Stress-state shown
in Figure 4.37
8900
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 L2.5

S _a_ Experiment F E M - vv Imperfection j
Figure 4.36 P-A response fro m F E M analysis (w ith Im perfection) o f SC-48-46

251
CJ33 (M P a ) (M P a )
|------4 . 4 S E * 0 2
3 .70E -02
Figure 4.37 Stress-state o f SC-48-46 at 98% peak load (post-peak) from

222501------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17800"
z
£ .1 3 3 5 0 :
■cas
0
J
1 8900
4450
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
i Experiment — F E M - w Imperfection
Figure 4.38 P-A response fro m FEM analysis (w ith Im p e rfe ctio n ) o f SC-32-46
252
n n
0.45m
_£
1.2m
Local ^
buckling
1r
Figure 4.39 Failure p ro file o f Specim en SC-32-80
253
Elastic unloading segment
F a ilu re segments
Elastic unloading segment
F igure 4.40 Id e a liza tio n o f stub colum n specim en in to fa ilu re and elastic unloading
segments
P-As response o f failure

segment fro m F E M
Axial Load, P
P-Ac response o f elastic

‘FS-ini unloading segment
FS-ini A = 2 A +2 A,
Ae = As ; w hen As < A pk
= ; w hen Ar > A,
^pk " I^pk ~ Pl^FS-ini 5
A x ia l Displacem ent, As o r Ae
Figure 4.41 D ete rm in ing P - A response o f com plete stub colum n specim en from
the P - As response o f fa ilu re segment obtained from F E M analyses
254
22250J
17800]
Stress-state shown
in Figure 4.43
e 13350]
8900
4450
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
; ' a“ Experiment F E M - Failure Segment
Figure 4.42 P-A response from. FE M A nalysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-80
ct33 (M P a ) (M P a )
Figure 4.43 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC -32-80 at 92% o f the peak
load (post-peak)
255
22250
| i
17800 ;
Stress-state shown
e 13350 in Figure 4.45
8900
4450'
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
Experiment F E M - Failure Segment
F igure 4.44 P-A response from F E M analysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-48-80
cr33 (M P a ) (M P a )
Figure 4.45 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-48-80 at 92% o f the peak
load (post-peak)
256
22250TI
i
!
17800;
f
Stress-state shown
in Figure 4.47
8900
4450■
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

D isplacem ent (m m )
F igure 4.46 P-A response fro m F E M analysis o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-46
ct33 (M P a ) (M P a )
F igure 4.47 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-32-46 at 92% o f the peak
load (post-peak)
257
22250-
17800]
Stress-state shown
in Figure 4.49
8900
4450
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

-c>- Experiment F E M - Failure Segment
Figure 4.48 P-A response fro m F E M analysis o f the fa ilu re segm ent o f SC-48-46
°3 3 (M P a ) (M P a )
Figure 4.49 Stress-state o f the fa ilu re segment o f SC-48-46 at 92% o f the peak
load (post-peak)
258
22250
Axial Load (k N )
13350 4
8900
4450
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

~ a~ Experiment FEM - Failure Segment;

" “ FEM w/o Imperfection FEM - w Imperfection
Figure 4.50 Results fro m F E M analyses o f SC-32-80

22250]---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17800-
Axial Load (kN)
8900-
4450-
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

Displacement (m m )
| —° ~ Experiment FEM - Failure Segment!

j “ “ FEM w/o Imperfection FEM - w Imperfection I

259
17800
2
^ 133501
o
-J
_es
< 8900
4450-
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5


“ " F E M w/o Imperfection * F E M - w Imperfection

22250-
17800 :
z
- 133501
O
J
< 8 90 0'
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5

j Experiment F E M - Failure Segment j

| “ " F E M w/o Imperfection F E M - w Imperfection !
F igure 4.53 Results fro m F E M analyses o f SC-48-46
260
(9)
6 4 S4
^ e el m e n t
.,/ —Longitudinalbond
6*e,Prog,
FEM m odelfo r m onotonic beam-column specim ens: (a ) O verall
UCea îth m odel;(b ) Transverse interaction;(c ) and L ongitudinalinteraction
Pen
:si0n 261
° ^ n er.
• Fturth,
errepn
°ciu,PtiOr
o fthe copyright pr°hih'itea i/i/zi
wHh,out
,Ssb r
T ension-s tiffening
behavior
= cr“/E.
S tra in , 8
Figure 4.55 Tension stress-strain curve w ith te n sion -stiffe nin g behavior
9.9
4.9
4 2 .0 GPa
0.00024 0.003
S tra in ( m m /m m )
Figure 4.56 U n ia x ia l tension stress-strain curve fo r h ig h strength concrete
262
1125
900
Last converged point

Longitudinal strains and
stresses in Figure 4.58
675
Moment (k N -n i)
450
225
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Rotation (rad .)
L125
900
Last converged point

Longitudinal strains and
Moment (kN-m)
675 stresses in Figure 4.59
450
225
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

R otation (rad .)
Figure 4.57 M om ent - rotation response from F E M analyses o f: (a) BC -32-80-40;

(b) BC -32-80-20
263
00
Longitudinal strain
-3. 34E -03
- 3 . 01E-03
-2. S8E-03
- 2 . 3SE-03
- 2 . 02E -03
--1.S 9E -03
■-1.36E-03
3--1.03E -03
--7.00E -04
B«
- 3 . 69E-04
- 3 . 89E-0S
* 2 . 92E-04
- * 6 . 22E-04
- 9 . 53E-04
(b)
Longitudinal stress (M P a )
- 1 . 22E-02
- 1 . 11E»02
- 1 . 01E*02
- 9 . 10E-01
- 8 . 08E+01
- 7 . 0GE«-01
- 6 . 05E-t-01
-S .03E -01
- 4 . 01E+01
- 2 . 99E*01
m - 1 . 9 7E-01
- 9 . 54E+00
* 6 . 39E-01
+ 1 . 08E+01
SslalS
Figure 4.58 R esults fro m the FE M analyses o f B C -32-80-40 at the last converged
p o in t: (a) L o n g itu d in a l strains; (b) L o n g itu d in a l stresses
264
L ongitu d in al s tra in (a)
- - 2 . 53E-03
- 2 . 19E-03
--1.86E-03
-1.53E -03
- 1 . 19E-03
- 8 . S1E-04
-S .28E-04
--1.9S E -04
- * 1 . 38E-04
* 4 . 71E-04
ih * 8 . 04E-04
14E-03
+ 1 .47E-03
+ 1 . 80E-03
(b)
Longitudinal stress (M P a )
- 8 . 83E-00
5SE-00
29E-00
02E»00
7SE-00
49E»00
-- 1 .2 2 E +00
-+4.60E -O 2
Figure 4.59 R esults fro m the F E M analyses o f B C -32-80-20 at the last converged
p o in t: (a) L o n g itu d in a l strains; (b) L o n g itu d in a l stresses
265
CHAPTER 5. FIBER-BASED MODELS AND ANALYSES OF CFT
BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
The experim ental behavior and the influence o f m aterial and geom etric parameters
on the perform ance o f high strength square C FT colum n specimens was presented in
Chapter 3. Com parisons o f the experim ental results w ith current code provisions were
also presented in C hapter 3. F E M models accounting fo r the effects o f local buckling,
and the transverse and lo n g itu d in a l interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill were developed fo r the high strength square C FT stub colum n specimens. The
developm ent o f the F E M models and the results fro m the F E M analyses were presented
in Chapter 4. The experim ental results, the com parisons w ith current code provisions,
and the results fro m the F E M analyses add s ig n ifica n t know ledge and in sig h t into the
behavior and perform ance o f high strength square C FT colum ns.
However, a n alytica l models fo r square C FT colum ns are needed fo r nonlinear
inelastic analyses o f frames w ith CFT colum ns. To meet this need, fiber-based models
were developed fo r C FT beam -colum n specimens using the nonlinear inelastic
structural analysis program D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993). The developm ent and
validation o f these fiber-based models fo r the C FT beam -colum n specimens is
presented in this chapter. The validated fiber-based models are recommended fo r
conducting research on the static and dynam ic behavior o f tw o-dim ensional (2-D )
b u ild in g frames w ith high strength CFT colum ns. The methods used to develop the
266
fiber-based models are proposed as a general approach fo r m o d eling high strength
square C FT colum ns.
5.1 SYNOPSIS
Fiber-based models were developed fo r the 305 m m inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent that is
cu rre n tly available in D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993) was used to develop the fib e r-
based models. The discretization o f the C FT cross-section in to fibers and the uniaxial
stress-strain curves fo r the fibers were required to com pletely define the fiber-based
models. The accuracy o f the fiber-based models is governed b y the uniaxial stress-
strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. T rilin e a r
idealizations o f the experim entally measured u n ia xial tension stress-strain curves were
used fo r the steel fibers in tension. The concrete fibers were assumed to have no tensile
stress-capacity.
FEM -based effe ctive un ia xial stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel and
concrete fibers in com pression as fo llo w s . Three-dim ensional (3 -D ) F E M models were
developed fo r the 305 m m long inelastic fa ilu re segment o f the C F T specimens and
analyzed under a xia l com pression. The F E M models accounted fo r the effects o f tube
local buckling and the transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. The results from the F E M analyses were used to develop FEM -based effective
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the concrete in f ill
o f the CFT specimens. M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based effective

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Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain curves were developed and used as the FEM -based effective
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs in com pression.
The fiber-based m odels along w ith the un ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and
concrete fibers in tension and com pression were used to analyze the m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens fo r the same loading conditions as the test specimens. The results
fro m the fib e r analyses were found to compare w ith reasonable accuracy w ith the
experim ental results.
Fiber-based m odels were developed fo r the 305 m m lon g inelastic fa ilu re segments
o f the cyclic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent in
D R A IN -2 D X was used to m odel the concrete in f ill o f the C FT cross-section. The zero-
Iength spring Elem ent 05 in D R A IN -2 D X was used to m odel the steel fibers o f the CFT
cross-section. The accuracy o f the fiber-based m odels is governed by the c y c lic stress-
strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. The
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs were used as the envelopes
fo r the corresponding c y c lic stress-strain relationships. The hysteretic behavior fo r the
steel and concrete fib e rs was based on some s im p lify in g assum ptions. The fiber-based
m odels along w ith the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers
were used to analyze the c y c lic beam -colum n specim ens fo r the same loading
conditions as the test specimens. The results fro m the fib e r analyses were found to
com pare w ith reasonable accuracy w ith the experim ental results.
The fiber-based m odels along w ith the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel
and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section are recom m ended fo r conducting static and
dynam ic analyses o f the 2-D b u ild in g frames w ith h ig h strength C FT colum ns. The
268
m ethods used to develop the fiber-based m odels, the uniaxial stress-strain curves, and
the c y c lic stress-strain relationships are recommended as a general approach fo r
m odeling high strength square C FT colum ns.
Section 5.2 presents the fiber-based models fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segment o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. The relevant details o f the general purpose fib e r-
based beam -colum n elem ent and the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel fibers in
tension are presented in this section. The general approach fo r developing the FE M -
based e ffective u n ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers in
com pression is also presented in this section.
Section 5.3 presents the FEM -based effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube
w alls, comers, and concrete in f ill o f the C FT specimens. The relevant details o f the
F E M models and the results fro m the F E M analyses are also presented in Section 5.3.
In addition, the influence o f the y ie ld stress and the nom inal b /t ratio o f the steel tube on
the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves are presented in Section 5.3. Section 5.4
presents the relative influence o f the effects o f local buckling, b ia xia l stresses, and the
am plitude o f the geom etric im pe rfe ctio n on the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain
curves fo r the steel tube w alls. The influence o f the local b u cklin g o f the steel tube and
the am plitude o f the geom etric im pe rfe ctio n on the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain
curves fo r the concrete in fill o f the C F T specimens is also presented in Section 5.4
Section 5.5 presents the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete
fibers in tension and com pression and summarizes the fiber-based models fo r the
m ono tonic beam -colum n specimens. The results from the fib e r analyses o f the
269
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are presented in this section. A c ritic a l evaluation
o f the fiber-based models and analyses is also presented in Section 5.5.
Section 5.6 presents the fiber-based models fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
and the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs o f the C FT
cross-section. The results fro m the fib e r analyses o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
are presented in this section. A c ritic a l evaluation o f the fiber-based m odels fo r the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens is also presented in Section 5.6.
Section 5.7 presents the a xia l load —bending m om ent (P -M ) inte ractio n curves that
were developed using the fiber-based models fo r the C FT specimens. Section 5.8
presents the sum m ary and the conclusions fro m the fiber-based m odels and analyses o f
the high strength square C FT beam -colum n specimens.
5.2 FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN
SPECIMENS
Fiber-based models were developed fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. The general purpose fiber-based beam -colum n
elem ent that is cu rren tly available in the nonlinear inelastic structural analysis program
D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993) was used to develop the fiber-based m odels. The
detailed geom etry o f the C FT cross-section, the discretization o f the C FT cross-section
into steel and concrete fib e rs, and the uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and
concrete fibers in tension and com pression were required to com p le te ly define the fib e r-
270
based m odels. The v a lid ity o f the fiber-based models is governed b y the discretization
o f the cross-section and the accuracy o f the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the fibers.
T rilin e a r idealizations o f the experim entally measured u n ia xia l tension stress-strain
curves w ere used fo r the steel fibers in tension. The concrete fibers were assumed to
have no tensile stress-capacity. FEM -based e ffe ctive u n ia xial stress-strain curves were
developed fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression. The FEM -based e ffective
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves in com pression im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f local
b u cklin g , b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
The relevant details o f the general purpose fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent are
presented firs t in Section 5.2.1. The fiber-based m odels fo r the inelastic fa ilu re
segments o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are presented in Section 5.2.2. The
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel fib e rs in tension are also presented in Section
5.2.2. O n ly the approach fo r developing the FEM -based e ffe ctive u n ia xial stress-strain
curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression is presented in Section 5.2.2. The
details o f the developm ent o f the FEM -based effe ctive u n ia xia l com pression stress-
strain curves are presented system atically over Sections 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5.
5.2.1 FIBER-BASED BEAM-COLUMN ELEMENT
A general purpose fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent has been developed and
im plem ented in the nonlinear inelastic structural analysis program D R A JN -2D X
(D ynam ic Response A nalysis o f IN elastic 2-D im ensional Structures, an extended
version, Prakash et al. 1993), w hich can be used to conduct static o r dynam ic analyses
271
o f 2-dim ensional structures, such as, m om ent-resisting o r braced-fram e systems. The
fin ite elem ent fo rm u la tio n o f the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent is based on the
fo llo w in g assum ptions: (1 ) plane sections rem ain plane and perpendicular to the
centroidal axis before and after bending; (2) relative m otion (s lip ) does not occur
between the m aterials in the cross-section; (3) inelastic shear deform ations are
n e gligib le; and (4) the m aterials in the cross-section are subjected to u n ia xial stress-
states.
As shown in Figure 5.1, the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent (defined by the
nodes I and J) is d ivid e d in to fiber-segm ents along the length. The fiber-segm ents can
va ry in length. A t the center o f each fiber-segm ent is a slice. The slice is divid e d into
discrete fibers that m odel the detailed geom etry o f the m em ber cross-section. Each
fib e r has an associated area, distance fro m the centroidal axis o f the cross-section, and
u n ia xia l stress-strain curve. The fib e r stress-strain responses are integrated over the
cross-section to obtain the slice force-deform ation response (i.e., the a xia l force-axial
strain-bending m om ent-curvature (P-e-M-<t>) response). The slice force-deform ation
responses are assumed to be constant over the corresponding fiber-segm ents and are
integrated along the length o f the elem ent to obtain its force-displacem ent response.
M em ber force e q u ilib riu m is satisfied at the slice locations along the length o f the
elem ent. O verall structural force e q u ilib riu m and displacem ent c o m p a tib ility are
enforced at the nodes o f the elem ent. The fle xib ility-b a se d fin ite elem ent fo rm u la tio n o f
the D R A IN -2 D X fib e r based beam -colum n element is presented in d e ta il in Kuram a et
al. (1996).
272
5.2.1.1 Accuracy of the Fiber-Based Beam-CoIumn Element
The nonlinear inelastic behavior o f the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent derives
from the nonlinear inelastic force-deform ation (P-e-M-<])) responses o f the fib e r-
segments (and slices) along the length. The num ber and the d is trib u tio n o f the fib e r-
segments along the length o f the elem ent have a sign ifica nt in flu e n ce on its pre-peak
inelastic behavior (Kuram a et al. 1996). H ow ever, in the post-peak range o f the
response, a concentration o f inelastic deform ations (fa ilu re ) occurs in the fiber-segm ent
subjected to the largest bending m om ent, and the rem aining fiber-segm ents unload
elastically. As a result, the post-peak inelastic behavior o f the fiber-based beam -colum n
element is governed by the length and the force-deform ation response o f the fib e r-
segment that undergoes fa ilu re (Kuram a et al. 1996). The fiber-segm ent that undergoes
fa ilu re is called the c o n tro llin g fiber-segm ent o f the beam -colum n elem ent.
The nonlinear inelastic force-deform ation response o f the c o n tro llin g fiber-segm ent
(and other fiber-segm ents along the length) derives fro m the d iscre tiza tio n o f the slice
into fibers, and the u n ia xial stress-strain curves o f the fibers. The num ber and the
d istrib u tio n o f fibers in the slice has a sig n ifica n t influence on its force-deform ation
response. However, fo r an appropriately discretized slice, the u n ia xia l stress-strain
curves fo r the fibers govern the slice force-deform ation response (K u rm u ra et al. 1996).
Thus, the uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the fibers govern the accuracy o f the fib e r-
based beam -colum n elem ent. The uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the fibers must
im p lic itly account fo r the various com plexities o f member behavior, fo r exam ple,
concrete tension cracking, concrete confinem ent, and local b u cklin g.
273
5.2.1.2 Monotonic and Cyclic Stress-Strain Curves
D R A IN -2 D X has tw o types o f stress-strain models th a t can be used fo r the fibers o f
the cross-section. These are the ‘C ’ and ‘S’ type stress-strain curves. Figures 5.2 (a)
shows the m onotonic behavior o f the ‘C ’ type stress-strain curves. Figure 5.2 (b) shown
the m onotonic behavior o f the ‘S’ type stress-strain curves. D R A IN -2 D X uses an
event-to-event s o lu tio n strategy fo r solving nonlinear stru ctu ra l analysis problem s. As a
result, both ‘C ’ and ‘S’ type stress-strain curves are m u lti-lin e a r, composed o f straight
lin e segments w h ich that are defined by specifying the stress-strain pairs at specific
points in the stress-strain behavior (dots shown in Figure 5.2).
D R A IN -2 D X im poses some lim ita tio n s on the ‘C ’ and ‘S’ type stress-strain curves,
as fo llo w s. A m axim um num ber o f five points can be in p u t to define the ‘C ’ type
stress-strain curve in com pression. The stress at strains beyond the last inp u t po in t is
constant (zero-slope). The slopes o f the consecutive stra ig h t lin e segments defined by
the input points fo r the stress-strain curve in com pression m ust be decreasing. A
m axim um num ber o f tw o points can be used to define the ‘C ’ type stress-strain curve in
tension, where the stress-strain curve can e x h itb it strain hardening o r softening. The ‘S’
type stress-strain curve is assumed to be the same in tension and compression. A
m axim um num ber o f fiv e points can be used to define the ‘S’ type stress-strain
relationship. The stress at strains beyond the last in p u t p o in t is constant. The slopes o f
the consecutive stra ig h t lin e segments defined by the in p u t points m ust be decreasing.
The c y c lic beha vio r o f the ‘C ’ and ‘S’ type stress-strain curves is controlled by pre
assigned hysteresis rules and the m onotonic stress-strain curves. The cyclic behavior o f
the ‘C ’ type stress-strain curve is shown in Figure 5.3 (a). The unloading and reloading
274
behavior o f the ‘ C ’ type stress-strain curve can be co n tro lle d by sp e cifyin g an unloading
fa cto r ((3). A value o f (3=0.1 causes alm ost elastic unloading and a value o f |3=0.9
causes a m ore severe stiffness-degrading b ehavior as shown in F igure 5.3 (a). The
c y c lic stress-strain behavior fo r (3=0.5 is also shown in Figure 5.3 (a). The cy c lic
behavior o f the ‘ S’ type stress-strain curve is shown in F igure 5.3 (b). The ‘S’ type
stress-strain curve has a kinem atic c y c lic hardening behavior w hich does not account
fo r Bauschinger’ s e ffe c t o r isotropic hardening.
5.2.1.3 Summary
The m ain advantages o f the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent are that: (1) the
fin ite -ele m en t fo rm u la tio n is sim ple; (2) the P-e-M-({) response o f the cross-section is
e x p lic itly m odeled; (3) the element is available w ith in a nonlinear structural analysis
program ; and (4 ) it has been used successfully b y several researchers to m odel
reinforced concrete and com posite colum ns (Z e ris and M a h in 1988; Taucer et al. 1991;
E l-S heikh et al. 1997). The m ain lim ita tio n o f the fiber-based beam -colum n element is
that a ll the co m p le xities o f the member behavior have to be m odeled b y the u n iaxial
stress-strain curves fo r the fibers. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent is a sim ple yet
p ow erful to o l fo r m odeling colum ns w ith in the fra m e w o rk o f a nonlinear structural
analysis program .
275
5.2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF FIBER-BASED MODELS
As presented in C hapter 3, experim ental investigations were conducted on fo u r
high strength CFU specimen types, nam ely, C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, CFT-32-46, and
C FT-48-46, w here the firs t num ber stands fo r the nom inal b /t ra tio and the second nuber
stands fo r the nom inal y ie ld stress o f the steel tube in ksi. Specimens o f each CFT
specimen type were tested under constant axial load (either 20% o r 40% o f axial load
capacity) com bined w ith m onotonically increasing fle x u ra l loading (i.e ., m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens). The experim ental results indicate that each m onotonic
beam -colum n specimen developed a localized inelastic fa ilu re segment w ith the
rem aining length o f the specimen unloading e la stica lly (see C hapter 3). Local buckling
o f the steel tube and transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill
occurred in the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The m om ent-curvature response o f the
inelastic fa ilu re segment o f each o f the eight m onotonic beam -colum n specimens was
presented in C hapter 3.
A fiber-based m odel was developed fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segm ent o f each o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. As shown in Figure 5.4, the fiber-based m odel
used the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent w ith o n ly one fiber-segm ent (and therefore
o n ly one slice) to m odel the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The length o f the fa ilu re segment
was assumed to be 305 m m . The discretization o f the slice in to fibers is shown in
Figure 5.5. The steel tube was discretized into flange fibers, com er fibers, and web
fibers. The concrete in fill was discretized into concrete fibers.
276
The u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers were re q uire d to
com pletely define the fiber-based m odels. T rilin e a r idealizations o f the exp erim e nta lly
measured u n ia x ia l tension stress-strain curves w ere used fo r the steel fibers in tension,
as discussed in Section 5.2.2.1. The concrete fib e rs were assumed to have no tensile
stress-capacity. FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel
and concrete fibers in com pression. These FE M -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves
im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f lo ca l buckling, b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The approach fo r developing the FEM -based
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression is
presented in Section 5.2.2. The developm ent o f the FEM -based e ffe ctive com pression
stress-strain curves used in the fiber-based m odels fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segments is
presented system atically in Sections 5.3. through 5.5.
5.2.2.1 Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curves in Tension
The concrete fibers were assumed to have no tensile stress capacity. The behavior
o f the h ig h strength (110 M Pa) concrete in tension was not measured e xperim entally.
H ow ever, this assumption was considered to be adequate and conservative, because the
tensile strength o f the concrete in f ill does not have a s ig n ifica n t influence on the
fle xu ra l behavior o f the square C FT cross-sections (Zhang and Shahrooz 1997).
Idealized u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel tubes o f the C F T
specimens based on the experim entally measured u n ia xia l stress-strain curves. The
idealized stress-strain curves were fu rth e r s im p lifie d to trilin e a r stress-strain curves,
w hich w ere used fo r the steel fibers in tension.

277
Experimentally measured stress-strain curves
The e xperim entally measured u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the
C F T specimens were presented in d e ta il along w ith the relevant m a te ria l properties in
C hapter 3. There were fo u r steel tube types corresponding to the fo u r C FT specimen
types. S ix tension coupons (locations indicated in Figure 5.6) were fa b ricated fro m the
sides o f each steel tube type and tested under uniaxial tension according to A S T M
standards (A S T M E8 1997). The experim entally measured stress-strain curves (fo r
each steel tube type) varied depending upon the locations o f the tension coupons in the
tube cross-section. T h is va ria tio n in the experim entally measured stress-strain curves
was n e g lig ib le fo r the steel tubes w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 48. H ow ever, the variation
in the experim entally measured stress-strain curves was greater fo r the steel tubes w ith a
nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32, especially fo r the steel tube o f the C FT-32-46 specimens.
The C FT beam -colum n specimens were tested under com bined a xia l load and
bending m om ent, w ith the w elded side o f the steel tubes as one o f the webs (see
C hapter 3). The stress-strain behavior o f the steel tube flanges had a greater influence
on the m om ent-curvature response o f the C FT specimens than the beha vio r o f the webs.
Therefore, the e xperim entally u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube flanges
(coupons (D , ® in Figure 5.6) were chosen to represent the stress-strain behavior o f the
steel tubes.
278
Idealized stress-strain curves
A n idealized u n ia xia l stress-strain curve, sim ila r to the one presented in Section
4.2.1.1, was used to m odel the stress-strain behavior o f the steel tubes. The idealized
stress-strain curve consists o f three branches that are co m p le te ly defined by fo u r
paramters: the y ie ld stress (cry), the onset o f strain hardening (e ^ ), the ultim ate stress
( ctu) and the ultim ate strain (eu). The firs t branch is lin e a r elastic w ith slope (m odulus o f
e la sticity) equal to 200 GPa. The second branch begins w ith the onset o f yie ld in g (e =
8y) and is a y ie ld plateau w ith a constant stress equal to c y. The th ird branch begins at
the onset o f strain hardening (e = eSh) and fo llo w s the pow er hardening rule given in
Equation (5.1).
W hen e > esh ; (5.1)
The values o f the fo u r parameters (a y, esh, eu, cru) fo r each steel tube type were
calculated as the average o f the corresponding values fro m the flange tension coupon
tests, and are given in Table 5.1. Com parisons o f the idealized and experim entally
measured flange stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f specimen types C FT-32-80,
C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figure 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, and 5.9,
respectively. As shown in Figure 5.8, the power hardening rule given in Equation (5.1)
could not m odel the strain hardening o f the experim entally measured flange stress-strain
curves fo r the steel tube o f specimen type C FT-32-46. Therefore, the pow er o f the
hardening rule was increased fro m 3 to 5 as shown in E quation (5.2) fo r the steel tube o f
this particular specim en type. The idealized stress-strain curve using E quation (5.2)
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was found to f it the experim ental data w ith reasonable accuracy and is also shown in
Figure 5.8.
, where B > 8sh (5.2)
T rilin e a riz e d stress-strain curves f o r fib e rs
T rilin e a r stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel tubes o f the CFT
specimens by fu rth e r s im p lify in g the idealized stress-strain curves. The trilin e a r stress-
strain curves fo r steel tubes o f specimen types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and
C FT-48-46 are also shown in Figure 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, and 5.9, respectively. These trilin e a r
stress-strain curves were used as the tension stress-strain curves fo r the steel fibers o f
the fiber-based models.
5.2.2.2 Fiber Stress-Strain Curves in Compression
The measured stress-strain curves fo r the steel (in tension) and concrete (in
com pression) were not used d ire c tly fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs in compression.
FEM -based effective u n iaxial stress-strain curves that im p lic itly account fo r the effects
o f local buckling, bia xia l stresses in the steel tube, and confinem ent o f the concrete
in f ill were developed fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression. O n ly the
approach fo r developing the FEM -based uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and
concrete fibers in compression is presented here. As m entioned previously, the
developm ent o f the FEM -based effective compression stress-strain curves is presented
system atically in Sections 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5.
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Three-dim ensional (3 -D ) F E M models o f the 305 m m fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r
C FT specim en types were developed and analyzed fo r pure a xia l com pression loading
conditions. The results fro m the F E M analyses were used to determ ine the effective
stress-strain curves fo r the components o f the C FT cross-sections (i.e ., the steel tube
w alls, com ers, and the concrete in fill) . These FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves
were ide a lize d and used as the stress-strain curves fo r the corresponding steel and
concrete fib e rs o f the fiber-based models.
F E M -B a s e d E ffe c tiv e S tre ss -S tra in C u rves
3 -D F E M models were developed fo r the 305 mm lo n g fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r
C FT specim en types (C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46) and
analyzed under a xia l com pression loading conditions. The F E M m odels were s im ila r to
the ones that were developed and validated fo r the fa ilu re segments o f the C FT stub
colum n specimens presented in Chapter 4. A s shown in Figure 5.10 (a) sym m etry was
considered and o n ly one-fourth o f the C FT cross-section was m odeled. Plane sections
were enforced to rem ain plane at the a x ia lly loaded and supported ends. The FE M
analyses included lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube, and transverse interaction between
the steel tube and the concrete in fill, causing tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube and
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The results fro m the F E M analyses included the
a xial load-shortening (P fem -A fem ) responses o f the 305 m m C FT fa ilu re segments and
the com plex state o f m u ltia x ia l stresses and strains in the steel and concrete elements o f
the F E M m odels.
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The a xia l forces carried by the in d iv id u a l concrete and steel elem ents at the end-
section [section (A ) in Figure 5.10 (a)] o f the C FT fa ilu re segment were estim ated fro m
the F E M analysis results. The a xia l force carried by each end-section concrete elem ent
was estim ated as the product o f the elem ent average lo n g itu d in a l stress (O 3 3 ) and the
corresponding cross-sectional area.
The a xia l force (Pc) carried b y the concrete in f ill at the end-section o f the CFT
fa ilu re segment was estim ated as the sum o f the a xia l forces carried b y a ll the end-
section concrete elements. The a xia l force carried by each end-section steel elem ent
was estim ated as the product o f the elem ent average lon g itu d in a l m embrane stress
(oi-avg) and the corresponding cross-sectional area. The a xia l force carried by the steel
tube (Ps) at the end-section o f the C FT fa ilu re segment was estim ated as the sum o f the
a xia l forces carried by a ll the end-section steel elements.
The a xia l forces carried by the com ponents o f the C F T cross-section, that is, the
a xia l forces carried b y the steel tube w alls (Ps-w), com ers (Ps-c). and the s ix layers o f the
concrete in f ill (Pc.i to Pc.6) as shown in Figure 5.10 (b), were estim ated as the sum o f the
a xia l forces carried by the corresponding end-section steel o r concrete elem ents.
The e ffe ctive lon g itu d in a l stress fo r the com ponents o f the C FT cross-section (i.e.,
the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the six layers o f the concrete in fill) is defined as the
the a xia l force carried by the com ponent (at the end-section) d ivid e d b y the cross-
sectional area o f the com ponent. F o r exam ple, the e ffe ctive lo n g itu d in a l stress fo r the
steel tube w alls is Ps.w divided by A s.w, where A s_w is the cross-sectional area o f the
steel tube w alls. The corresponding e ffe ctive lo n g itu d in a l strain is defined as the axial
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shortening o f the 305 m m CFT fa ilu re segment A fem d ivid e d by the o rig in a l length o f
the fa ilu re segm ent (305 m m ). Thus, e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube
w alls, com ers, and the six layers o f the concrete in fill were determ ined fro m the results
o f the F E M analyses. A n example e ffe ctive stress-strain curve fo r the steel tube w a ll o f
a C FT specimen is shown in Figure 5.10 (c).
The average e ffe ctive longitudinal stress fo r the concrete in fill is also defined as Pc
d ivid e d by the cross-sectional area o f the concrete in fill. The corresponding e ffe ctive
lo n g itu d in a l strain fo r the concrete in fill was defined as described above. Thus, the
average e ffe ctive stress-strain curve fo r the concrete in f ill was also determ ined fro m the
results o f the F E M analyses.
The FEM -based effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and
the concrete in fills o f the fo u r C FT specimen types are presented in detail in Section
5.3. The re la tive influence o f local b u cklin g, b ia xia l stresses, and geom etric
im pe rfe ctio n am plitude on the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves is presented in
d e ta il in Section 5.4.
U n ia x ia l C o m p ressio n S tress-S train C urves f o r F ib e rs
M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fro m the
F E M models o f the fa ilu re segments (e.g., Figure 5.10 (c)) were used as the u n ia xial
com pression stress-strain curves fo r the corresponding fibers o f the fiber-based models
o f the fa ilu re segments. The use o f these stress-strain curves are ju s tifie d as fo llo w s:
• As shown in Figure 5.10 (d), o n ly one fiber-segm ent (and therefore o n ly one slice)
o f the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent is used to m odel the fa ilu re segment o f the
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C FT specimens, and the force-deform ation response o f the slice is constant over the
length o f the fiber-segm ent.
• The a xia l force carried by each in d iv id u a l fib e r is equal to the a xia l stress in the
fib e r m u ltip lie d by its cross-sectional area. The corresponding axial deform ation o f
each fib e r is equal to the axial strain in the fib e r m u ltip lie d by the o rig in a l length
(L=305 m m ) o f the fiber-segm ent.
• Use o f the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves in the fiber-based m odels w ill
re su lt in the fibers o f the fiber-based m odels developing stresses s im ila r to those
developed in corresponding elements in F E M m odels.
The u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs o f the
fiber-based models fo r the fo u r C FT specimens types are presented in Section 5.5.
5.3 F E M M O D E L S A N D E F F E C T IV E S T R E S S -S T R A IN C U R V E S
Three-dim ensional F E M models o f the 305 m m fa ilu re segments o f the C FT
Specimens were developed and analyzed under a xia l compression loading using
A B A Q U S V ersion 5.8 (A B A Q U S 1998a). The F E M models accounted fo r the effects
o f local b u cklin g and transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. The relevant details o f the F E M m odels o f the CFT fa ilu re segments are
presented in Section 5.3.1. The results fro m the F E M analyses were used to develop
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the concrete in fill.
The FEM -based e ffective stress-strain curves fo r the fo u r CFT specim en types are
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presented in Section 5.3.2. The influence o f the y ie ld stress (ay) and b /t ra tio o f the
steel tube on the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves is also evaluated in Section
5.3.2.
5.3.1 FEM MODELS OF CFT FAILURE SEGMENTS
F E M m odels o f the 305 mm fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r C FT specimen types were
developed using A B A Q U S Version 5.8 (A B A Q U S 1998a). The F E M m odels were
s im ila r to those developed and validated fo r the fa ilu re segments o f the C FT stub
colum n specimens (Sections 4.2 and 4.3.3). A s show n in Figure 5.11, sym m etry was
considered and o n ly one-fourth o f the C FT cross-section was modeled. A ppropriate
sym m etry boundary conditions were enforced along the planes o f sym m etry. In Figure
5.11, Ui, U2 , U3 , r i, r 2 , and rs are the displacem ents and rotations about the global 1-2-3
axes, respectively. Plane sections were enforced to rem ain plane at the a x ia lly loaded
and supported ends. The ends o f the C FT fa ilu re segments were restrained against
ro ta tio n . O n ly the relevant details o f the F E M m odels o f the steel tube, concrete in fill,
and com posite interaction are presented in the fo llo w in g sub-sections.
5.3.1.1 FEM Model of Steel Tube
The steel tubes o f the CFT fa ilu re segments w ere m odeled using fo u r node S-4
shell elem ents. The elastic behavior o f the steel elem ents was idealized by an isotropic
elastic m u ltia x ia l constitutive model w ith m odulus o f e la s tic ity (E s) equal to 200 GPa
285
and Poisson’ s ra tio (v s) equal to 0.3. The inelastic behavior was idealized by a
p la s tic ity based ine la stic m u ltia x ia l constitutive m odel w ith a V on M ises yie ld surface,
iso tro p ic hardening behavior, and an associated flo w rule. The u n ia xia l tension stress-
strain relationship fo r the m aterial was required to com pletely define the m u ltia xia l
p la s tic ity m odel. The idealized u n ia xia l stress-strain relationships shown in Figure 5.12
were used fo r the steel tube elements o f the corresponding C FT specimens. These
idealized u n ia xia l stress-strain relationships were developed based on the
experim entally measured stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube flanges as discussed in
Section 5.2.2.1. The experim entally observed va ria tio n in the u n ia xial stress-strain
behaavior between coupons fro m d iffe re n t locations around the steel tube was not
m odeled.
G eom etric im perfections were introduced at the m id-h e igh t and on a ll sides o f the
steel tubes o f the C FT fa ilu re segments. The shape o f the geom etric im perfection was
based on local b u ck lin g studies that were conducted on F E M m odels o f h o llo w steel
tubes (see Section 4.2.2). Results fro m the local b u cklin g studies indicated that the steel
tubes o f C FT colum ns buckle w ith a ll sides displacing outwards. Therefore, Equation
(5.3) was used to specify the geom etric im perfections (in itia l out-of-plane
displacem ents, 5) o f the nodes o f the steel tube w alls. In Equation (5.3) ao is the
am plitude o f the geom etric im pe rfe ctio n (in m m ).
/
5= — 1 + cos (5.3)
4 V v
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Figure 5.13 shows a p lo t o f the geom etric im perfection fo r the steel tube w alls.
E xperim ental measurements indicated that the m axim um in itia l out-of-plane
displacem ent o f the steel tube w alls o f the C FT specimens was 2.5 m m . Therefore, this
value was used as the am plitude (ao) fo r the geom etric im p e rfe ctio n function.
5.3.1.2 FEM Model of Concrete Infill
The concrete in f ill was modeled using C3D6 and C 3D 8 three dim ensional
continuum elements. The elastic behavior o f the concrete elem ents was idealized by an
isotro pic elastic m u ltia x ia l constitutive m odel w ith m odulus o f e la sticity (Ec) equal to
41.4 GPa and Poisson’ s ratio (vc) equal to 0.2. The ‘C O N C R E TE ’ m aterial model in
A B A Q U S was used to m odel the inelastic behavior o f the concrete elements. The
‘C O N C R ETE’ m aterial model is a m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel w ith a 2-parameter
D rucker-Prager (D -P ) compression yie ld surface, isotropic hardening o r softening
behavior, and an associated flo w rule. The m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity m odel uses two
constants 0 and cQ to account fo r the influence o f hydrostatic pressure on the yield
surface and plastic strain tensor, respectively. The relevant details o f the m u ltia xia l
p la s tic ity m odel were presented in Section 4.2.3.1. Values o f 0, cQ, and the uniaxial
com pression stress-strain curve were required to co m p le te ly define the inelastic
m u ltia x ia l co nstitutive model.
The idealized u n iaxial stress-strain relationship shown in F igure 5.14 was used fo r
the concrete elements o f the FE M m odel. This idealized com pression stress-strain
curve was based on the experim entally measured stress-strain curves and the em pirical
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stress-strain m odels proposed b y C o llin s and Porasz (1989), and O h and Sause (2001).
The developm ent o f the idealized com pression stress-strain curve was presented in
Section 4.2.3.2. The A B A Q U S default values o f 9 and c 0 are 0.07 and 7.34,
respectively. These values o f 0 and cQ calibrate the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity model to the
experim ental behavior o f concrete under equal b ia x ia l com pression and are appropriate
fo r sim ila r loading con ditio n s (A B A Q U S 1998b).
As presented in S ection 4.2.5, the concrete in f ill o f a square C F T colum n under
a xia l loading conditions is subjected to co n fin in g forces acting p rim a rily from the
com ers o f the cross-section. These co n finin g forces cause a core region o f the concrete
to be subjected to increasing tria x ia l com pression w h ile the rem aining (non-core) region
o f the concrete is subjected to increasing biaxial com pression. F igure 5.15 shows the
idealization o f the concrete in f ill into core and non-core regions. F ig u re 5.11 (a) also
shows the core and non-core regions o f the FE M m odel o f the concrete in fill.
The default ca lib ra tio n of the inelastic m u ltia x ia l co n stitu tive model is
inappropriate fo r the core and non-core regions o f the concrete in fill. Therefore, the
m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the core region o f the concrete in f ill was calibrated to
have the tria x ia l co n fine d strength predicted by the em p irica l equation proposed b y
R ichart et al. (1928) (see Section 4.2.6). The re su ltin g values o f 0 and c0 fo r the core
concrete are 0.276 and 100, respectively. The e ffe ct o f a 13.8 M P a tria x ia l co n fin in g
pressure (<jt) on the stress-strain behavior o f the calibrated core concrete m odel is
shown in Figure 5.14. The corresponding value o f the confined concrete strength ( f cc)
calculated using R ic h a rt’ s equation is also shown in Figure 5.14.
288
A s discussed in Section 4.2.6, there is a la ck o f experim ental data that can be used
to calibrate the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the non-core region o f the concrete. The
selected values o f 0 and c0 fo r this (non-core) region o f the concrete in f ill are 0.192 and
7.34, respectively. T h is is the sm allest value o f 0 that yield s consistently converged
results fro m the F E M analyses. The e ffe ct o f a 13.8 M P a b ia x ia l co n fin in g pressure on
the stress-strain behavior o f the calibrated non-core concrete m odel is also shown in
Figure 5.14.
5.3.1.3 FEM Model of Composite Interaction
C om posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill in the
transverse and lo n g itu d in a l directions was m odeled. The transverse interaction between
the steel tube and the concrete in f ill was m odeled using u n ia x ia l gap-contact elements,
As shown in Figure 5.11 (b), these elements were used to connect the corresponding
nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The gap-contact elem ent has a hard
frictio n le ss contact behavior and were closed (in contact) at the beginning o f the F E M
analyses.
The lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the concrete in fill was m odeled
using spring elem ents. As shown in Figure 5.11 (c), the spring elements were used to
connect the corresponding nodes o f the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The spring
elements act in the longitudinal d ire ctio n and o ffe r resistance to slip (relative m otion)
between the connected nodes. A n elastic-plastic fo rce -re la tive displacem ent response
was used fo r the spring elements, where the y ie ld force was equal to the contact area
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m u ltip lie d by the bond strength ( T bond ) between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
Tb0nd was estim ated using the em pirical equation proposed b y R oeder et al. (1999) and
was equal to 1.69 M P a and 1.38 M Pa fo r the specimens w ith b /t ratios o f 32 and 48,
respectively. The elastic stiffness o f the spring elements (175 kN /m m ) was an order o f
m agnitude larger than the values measured by Roeder et al. (1999). Thus, the spring
elements had e ffe c tiv e ly a rig id -p la stic behavior.
5.3.2 FEM-BASED EFFECTIVE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
The F E M m odels fo r the 305 m m long fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r C FT specimen
types were analyzed under axial com pression. The F E M analyses were conducted under
displacem ent co n tro l using the m o d ifie d R iks algorithm . The results fro m the FE M
analyses included the a xia l force — shortening (P fe m -A fe m ) responses o f the failure
segments and the com plex state o f m u ltia xia l stresses and strains in the steel tube and
concrete in fill elem ents o f the F E M models. The F E M analyses included local buckling
o f the steel tube, and transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. The transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill caused
tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube and confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The results
from the FE M analyses were used to determ ine the e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the
steel tube w alls, com ers, and the concrete in fills o f the fo u r C F T specimen types.
The axial force-shortening (P fe m -A fe m ) response fro m the F E M analysis o f the
fa ilu re segment o f specimen type C FT-32-80 is shown in Figure 5.16. Converged
290
results could n o t be obtained fro m the F E M analyses beyond the last p o in t shown on the
P fe m -A fe m curve in Figure 5.16. The lon g itu d in a l stresses (O 3 3 ) in the concrete in f ill
and the average lo n g itu d in a l membrane stresses (<7i-avg) in the steel tube at 91% o f the
post-peak load are shown in Figure 5.17. Local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube can be seen
clea rly in Figure 5.17. The variation in the lo n g itu d in a l stresses (O 3 3 ) in the concrete
elements was caused by the va ria tio n in the c o n fin in g pressure over the concrete
elements. The b ia x ia l stress-state o f the steel tube reduced its lon gitudinal stress
capacity below the un ia xial y ie ld stress in accordance w ith the Von M ises y ie ld
crite rio n . The a x ia l forces carried by the steel tube (Ps) the concrete in fill (Pc) w ere
estim ated based on the axial forces carried by the end-section steel and concrete
elements as discussed in Section 5.2.2.2. The P s- A f e m > P c - A f e m responses o f the steel
tube and the concrete in fill o f C FT-32-80 are shown in Figure 5.16. The e ffe ctive
stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the six layers o f the concrete
in fill were determ ined as discussed in Section 5.2.2.2. The e ffe ctive stress-strain curves
fo r the steel tube w a lls and comers o f C FT-32-80 are shown in Figure 5.18. The
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the six layers o f the concrete in f ill are shown in Figure
5.19. The average e ffe ctive stress-strain curve fo r the concrete in f ill o f C FT-32-80 is
also shown in F ig u re 5.19.
The behavior o f the FE M models o f the fa ilu re segments o f the rem aining C FT
specimen types was s im ila r to that o f C FT-32-80 presented above. Therefore, the
results fo r these rem aining C FT specimen types are b rie fly sum m arized here. The a xia l
load - shortening (P fe m -A fe m ) responses fro m the F E M analyses o f the fa ilu re segments
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o f C F T -48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figures 5.20, 5.24, and 5.28,
respectively. The corresponding a xia l load —shortening responses o f the steel tubes (Ps-
A fe m ) and the concrete in fills (P c-A fe m ) are also shown in these figures. The
lo n g itu d in a l stresses ( 0 3 3 ) in the concrete in f ill and the average lo n g itu d in a l membrane
stresses (< 7 i-a v g ) in the steel tube o f C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 at 91% o f
the peak load (post-peak) are shown in Figures 5.21, 5.25, and 5.29, respectively. The
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls and com ers o f specim en types
C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figures 5.22, 5.26, and 5.30,
respectively. The effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the layers o f the concrete in f ill o f
specim en types C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figures 5.23,
5.27, and 5.31, respectively. The average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the concrete
in fill are also shown in Figures 5.23, 5.27, and 5.31.
The FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and
the concrete in f ill o f the C FT specimens im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f local
b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
These FE M -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were idealized and used as the u n ia xia l
com pression stress-strain curves fo r the corresponding steel and concrete fib e rs o f the
fiber-based m odels. The idealization o f the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves
w ill be presented later in Section 5.5.
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5.3.2.1 Influence o f Parameters on Effective Stress-Strain Curves
The e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w a lls o f specimen types C FT-
32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 were norm alized w ith respect to the
u niaxial y ie ld stresses and strains (a y and ey in Table 5.1, respectively) o f the
corresponding steel tubes. These norm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel
tube walls o f C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are shown in Figure
5.32. The norm alized e ffe ctive stress-strain curves shown in F igure 5.32 indicate that:
• The local b u c k lin g and b ia xia l stress-state o f the steel tube w alls reduces its peak
and post-peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity below a y.
• The reduction in the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity is m ore sig n ifica n t fo r the
steel tubes w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 48. The reduction in the peak longitudinal
stress-capacity is n e g lig ib le fo r the steel tube w alls o f C FT-32-46.
• Increasing the nom inal y ie ld stress o f the steel tube (fro m 317 M Pa to 552 MPa)
w hile m aintaining the nom inal b /t ra tio (32 o r 48) makes the steel tube more
susceptible to the effects o f com bined local b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses.
• Increasing the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube (from 32 to 48) w h ile m aintaining the
nom inal y ie ld stress (317 M Pa o r 552 MPa) also makes the steel tube more
susceptible to the effects o f com bined local buckling and b ia xia l stresses.
Figure 5.33 shows the average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in fills
o f C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46. The idealized uniaxial
com pression stress-strain curve that was used fo r the concrete elements o f the FE M
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m odel is also show n in Figure 5.33. The average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves shown in
Figure 5.33 ind ica te that:
• The confinem ent o f the concrete in fill s ig n ific a n tly im proves its post-peak
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain response.
• The influ e n ce o f concrete confinem ent on the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity is
alm ost n e g lig ib le .
• The higher strength steel tubes (nom inal yie ld stress = 552 MPa) o ffe r better
confinem ent to the concrete in fill.
• Decreasing the b /t ratio (fro m 48 to 32) o f the steel tube w h ile m aintaining its
nom inal y ie ld stress at 552 M Pa results in better confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
• Increasing the b /t ra tio (fro m 32 to 48) o f the steel tube w hile m aintaining its
nom inal y ie ld stress at 317 M Pa results in m a rg in a lly better confinem ent o f the
concrete in f ill. T his is probably caused by the difference in the actual y ie ld stresses
o f the steel tubes o f specimen types C FT-32-46 (cry equal to 269 MPa) and C FT-48-
46 (<yy equal to 471 M Pa).
5.4 FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS OF FEM-BASED EFFECTIVE STRESS-
STRAIN CURVES
The FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves presented in Section 5.3.2 account fo r
the com bined effects o f local buckling and transverse inte ractio n between the steel tube
and the concrete in f ill o f the C FT specimens. The am plitude o f the geom etric
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im p e rfe ctio n o f the steel tube w alls (a<j in E quation (5 .3 )) in the F E M m odels was equal
to the m axim um measured in itia l o u t-o f plane displacem ent (2.5 m m ) fo r the steel tube
w alls o f the C FT specimens (see Section 5.3.1.1). The geom etric im pe rfe ctio n in the
steel tube (Section 5.3.1.1) drives the local b u cklin g behavior. S im ila rly , the inelastic
volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill drives the transverse interaction between the steel
tube and the concrete in fill. The influence o f lo ca l b u cklin g , geom etric im perfection
am plitude (a<j), and transverse interaction on the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain
curves fo r the steel tube w alls was investigated. The influence o f local b u cklin g and
geom etric im pe rfe ctio n on the FEM -based average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the
concrete in f ill o f the C F T specimens was also investigated
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves accounting o n ly fo r the influence o f
transverse interaction (i.e ., no local b uckling) were developed fo r the steel tubes and
concrete in f ill o f the C FT specimens, and are presented in Section 5.4.1. FEM -based
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves accounting o n ly fo r the influ e n ce o f local b u cklin g (i.e., no
ine la stic volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill) were developed fo r the steel tubes o f the
C F T specimens, and are presented in Section 5.4.2. A d d itio n a lly , FEM -based effective
stress-strain curves accounting fo r the com bined influ e n ce o f local b u cklin g and
transverse interaction b u t w ith reduced geom etric im p e rfe ctio n am plitude (a<j equal to
1.2 m m ) were developed fo r the steel tubes and the concrete in f ill o f the C FT
specimens, and are presented in Section 5.4.3.
The influence o f local bu cklin g, geom etric im pe rfe ctio n am plitude (ao), and
transverse interaction on the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube
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w alls is discussed in Section 5.4.4. The influence o f loca l b u cklin g and the geom etric
im pe rfe ctio n am plitude (ao) on the FEM -based average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r
the concrete in fill is discussed in Section 5.4.5.
5.4.1 TRANSVERSE INTERACTION ONLY
The F E M m odels o f the 305 m m long C FT fa ilu re segments were analyzed under
a xia l com pression. G eom etric im perfections in the steel tube w alls (S ection 5.3.1) were
not included in the F E M m odels (i.e., ao equal to 0). L o ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube
w alls d id not occur in the F E M models o f the fa ilu re segments. In the elastic range, vs
is greater than v c, w h ich results in separation (gap-opening) between the steel tube and
the concrete in fill. U nder these conditions, the steel tube and the concrete in fill are
subjected to un ia xial stress-states. The volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill in the
inelastic range results in transverse interaction between the the steel tube and the
concrete in fill. The transverse interaction causes tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube
and confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The results fro m the F E M analyses were used to
determ ine the e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the
concrete in fill o f the C F T specimens. These FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves
accounted only fo r the effects o f transverse interaction in the C FT fa ilu re segments.
The axial force-shortening (P fem - A fem ) response o f the fa ilu re segment o f C FT-32-
80 w ith o u t any geom etric im perfections is shown in Figure 5.34. The longitudinal
stresses (cr33) in the concrete in fill and the lo n g itu d in a l membrane stresses (<T|) in the
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steel tube at 91% o f the peak load (post-peak) are shown in F igure 5.35. As shown in
Figure 5.35, local b u cklin g o f the steel tube d id not occur and the longitudinal
membrane stress (crO was constant around the perim eter o f the steel tube. The b ia xia l
stress-state o f the steel tube reduced its lo n g itu d in a l stress capacity below the uniaxial
y ie ld stress in accordance w ith the V on M ises y ie ld crite rio n . The va ria tio n in the
lo n g itu d in a l stresses ( 0 3 3 ) in the concrete elements was caused b y the va riation in the
c o n fin in g pressure over the concrete elements. As shown in Figure 5.35, the stress-state
o f the C FT cross-section was constant along the length o f the fa ilu re segment. The Ps-
Afem, Pc-Afem responses o f the steel tube and the concrete in fill are shown in Figure
5.34. The effe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls and comers were
identical and are shown in F igure 5.36. The e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the six
layers o f the concrete in f ill are shown in Figure 5.37. The corresponding average
stress-strain curve fo r the concrete in fill is also shown in Figure 5.37.
The behavior o f the F E M models o f the C FT fa ilu re segments w ith o u t geom etric
im perfections was sim ila r to that o f C FT-32-80 presented above. Therfore, o n ly the
relevant results fo r the rem aining C FT fa ilu re segments are sum m arized here. The
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46,
and C FT-48-46 w ith o u t any geom etric im perfections are shown in F igure 5.38 (a). The
un ia xial y ie ld stresses (a y fro m Table 5.1) o f the steel tubes o f the C FT specimen types
are also indicated in Figure 5.38 (a). These e ffe ctive stress-strain curves shown in
Figure 5.38 (a) were norm alized w ith respect to the uniaxial y ie ld stresses and strains
(cty and By in Table 5.1, respectively) o f the corresponding steel tubes. The norm alized
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e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT specimen types are shown in
Figure 5.38 (b). The average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in fill o f
C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 w ith o u t any geom etric
im perfections are shown in Figure 5.39.
The FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT
specimens shown in Figures 5.38 (a) and (b) indicate that:
• The transverse interaction effects (i.e., the b ia xia l stress-state o f the steel tube)
reduce the post-peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity below (cry).
• The steel tubes o f the C FT-32-46, C FT-48-46, and C FT-32-80 reach CTy in the
lon g itu d in a l d ire ctio n before unloading due to transverse interaction effects.
• The steel tube o f C FT-48-80 does not reach <ry in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n before
unloading due to transverse interaction effects.
A s m entioned previously, in the elastic range, the steel tube and the concrete in fill
are subjected to u n ia xial stress-states and separation (gap-opening) occurs between
them. The inelastic volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill, w hich occurs after the
lon g itu d in a l strain exceeds 0.00267 ( f 'C/E C), governs the transverse interaction between
the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The steel tubes o f C FT-32-46, C FT-48-46, C FT-
32-80, and C FT-48-80 have un ia xial y ie ld strains ey equal to 0.0014, 0.0024, 0.003, and
0.0033, respectively. Therefore, the steel tubes o f C FT-32-46 and C FT-48-46 could
develop a y in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire ctio n before unloading due to transverse interaction
effects. The steel tube o f C FT-32-80 (ey equal to 0.003) co u ld also develop CTy in the
lo n g itu d in a l d irection due to the a dditional separation that developed between the steel
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and the concrete in the elastic range (when the lo n g itu d in a l strain was less than
0.00267). The steel tube o f C FT-48-80 could not develop a y in the longitudinal
d ire ctio n before unloading due to the effects o f transverse in te ra ctio n between the steel
tube and the concrete in fill.
The average e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in f ill o f the CFT
specimens w ith o u t geom etric im perfections shown in F igure 5.39 indicate that:
• The confinem ent o f the concrete in fill, caused by the transverse interaction between
the steel tube and the concrete in fill, s ig n ific a n tly im proves its post-peak stress-
strain response.
• The higher strength steel tubes o ffe r better confinem ent to the concrete in fill o f the
C FT specimens.
• Decreasing the nom inal b /t ra tio (from 48 to 32) o f the steel tube w h ile m aintaining
the nom inal y ie ld stress (317 o r 552 M Pa) o f the steel tube results in better
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
5.4.2 CONSTRAINED LOCAL BUCKLING ONLY
The F E M m odels o f the h o llo w steel tubes o f the fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r CFT
specim ent types were analyzed seperately under a xia l com pression. The F E M models
o f the h o llo w steel tubes were m odified to account fo r the re stra in t offered by the
concrete in f ill to the steel tube. As shown in Figure 5.40, u n ia x ia l gap-contact elements
w ith hard frictio n le ss contact behavior were used to m odel the restraints offered by the
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concrete in fill to the steel tube. The u n iaxial gap-contact elem ents were used to connect
the nodes o f the steel tubes to the planes o f sym m etry. These u n ia xial gap-contact
elements were placed along the length o f the h o llo w steel tubes and prevented the
inw ard displacem ent o f the steel tube nodes. The geom etric im perfections in the F E M
m odels o f constrained h o llo w steel tubes were the same as those described in Section
5.3 (i.e., ao equal to 2.5 m m ). Local b u cklin g o f the constrained h o llo w steel tubes w ith
a ll sides displacing outw ard, occurred in the F E M analyses. FEM -based effective
stress-strain curves fo r the w alls and comers o f the constrained h o llo w steel tubes were
developed fro m the F E M analysis results. These FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain
curves account o n ly fo r the influence o f local b u c k lin g (i.e ., w ith o u t the effects o f
transverse inte ractio n w ith the concrete in fill) .
The FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls and comers o f
the constrained h o llo w steel tube o f C FT-32-80 are shown in Figure 5.41. Local
b u cklin g has a greater influence on the effective stress-strain response o f the tube w alls
as com pared to the com ers. The local b u cklin g displaced shape and the average
lo n g itu d in a l mem brane stresses (ai.avg) in the constrained h o llo w steel tube o f C FT-32-
80 at 99% o f the peak load (post-peak) are shown in F igure 5.42. As shown in Figure
5.42, the local b u cklin g o f the constrained h o llo w steel tube occurred w ith a ll sides
displacing outw ard.
The behavior o f the F E M models o f the constrained h o llo w steel tubes o f the CFT
specimens was s im ila r to that o f C FT-32-80 presented above. Therefore, o n ly the
relevant results fo r the rem aining C FT specimens are sum m arized here. Figure 5.43
shows the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls o f
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constrained h o llo w steel tubes o f the C FT specimens. These FEM -based effective
stress-strain curves were norm alized w ith respect to the u n ia xial y ie ld stresses and
strains ( c y and ey in Table 5.1, respectively) o f the corresponding steel tubes and are
shown in F igure 5.44. The norm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube
w alls shown in Figure 5.44 indicate that:
• L o cal b u cklin g o f the steel tube w alls reduces it peak and post-peak longitudinal
stress-capacity below a y.
• The reduction in the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity was greater fo r the steel tubes
w ith a nom inal b/t ra tio o f 48.
• Increasing the nom inal b /t ratio o f the steel tube (fro m 32 to 48) w h ile m aintaining
its nom inal yield stress (317 o r 552 MPa) makes the steel tube w alls m ore
susceptible to the effects o f local buckling.
• Increasing the nom inal yie ld stress o f the steel tube (fro m 317 to 552 MPa) w h ile
m aintaining its nom inal b /t ra tio (32 o r 48) also makes the steel tube w alls m ore
susceptible to the effects o f local buckling.
5.4.3 L O C A L B U C K L IN G A N D T R A N S V E R S E IN T E R A C T IO N
The F E M models o f the fa ilu re segments o f the fo u r C FT specimen types presented
in Section 5.3.1 were m odified by changing the am plitude (ao) o f the geom etric
im perfection in the steel tubes to 1.2 m m , and analyzed under axial com pression. Local
bu cklin g o f the steel tube and transverse interaction between the steel tube and the
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concrete in f ill occurred in the C FT fa ilu re segments. The b e ha vio r o f these F E M
m odels o f the C FT fa ilu re segments w ith ao equal to 1.2 mm was s im ila r to the behavior
o f the F E M m odels o f the C FT fa ilu re segments w ith ao equal to 2.5 m m (discussed in
Section 5.3.2). Therefore, o n ly the relevant results fro m the F E M analyses w ith ao
equal to 1.2 m m are sum m arized here. The FEM -based e ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r
the steel tube w alls o f the C FT specimens w ith ao equal to 1.2 m m are shown in Figure
5.45 (a). These FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were n o rm a lized w ith respect
to the u n ia x ia l y ie ld stresses and strains (<7 y and 8 y in Table 5.1, respectively) o f the
corresponding steel tubes, and are shown in Figure 5.45 (b ). The FEM -based average
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in fill o f the C F T specim ens w ith ao equal
to 1.2 m m are shown in Figure 5.46. These FEM -based e ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves
are s im ila r to those presented in Section 5.3.2. The discussion o f the FEM -based
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves presented in Section 5.3.2.1 applies also to the stress-strain
curves shown in Figures 5.45 and 5.46.
5.4.4 E V A L U A T IO N O F F E M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E S T R E S S -S T R A IN
CURVES FO R STE E L TU BE W ALLS
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel tubes o f the
C F T specim en types. Four sets o f FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were
developed to account fo r the effects o f transverse inte ractio n and local b u cklin g as
fo llo w s :
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1) C om bined effects o f local b u cklin g (w ith ao equal to 2.5 m m ) and transverse
interaction (see Section 5.3.2).
2) E ffects o f transverse interaction o n ly, w ith o u t local b u cklin g (see Section 5.4.1).
3) E ffects o f constrained local b u cklin g o n ly, w ith o u t transverse interaction (see
Section 5.4.2
4) C om bined effects o f local b u cklin g (w ith ao equal to 1.2 m m ) and transverse
Together these FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were used to study the
influence o f local b uckling, transverse interaction, and the geom etric im perfection
am plitude (ao) on the behavior o f the steel tube w alls o f the C FT specimens. The F E M -
based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls o f C FT-32-80 are shown in
Figure 5.47 fo r a ll fo u r cases described above. S im ila r results are shown in Figures
5.48, 5.49, and 5.50 fo r specimen types C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and CFT-48-46,
respectively. The fo llo w in g results are obtained by com paring these FEM -based
e ffe ctive stress-strain curves:
R egarding the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity:
• Transverse interaction alone (curve (2)) provides an an upper-bound estimate o f the
peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity o f the steel tube w alls. L o ca l b u cklin g alone
(curve (3)) gives a low er-bound estim ate o f the peak lo n g itu d in a l stress-capacity.
The com bined effects o f local b u cklin g and transverse interaction (curves (1) and
(4 )) result in peak longitudinal stress-capacities between the upper and low er-
bound estimates.
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• Decreasing the am plitude o f the geom etric im perfection fro m 2.5 mm (curve (1)) to
1.2 m m (curve (4)) increases the peak lon g itu d in a l stress-capacities o f the steel tube
w alls o f C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 b y 3.5%, 6.7% , 0% ,
and 6.5% , respectively. Thus, the am plitude o f the geom etric im perfection has a
greater influence on the behavior o f the steel tube w alls o f the C FT specimens w ith
nom inal b /t ratios o f 48.
Regarding the post-peak stress-strain behavior:
• Transverse interaction alone (curve (2)) has a m ore detrim ental e ffect on the post
peak stress carried by the steel tube w alls as com pared to the effects o f constrained
local b u cklin g alone (curve (3)).
• For the C FT specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ra tio o f 32, the transverse interaction
effects dom inate the behavior o f steel tube w alls irrespective o f the am plitude (ao)
o f the geom etric im perfection (the post-peak trends in curves (1) and (4) are s im ila r
to curve ( 2 )).
• F or the C FT specimens w ith a nom inal b /t ratio o f 48, both local buckling and
transverse interaction have a sig n ifica n t influence on the behavior o f the steel tube
w alls (curves (1) and (4) are not s im ila r to curves (2) o r (3)).
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5.4.5 EVALUATION OF FEM-BASED EFFECTIVE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
FOR CONCRETE INFILL
The FE M -based average e ffective stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in fill o f the
fo u r C FT specim en types. Three sets o f FEM -based average e ffe ctive stress-strain
curves were developed to account fo r the effects o f transverse interaction and local
buckling as fo llo w s :
1) Com bined effects o f local buckling (w ith ao equal to 2.5 m m ) and transverse
2) Transverse inte ractio n effects o n ly, w itho u t loca l b u cklin g (see Section 5.4.1).
3) Com bined effects o f local b u cklin g (w ith ao equal to 1.2 m m ) and transverse
Together these FEM -based average effective stress-strain curves were used to study
the influence o f steel tube local buckling, and geom etric im perfection am plitude (ao) on
the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill o f the C FT specimens. The concrete in fill F E M -
based average e ffe c tiv e stress-strain curves fo r the three cases described above are
compared fo r the concrete in fill o f the specimen types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-
46, and C F T -48-46 in Figures 5.51, 5.52, 5.53, and 5.54, respectively. The fo llo w in g
results are obtained fro m com paring these FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves:
• Local b u c k lin g o f the steel tube results in s lig h tly better confinem ent o f the
concrete in f ill o f the CFT specimens (curves (1) and (3) provide s lig h tly better
post-peak stress-strain behavior than curve (2 )).
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• Increasing the am plitude (ao) o f the geom etric im pe rfe ctio n fro m 1.2 to 2.5 mm
results in s lig h tly better confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill o f the C FT specimens
(curve (1) has s lig h tly better post-peak stress-strain behavior than curve (3 )).
• The influence o f steel tube loca l b u cklin g and geom etric im p e rfe ctio n am plitude is
alm ost n e g lig ib le fo r the C FT specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32. Local
buckling and geom etric im pe rfe ctio n am plitude have s lig h tly m ore influ e n ce on the
C FT specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 48, w hich are m ore susceptible to local
buckling.
The influence o f local b u cklin g on the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill is
explained using the schem atic deform ed shapes shown in F igure 5.55. Figure 5.55 (a)
shows the o rig in a l shape and geom etry o f a square C FT cross-section. In F igure 5.55
(a) L 0 is the o rig in a l length o f the diagonal o f the square C FT cross-section. Figure 5.55
(b ) shows the deform ed shape o f the square C FT cross-section at some level o f post
peak axial shortening when loca l buckling is not included in the analysis and the
transverse diaplacem ent is due to the volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in f ill and
Poissons’ s effect. In Figure 5.55 (b) A L i is the increase in the length o f the diagonal o f
the deform ed C FT cross-section. Figure 5.55 (c) shows the deform ed shape o f the CFT
cross-section at the same leve l o f post-peak axial shortening as F igure 5.55 (b) when
lo ca l buckling is included in the analysis. In Figure 5.55 (c), A L 2 is the increase in the
length o f the diagonal o f the square C FT cross-section w ith loca l b u cklin g .
Transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in f ill occurs
p rim a rily at the com ers o f the square C FT cross-section. As a result, the local buckling
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o f the steel tube w a lls does n o t have an adverse e ffe ct on the transverse interaction and
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. On the contrary, the deform ed shape w ith local
b u cklin g o f the steel tube causes A L 2 < A L i, w h ich results in a d d itio n a l confinem ent o f
the concrete in fill.
F o r exam ple, Figure 5.56 shows the deform ed shapes o f the steel tubes fro m the
F E M analyses o f C FT-48-80 w ith o u t local b u cklin g (see Section 5.4.1) and w ith local
b u cklin g (see Section 5.3.2). The displaced shapes are shown in Figure 5.56 at the
same a xia l shortening ( A f e m = 1 .5 mm) fo r both models. As show n in Figure 5.56, the
loca l b u cklin g displaced shape o f the steel tube results in A L 2 < A L i, w hich causes
better confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
5.5 FIBER ANALYSES OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
T he fiber-based m odels o f the inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens were analyzed under same loading conditions as the test specimens
(i.e., constant a xia l load and m onotonically increasing fle xu ra l loading). As m entioned
p reviously, trilin e a r idealizations o f the e xperim entally measured uniaxial tension
stress-strain curves were used fo r the steel fib e rs in tension. The concrete fibers were
assumed to have no tensile stress capacity. FEM -based e ffe ctive u n ia xial stress-strain
curves were developed fo r the steel and concrete fibers in com pression. These F E M -
based effective u n ia xia l stress-strain curves used in the fib e r m odels were m u lti-lin e a r
idealizations o f the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls,
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com ers, and the concrete in f ill presented in Section 5.3.2. Thus, the u n ia xia l stress-
strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f local
b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
Section 5.5.1 b rie fly summarizes the fiber-based models that were developed fo r
the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens (described in detail in Section 5.2.2) and
presents the u n ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers. The results
fro m the fiber-analyses o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are presented in
Section 5.5.2. A c ritic a l evaluation o f the fib e r analyses o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens is presented in Section 5.5.3.
5.5.1 FIBER STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
F igure 5.57 shows the fiber-based m odel that was developed fo r the inelastic fa ilu re
segment o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens as discussed in Section 5.2.2. As
shown in Figure 5.57, the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent in D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash
et al. 1993) was used w ith o n ly one fiber-segm ent to m odel the fa ilu re segment o f the
C FT beam -colum n specimens. The discretization o f the C FT cross-section (slice) into
steel flange fibers, steel web fibers, steel com er fibers, and concrete fibers is also shown
in F igure 5.57.
5.5.1.1 Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curves for Steel Fibers
As m entioned in Section 5.2.2, trilin e a r idealizations o f the experim entally
measured u n iaxial tension stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT specimen
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types were used as the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r a ll the steel fib e rs in tension.
These u n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves are shown in Figure 5.58, and the stress and
strain values d e finin g the curves are given in Table 5.2. The concrete fibers were
assumed to have no tensile stress capacity.
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel tube w alls
and com ers o f the C FT specimen types in Section 5.3.2. These e ffe c tiv e stress-strain
curves im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f loca l b u cklin g and the b ia x ia l stresses in the
steel tube. The am plitude (ao) o f the geom etric im perfection used in the F E M analysis
was equal to the m axim um measured in itia l o ut-of-plane displacem ent fo r the steel tube
w alls o f the CFT specim ens. M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FE M -based e ffe ctive
stress-strain curves were developed and used as the u niaxial com pression stress-strain
curves fo r the corresponding steel fibers o f the fiber-based m odels. The m u lti-lin e a r
idealizations o f the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls and
comers o f specimen types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46 are
shown in Figures 5.59, 5.60, 5.61, and 5.62, respectively.
The m u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r
the steel tube w alls w ere used fo r the steel fla n ge and web fib e rs. The m u lti-lin e a r
idealizations o f the FEM -based effective stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube com ers
were used fo r the steel com er fibers. The stress and strain values d e fin in g the curves
are given in Table 5.2.
Figure 5.63 shows a sum m ary o f the u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel
flange, web, and com er fib e rs o f the fo u r C F T specimen types. The ‘C ’ type stress-
strain curve in D R A IN -2 D X (see Section 5.2.1) was used fo r the steel fibers o f the
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fiber-based m odels, where the stress and strain values shown in Table 5.2 defined the
stress-strain relationships.
5.5.1.2 Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete Fibers
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r layers o f the concrete
in f ill o f the C FT specimen types in Section 5.3.2. FEM -based average effe ctive stress-
strain curves fo r the concrete in f ill were also developed. Thus, tw o alternatives can be
used to develop the u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers o f
the fiber-based m odels:
1) M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the
layers o f the concrete in f ill can be developed and used fo r the corresponding
concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section.
2) A m u lti-lin e a r ide a liza tio n o f the average e ffe ctive stress-strain curve can be
developed and used fo r a ll the concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section.
F o r exam ple, Figure 5.64 shows the m u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the e ffe ctive stress-
strain curves fo r the layers o f the concrete in f ill o f C FT-32-80. F igure 5.65 shows a
m u lti-lin e a r ide a liza tio n o f the average e ffe ctive stress-strain curve fo r the concrete
in f ill o f C FT-32-80.
T o determ ine the suitable alternative, p re lim in a ry fib e r analyses o f the m onotonic
beam -colum n specimens B C -32-80-20 and B C -32-80-40 were conducted using the
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel fibers shown in Figures 5.63 and m u lti-lin e a r
idealizations o f the e ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r the layers o f the concrete in fill
shown in Figure 5.64. The m om ent-curvature responses fro m these fib e r analyses o f
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B C -32-80-20 and B C -32-80-40 are shown in Figures 5.66 and 5.67, respectively. The
corresponding experim ental m om ent-curvature responses are also shown in Figures
5.66 and 5.67. Fiber analyses o f Specimens BC -32-80-20 and B C -32-80-40 were also
conducted the m u lti-lin e a r id e a liza tio n o f the average effe ctive stress-strain curve fo r
the concrete in fill shown in F igure 5.65. The m om ent-curvature responses fro m these
fib e r analyses are also shown in Figures 5.66 and 5.67. Figures 5.66 and 5.67 indicate
that both alternatives fo r the u n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers result in
nearly identical m om ent-curvature responses fo r the beam -colum n specimens.
M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based average effe ctive stress-strain curves
fo r the concrete in fill o f the C FT specimen types were developed and used as the
u n ia xia l compression stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers o f the fiber-based
m odels. Figure 5.68 shows these m u lti-lin e a r stress-strain curves fo r the concrete in fill
o f the C FT specimen types. As indicated in Section 5.3.2, converged results could be
obtained fro m the FE M analyses o n ly up to certain values o f average effective
lo n g itu d in a l strain o r A fe m . Therefore, the m u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the stress-strain
curves were extended (dotted lines in Figure 5.68) w ith the same unloading slopes up to
a strain o f 0 .0 1 .
The m u lti-lin e a r stress-strain curves shown in Figure 5.68 were used as the uniaxial
com pression stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers o f the fiber-based m odels. The
stress and strain values d e fin in g these stress-strain curves are given in Table 5.2. The
‘C ’ type stress-strain curve in D R A IN -2 D X was used fo r the concrete fibers o f the
fiber-based models, where the stress and strain values shown in Table 5.2 defined the
stress-strain relationships.
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5.5.2 RESULTS F R O M F IB E R A N A LYSES O F M O N O T O N IC B E A M -
C O L U M N S PE C IM E N S
F iber analyses o f the fa ilu re segments o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens
were conducted using the fiber-based models shown in F igure 5.57 and the u n iaxial
stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers shown in Figures 5.63 and 5.68.
The fiber-based models were analyzed fo r the same loading conditions as the test
specimens (i.e., constant a x ia l load and m onotonically increasing fle x u ra l loading). The
fib e r analyses are considered to be va lid up to an extreme concrete com pression fib e r
strain o f 0 .0 1 , w hich is the end o f the specified uniaxial com pression stress-strain
curves fo r the concrete fib e rs.
Com parisons o f the experim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature responses o f the
fa ilu re segment o f Specimens B C -32-80-20, BC -32-80-40, B C -32-46-20, B C -32-46-40,
B C -48-80-20, B C -48-80-40, B C -48-46-20, and BC -48-46-22 are shown in Figures 5.69
to 5.76. The analytical m om ent-curvature responses o f a ll the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens, except Specim en BC -48-80-40, compare fa vo ra b ly w ith the experim ental
results.
The m om ent capacities (M u-ani) fro m the fib e r analyses o f the m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens are g ive n in Table 5.3. The corresponding experim ental m om ent
capacities (M u.exp) and com parisons o f the experim ental and analytical m om ent
capacities are also shown in Table 5.3. The fiber-based m odels conservatively predict
the m om ent capacities o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens, except fo r Specimens B C -
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48-80-20 and B C -48-80-40. The m om ent capacities o f Specimens B C -48-80-20 and
B C -48-80-40 were overestim ated b y 5.4% and 13.6% , respectively.
A s shown in F igure 5.72, the results fro m the fib e r analysis sig n ifica n tly
overestim ate the experim ental behavior o f Specim en B C -48-80-40. The C FT beam-
colum n specimens were subjected to a constant a xia l load and m o n o to n ica lly increasing
p rim a ry bending m om ent that was consant along the test-length o f the specimens (see
C hapter 3). A il the C FT beam -colum n specimens, w ith the exception o f Specimen
BC -48-80-40, fa ile d close to m id-height o f the test-length. Specim en BC -48-80-40
fa ile d closer to the end o f the test-length (0.5 m aw ay fro m the m id -h e ig h t o f the 1.5 m
long test-length). A lth o u g h , the exact reason fo r the anam olous fa ilu re o f this specimen
is not known, some d iffic u ltie s were encoutered w h ile testing th is specimen. The
c y lin d ric a l bearings at the top and bottom o f the test-setup had to be adjusted several
tim es to obtain concentric a xia l loading o f the specim en at the beginning o f the test.
These top and bottom c y lin d ric a l bearings slipped several tim es d u rin g testing o f the
specim en under m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle x u ra l loading. As a result, Specimen B C -
48-80-40 may have been subjected to additional bending m om ent caused b y eccentric
a xia l loading.
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5.5.3 E V A L U A T IO N O F FIB E R -B A S E D M O D E L S F O R M O N O T O N IC
B E A M -C O L U M N S P E C IM E N S
The accuracy o f the fiber-based models depends on the v a lid ity o f the un ia xial
stress-strain curves fo r the fib e rs. The developm ent o f the u n ia xial stress-strain curves
fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the m odels fo r the fo u r C FT specimen types was
presented in d e ta il in Sections 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5. The assumptions in vo lve d in the
developm ent o f the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves are sum m arized and th e ir im plications
discussed.
Id e a liz e d a n d e x p e rim e n ta l stress-strain curves
The idealized stress-strain curves fo r the steel tubes o f the C FT specimens were
developed based on the e xp erim e nta lly measured stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube
flanges o n ly. The va ria tio n in the experim entally measured stress-strain curves around
the perim eter o f the steel tube was not m odeled. H ow ever, the stress-strain behavior o f
the steel tube flanges has a greater influence than the stress-strain behavior o f the steel
tube webs on the m om ent-curvature response o f the C FT specimens. Therefore, this is
considered to be an adequate assum ption.
The residual stresses in the steel tubes o f the C FT specimens were not m odeled.
Zhang and Shahrooz (1997) have indicated that the residual stresses in the steel tubes
have a sm all influence on the m om ent-curvature response o f CFT beam -colum ns.
F u rth e r investigations o f the effects o f steel tube residual stresses on the behavior o f the
C F T beam -colum ns are recomm ended.

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The post-peak u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain behavior o f concrete has a
sig n ifica n t influence on the m om ent-curvature response o f C F T beam-columns.
H ow ever, the post-peak stress-strain response o f the 110 M P a high strength concrete
co u ld not be measured experim entally w ith the test equipm ent available to this research
project. Therefore, an idealized u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain curve, based on the
experim entally measured stress-strain curves and some e m p irica l stress-strain models,
was developed fo r 110 M Pa the high strength concrete. The post-peak behavior o f the
idealized uniaxial com pression stress-strain curve was based on sim p lifyin g
assumptions and was not validated experim entally. Further experim ental research on
the post-peak stress-strain behavior o f high strength concrete is recommended.
F E M m odels o f C F T fa ilu r e segm ents
The concrete m aterial model in A B A Q U S (1998a, b) has some lim itations. The
tw o-param eter D rucker-Prager com pression y ie ld surface has a constant slope in I i-
-y/J2 d space and a c irc u la r cross-section in the deviatoric plane. The associated flo w
ru le tends to overestim ate the inelastic volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill. The
influence o f hydrostatic pressure on the com pression yie ld surface and the plastic strain
tensor is governed by the values o f tw o constants, 0 and c0.
The m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity m odel can be calibrated to experim ental results from two
loading conditions, one u n iaxial com pression and one m u ltia x ia l compression loading
conditio n . The calibrated m odel should be used o n ly fo r loading conditions sim ila r to
the ones used fo r ca lib ra tion . Therefore, the concrete in f ill o f the C FT cross-section
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was idealized in to core and non-core regions, w h ich w ere then calibrated fo r the
corresponding m u ltia x ia l loading conditions. A h ig h e r o rd e r (m ore than tw o param eter)
m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r concrete is needed fo r fu tu re research.
C urre n tly, there is a lack o f experim ental data th a t can be used to calibrate the
m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the non-core region o f the concrete in fill. F E M analyses
o f the C F T stub colum n specimens, using the calibrated concrete m aterial models were
found to correlate fa vo ra b ly w ith the experim ental results (see Section 4.3.4). Therfore,
the ca lib ra tio n o f the m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the concrete in f ill was considered
adequate.
The in e la stic volum e d ila tio n o f the concrete in f ill has a sig n ific a n t influence on the
transverse inte ractio n between the steel tube and the concrete in fill. The transverse
interaction governs the b ia xia l stresses in the steel tube and the confinem ent o f the
concrete in fill. Thus, the calibrated m u ltia x ia l p la s tic ity m odel fo r the non-core
concrete has a s ig n ific a n t influence on the inelastic behavior o f the C FT fa ilu re
segment. A d d itio n a l experim ental va lid a tion o f the ca librated m u ltia xia l p la s tic ity
m odel fo r the non-core concrete is needed.
F ib e r stress-strain curves
The FE M -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were used as the effective u n ia xia l
com pression stress-strain curves fo r the corresponding fib e rs o f the fiber-based m odels.
The FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r axial compression
loading co n ditio n s (u n ifo rm com pression strain o ve r the C FT cross-section). These
stress-strain curves do not account fo r the influence o f strain gradient, caused by the
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com bined a xia l and fle xu ra l loading conditions, on the local buckling and b ia x ia l stress-
state o f the steel tube, and the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. Concerns related to
the influence o f strain gradient are discussed below .
L o ca l b u cklin g o f a ll the steel tube w alls occurs sim ultaneously under a xia l
com pression loading conditions. A strain gradient over the C FT cross-section w ill
delay the loca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube com pression flanges and webs. Thus, the
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves are a conservative estim ate o f the local
b u cklin g behavior o f the steel tubes o f C FT specimens subjected to com bined a xia l and
fle x u ra l loading conditions.
In e lastic volum e d ila tio n o f the entire concrete in fill o f the C FT cross-section
occurs sim ultaneously under a xia l com pression loading conditions. A strain gradient
over the C F T cross-section w ill cause volum e d ila tio n to vary across the concrete in f ill
w ith less d ila tio n away from the extrem e com pression fiber. The inelastic volum e
d ila tio n o f the concrete in fill drives the transverse interaction and the resulting b ia xia l
stress state in the steel tube. As a result, the steel tube w ill develop sm aller transverse
stresses w hen a lo n g itu d in a l strain gradient is present, and the FEM -based e ffe ctive
stress-strain curves overestim ate the influence o f the biaxial stress state on the
lo n g itu d in a l stress carried by the steel tubes o f the CFT specimens subjected to
com bined a xia l and fle x u ra l loading conditions.
The concrete in f ill is subjected to co n fin in g forces acting fro m a ll fo u r com ers o f
the square C FT cross-section under pure a xia l loading conditions. These co n fin in g
forces cause tria x ia l confinem ent o f the core-region o f the concrete in fill. A strain
gradient over the C FT cross-section w ill cause co n fin in g forces o n ly fro m the tw o
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com ers subjected to com pressive strains, thus e lim in a tin g the core-region o f the
concrete in fill. H ow ever, the strain gradient over the C FT cross-section m ay cause se lf
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill, where concrete at low er strain levels helps confine
the concrete at higher levels o f lo n g itu d in a l strain. Thus, the confinem ent o f the
concrete in f ill under com bined axial and fle xu ra l loading conditions w ill be s im ila r but
not ide n tica l to the confinem ent under pure a xia l loading conditions. Further
investigations o f the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill under com bined axial and
fle x u ra l loading conditions are needed.
5.6 FIBER ANALYSES OF CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
A fiber-based m odel was developed fo r the ine la stic fa ilu re segm ent o f each o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent in D R A IN -
2 D X was used to m odel the concrete in fill o f the C F T cross-section. The zero-length
spring Elem ent 05 in D R A JN -2D X was used to m odel the steel fibers o f the C FT cross-
section. The accuracy o f the fiber-based models is governed by the c y c lic stress-strain
relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. The uniaxial
stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers (presented in Section 5.5.1) were
used as the envelopes fo r the corresponding c y c lic stress-strain relationships. The
hysteretic behavior fo r the steel and concrete fibers was based on some s im p lify in g
assum ptions. The fiber-based models along w ith the cyclic stress-strain relationships
fo r the steel and concrete fibers were used to analyze the c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens fo r the same loading conditions as the test specimens.

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Section 5.6.1 presents the fiber-based models fo r the cyclic beam -colum n
specimens and the c y clic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f
the C FT cross-sections. The results fro m the fiber-analyses o f the c yclic beam -colum n
specimens are presented in Section 5.6.2. A c ritic a l evaluation o f the fiber-based
models fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens is presented in Section 5.6.3.
5.6.1 FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS
As presented in Chapter 3, eight c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were tested. The
test-length (1.5 m ) o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimen was fix e d at the base and
subjected to constant axial load and c y c lic a lly varying lateral loading conditions at the
top (see Figures 3.50 and 3.51]. Each C F T specimen type (C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80,
C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46) was tested fo r axial load levels o f 10% and 20% o f the
a xia l load capacity. Experim ental results indicate that each c yclic beam -colum n
specimen fa ile d w ith the form ation o f an in e la stic fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-
length, w hile the rem aining length o f the specimen unloaded ela stica lly. Local b u cklin g
o f the steel tube and transverse inte ractio n between the steel tube and the concrete in fill
occurred in the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f the
inelastic fa ilu re segment o f each o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens was presented in
Chapter 3.
Figure 5.77 (a) shows a fiber-based m odel fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segment o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. The length o f the inelastic fa ilu re segment was
assumed to be 305 mm. The fiber-based m odel shown in Figure 5.77 (a) is ide n tica l to
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the fiber-based m odel that was used to analyze the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens.
I t uses the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent in D R A IN -2 D X w ith o n ly one fib e r-
segm ent to m odel the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The discretization o f the slice in to steel
flange fib e rs, steel web fibers, steel com er fibers, and concrete fibers is also shown in
F igure 5.57.
The c y c lic stress-strain relationship fo r a fib e r can be defined co m p le te ly by
sp e cifyin g : ( 1 ) the envelope o f the c y c lic stress-strain response, and ( 2 ) the hysteresis
rules governing the stress-strain behavior under c y c lic loading conditions. The fib e r-
based beam -colum n elem ent in D R A IN -2 D X has o n ly tw o types o f c y c lic stress-strain
m odels (w ith pre-assigned hysteresis rules) that can be used fo r the fibers. These are
the ‘C ’ and ‘S’ type c y c lic stress-strain curves. The c y c lic behavior o f the ‘C ’ and ‘S’
type stress-strain curves was shown in Figures 5.3 (a) and (b), respectively. The ‘C ’
type stress-strain curves accounts fo r the effects o f stiffness-degradation and tension
crack opening and closing behavior under c y c lic loading conditions. The ‘S’ type stress-
strain curve assumes ide n tica l behavior in tension and com pression and accounts fo r the
effects o f kinem atic hardening behavior under c y c lic loading conditions. The ‘C ’ type
stress-strain curve is recomm ended fo r m odeling the c y c lic behavior o f concrete
m aterial and the ‘S’ type stress-strain curve is recommended fo r m odeling the cyclic
behavior o f steel m aterial that does not undergo local b u cklin g (Kuram a et al. 1996).
The u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers (S ection 5.5.1,
Figures 5.63 and 5.68) can be used as the envelopes fo r the c y c lic stress-strain
relationships fo r the corresponding fibers o f the fiber-based m odel. The ‘C ’ type cyclic
stress-strain curve can be used fo r the concrete fibers. H ow ever, neither ‘C ’ nor ‘S’
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type c y c lic stress-strain curves are appropriate fo r the steel fib e rs fo r the fo llo w in g
reasons: (1) the u n ia x ia l stress-strain response (F ig ure 5.63) is n o t sym m etric in tension
o r com pression, (2) the hysteresis rules fo r the ‘C ’ type stress-strain curve include
tension crack opening and clo sin g behavior. As a result, the fiber-based m odel shown
in F igure 5.77 (a) cannot be d ire c tly used fo r conducting the fib e r analysis o f the cyclic
beam -colum n specimens.
Therefore, a m o d ifie d fiber-based m odel was developed fo r the inelastic fa ilu re
segment o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. F igure 5.77 (b ) shows the m odified
fiber-based m odel that was developed based on the fiber-based m odel shown in Figure
5.77 (a). As shown in Figure 5.77 (b ), the fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent was used
to m odel o n ly the concrete in f ill o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens. The
d iscretization o f the slice in to concrete fibers was ide n tica l to that shown in Figure 5.77
(a). The steel fibers o f the C F T cross-section were n o t m odeled using the fiber-based
beam -colum n elem ent. Instead, each in d ivid u a l steel fib e r o f the C FT cross-section was
m odeled using a zero-length spring Elem ent 05 in D R A IN -2 D X .
E lem ent 05 is a zero-length spring element an elastic o r ine la stic force-deform ation
(Fos-Sos) response. B oth nodes de finin g the Elem ent 05 have the same in itia l
coordinates (zero-length) and the elem ent can act as a force (tra n sla tio n a l) o r a moment
(ro ta tio na l) spring. The behavior o f Elem ent 05 can be defined com pletely by
sp e cifyin g its deform ation m ode (translation / ro ta tio n ), the envelope force-deform ation
(F 05 -S0 5 ) response, and the hysteresis rules under c y c lic loading conditions. Figure 5.78
shows an exam ple c y c lic force-deform ation response o f E lem ent 05. In Figure 5.78 Kc_e,
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K c-e, and K t.h are the elastic stiffness in com pression, elastic stiffness in tension, and the
inelastic hardening stiffness in tension, respectively. The fin ite elem ent fo rm u la tio n o f
Elem ent 05, the details o f the various hysteresis options that are available, and the
lim ita tio n s o f this elem ent are presented in detail in Herrera et al. (2001). The cyclic
F0 5 - 8 0 5 behavior shown in Figure 5.78 is one o f the hysteresis options that are available
fo r Elem ent 05 and the one that is relevant fo r this application.
Each in d ivid u a l steel flange fib e r, steel web fib e r, and steel com er fib e r o f the CFT
cross-section fro m F igure 5.77 (a) was modeled w ith one E lem ent 05. Each Elem ent 05
was used as a translational spring acting in the y-d ire ctio n as shown in Figure 5.77 (b).
B oth nodes o f each E lem ent 05 had the same in itia l coordinates. A s shown in Figure
5.77 (b), each E lem ent 05 had the same y-coordinate as Node 2, b u t the x-coordinate
depended on the distance o f the centroid o f the corresponding steel fib e r fro m the
centroidal axis o f the C FT cross-section. One node o f each E lem ent 05 was fu lly
restrained and the oth e r node was kinem atically constrained to Node 2 so that the
deform ation o f each E lem ent 05 equals the axial deform ation o f the based beam -colum n
elem ent plus the ro ta tio n o f Node 2 m u ltip lie d by the distance (x coordinate) fro m the
centroidal axis.
The intended stress-strain behavior fo r each steel fib e r was converted in to a force-
deform ation response fo r the corresponding Elem ent 05 o f the fiber-based m odel shown
in Figure 5.77 (b) by m u ltip ly in g the stress by the area o f the steel fib e r and the strain
by the length (305 m m ) o f the fiber-segm ent. Thus, the force-deform ation (F 0 5 -S 0 5 )
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response o f each E lem ent 05 im plem ented the intended stress-strain behavior o f the
corresponding steel fib e r.
The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent assumes that plane sections rem ain plane
and the slice force-deform ation (P-8 -M-<|)) response rem ains constant along the length o f
the fiber-segm ent. Therefore, the m o d ifie d fiber-based m odel shown in F igure 5.77 (b)
is fu lly correlated w ith the o rig in a l fiber-based m odel shown in F igure 5.77 (a).
The a xia l load and c y c lic a lly va ryin g bending m om ent were applied to the fib e r-
based m odel as shown in Figure 5.77 (b). The curvature o f the fiber-segm ent was
determ ined as the rota tio n o f Node 2 d ivid e d b y the length o f the fiber-segm ent. Thus,
the m om ent-curvature response o f the fiber-segm ent co u ld be obtained fro m the
m o d ifie d fiber-based m odel shown in Figure 5.77 (b).
5.6.1.1 Cyclic Stress-Strain Relationships for Steel Fibers
Each steel fib e r o f the C FT cross-section was m odeled using E lem ent 05 as
discussed above. The cyclic stress-strain relationship fo r these steel fibers is presented
below . It should be noted that the intended stress-strain re lationship fo r the steel fibers
was converted in to a force-deform ation response fo r the corresponding E lem ent 05 as
m entioned above.
E n v e lo p e S tre s s -S tra in C urves
The un ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel flange fibers, steel web fibers, and
steel com er fibers o f the fo u r C FT specimen types were presented in Section 5.5.1 (see
F igure 5.63). These uniaxial stress-strain curves im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f
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local b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube. The stress and strain values
d e fin in g these m u lti-lin e a r u n ia xia l stress-strain curves w ere given in Table 5.2. These
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves were used as the envelopes fo r the c y c lic stress-strain
relationships fo r the corresponding steel fibers o f the C F T cross-sections.
H y s te re tic B e h a v io r
Figure 5.79 shows a q u a lita tive description o f the anticipated hysteretic behavior o f
the steel fibers o f the C FT cross-section. The anticipated hysteretic behavior shows the
influence o f B auschinger’ s e ffe ct (Chen and Han 1988) on the c y c lic stress-strain curve.
The anticipated hysteretic behavior also shows the expected influ e n ce o f local b u cklin g
and b ia xia l stresses on the c y c lic stress-strain curves. C u rre n tly, there is a lack o f
knowledge o f the influence o f local buckling and b ia x ia l stresses on the hysteretic
behavior o f steel tubes o f C FT beam-columns. The anticipated hysteretic behavior fo r
the steel fibers is assumed and needs further experim ental o r a nalytical validation.
H ow ever, the anticipated behavior was used as the basis fo r developing the hysteretic
behavior o f the steel fib e rs o f the fiber-based models.
Figure 5.79 shows an exam ple o f the cyclic stress-strain behavior that was assumed
fo r the steel fibers. In Figure 5.79 Es and Es.h are the m odulus o f e la s tic ity and the strain
hardening m odulus, respectively. The hysteretic behavior shown in Figure 5.79 was
achieved by using E lem ent 05 (H errera et al. 2001) and is s im ila r to the hysteretic
behavior shown in Figure 5.78 (in force-deform ation space). The c y c lic stress-strain
behavior shown in F igure 5.79 accounts fo r the effects o f kinem atic hardening, local
b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses on the hysteretic behavior in an approxim ate manner.

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The hysteretic stress-strain behavior m odeled using E lem ent 05 deviates fro m the
anticipated behavior in Quadrants I I and IV in stress-strain space. The largest deviation
fro m the anticipated behavior occurs in Quadrant II, where the behavior is dom inated by
the influence o f loca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l stresses. As m entioned previously, cu rren tly
there is a lack o f know ledge o f the influence o f local b u cklin g and b ia xia l stresses on
the hysteretic behavior o f steel tubes o f C FT beam -colum ns. Therefore, the c y c lic
stress-strain behavior fo r the steel fibers that was achieved using Elem ent 05 was
considered adequate fo r conducting the fib e r analyses o f the beam -colum n specimens.
5.6.1.2 Cyclic Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete Fibers
E n v e lo p e S tre ss -S tra in C u rves
The uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers o f the fo u r C FT specimen
types were shown in Figure 5.68. These uniaxial stress-strain curves are considered to
be v a lid up to a lim itin g strain o f 0.01. The stress and strain values d e fin in g these
stress-strain curves are presented in Table 5.2. As shown in F igure 5.68, the uniaxial
stress-strain curves fo r the concrete fibers have constant post-peak unloading slopes
(Ec-u, calculated using values in Table 5.2) w hich are equal to to -5.0 GPa, -7.3 GPa, -
9.7 GPa, and -10.4 GPa fo r specimen types C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and
C FT-48-46, respectively.
These un ia xial stress-strain curves were extended beyond the lim itin g u n ix ia l strain
o f 0.01 by assuming the curves continue unloading w ith the same slope (Ec.u) up to a
residual stress (fc-r)- The residual stress is assumed to rem ain constant w ith increasing
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u n ia xial strains. The value o f fc.r fo r the fo u r C FT specim en types was determ ined by a
trial-and-error procedure as explained in Section 5.6.2. These extended uniaxial stress-
strain curves were used as the envelopes fo r the c y c lic stress-strain relationships o f the
concrete fibers.
The ‘C ’ type stress-strain curve in D R A IN -2 D X w as used to model the concrete
fibers. Figure 5.80 shows an example o f the c y c lic stress-strain response fo r the
concrete fibers. Ec.u and f c.r are also indicated in Figure 5.80.
H ys tere tic B e h a v io r
As shown in Figure 5.80, the hysteretic behavior o f Che ‘C ’ type stress-strain curves
is governed by the value o f the unloading factor (3 (see S ection 5.2.1). The influence o f
3 on the cyclic m om ent-curvature response o f C FT beam -colum n specimens was
investigated by conducting prelim inary fib e r analyses o f Specimen C BC -32-80-10
using the fiber-based m odel shown in Figure 5.77 (b). The cyclic stress-strain
relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers were as discussed above. The p re lim in a ry
fib e r analyses were conducted up to a m axim um concrete com pression strain o f 0 .0 1 .
The results from the fib e r analyses o f C B C -32-80-10 using values o f (3 equal to 0.1,
0.5 ,and 0.9 are shown in Figure 5.81. The experim ental m om ent-curvature response o f
Specimen C BC-32-80-10 is also shown in Figure 5.81. The results from the fib e r
analyses indicate that P has a sm all influence on the c y c lic m om ent-curvature response
o f C FT beam -colum n specimens. The value o f P = 0.1 results in s lig h tly better
agreement between the experim ental and analytical results in Quadrants I I and IV , and
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the value o f (3 equal to 0.9 results in s lig h tly better agreement between the experim ental
and a n alytica l results in Quadrants I and H L The value o f |3 = 0.5 results is a reasonable
agreem ent in a ll fo u r quadrants and was chosen fo r the c y c lic stress-strain behavior o f
the concrete fibers o f the C FT specimens.
5.6.2 RESULTS FROM FIBER ANALYSES OF CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN
SPECIMENS
The fiber-based m odel shown in F igure 5.77 (b) was used to analyze the fa ilu re
segment o f each cyclic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based m odels were analyzed
under displacem ent control. The displacem ent loading h isto ry was the same as that
im posed on the failure segment o f the corresponding c y c lic beam -colum n specimens.
The c y c lic stress-strain relationship fo r steel and concrete fibers described in Section
5.6.1 were used in the fiber-based m odels. A residual stress ( fc.r) is required to
com pletely define the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the concrete fibers. The fc.r
values fo r the fo u r CFT specimen types were determ ined by a tria l-a n d -e rro r procedure.
The determ ination o f fc.r and the results fro m the fib e r analyses are presented fo r the
fo u r C FT specimen types below.
C F T -3 2 -8 0
The fiber-based models were used to conduct m onotonic fib e r analyses o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens C B C -32-80-20 and C B C -32-80-10 fo r values o f fc.r
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equal to 80 M Pa, 60 M Pa, and 45 M Pa. The analytical m om ent-curvature responses are
com pared w ith envelopes o f the experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses o f
Specimens C B C -32-80-20 and C B C -32-80-10 in Figures 5.82 and 5.83, respectively.
The com parisons o f the experim ental and analytical results ind ica te that fc.r has a greater
influence on the analytical m om ent curvature response o f Specim en C BC -32-80-20,
w hich has a h ig h e r a xial load. The influence o f fc.r on the a n a lytica l m om ent-curvature
response o f C B C -32-80-10 is sm all. Based on these com parisons, a value o f fc.r equal to
60 M Pa was chosen fo r the specimen type C FT-32-80 and used fo r conducting the
c y c lic fib e r analyses o f Specimens C BC -32-80-20 and C B C -32-80-10. The cyclic
m om ent-curvature responses fro m the fib e r analyses o f C B C -32-80-20 and C B C -32-80-
1 0 are shown along w ith the corresponding experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature
responses in Figures 5.84 and 5.85, respectively.
C F T -4 8 -8 0
The fiber-based models were used to conduct m onotonic fib e r analyses o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specimens C BC -48-80-20 and C B C -48-80-10 fo r values o f fc.r
equal to 60 M Pa, 48 MPa, 40 M Pa, and 32 MPa. The a n a lytica l m om ent-curvature
responses are com pared w ith envelopes o f the experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature
responses o f Specimens C BC -48-80-20 and C B C -48-80-10 in Figure 5.86 and 5.87,
respectively. Based on these com parisons, a value o f fc.r equal to 40 M Pa was chosen
fo r the specimen type C FT-48-80 and used fo r conducting the fib e r analyses o f
Specimens C B C -48-80-20 and C B C -48-80-10. The cyc lic m om ent-curvature responses
fro m the fib e r analyses o f C B C -48-80-20 and C BC -48-80-10 are shown along w ith the
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corresponding experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses in Figures 5.88 and
5.89, respectively.
C F T -3 2 -4 6
The fiber-based m odels were used to conduct m onotonic fib e r analyses o f the
c yc lic beam -colum n specimens C BC-48-80-20 and C B C -48-80-10 fo r values o f f c_r
equal to 55 M Pa, 44 M Pa, and 33 M Pa. The a n a lytica l m om ent-curvature responses are
compared w ith envelopes o f the experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses o f
Specimens C B C -32-46-20 and C BC-32-46-10 in F igure 5.90 and 5.91, respectively.
Based on these com parisons, a value o f fc.r equal to 44 M Pa was chosen fo r the
specimen type C FT-32-46 and used fo r conducting the cy clic fib e r analyses o f
Specimens C B C -32-46-20 and CBC-32-46-10. The c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses
from the fib e r analyses o f C BC-32-46-20 and C B C -32-46-10 are shown along w ith the
corresponding experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses in Figures 5.92 and
5.93, respectively. N ote that converged results co u ld be obtained fro m the fib e r
analysis o f Specim en C BC -32-46-20 o n ly up to a curvature o f 16 x 10' 5 1/mm.
C F T -4 8 -4 6
The fiber-based m odels were used to conduct m onotonic fib e r analyses o f the
cyclic beam -colum n specimens C BC-48-46-20 and C B C -48-46-10 fo r values o f fc.r
equal to 43 M Pa, 38 M Pa, and 32 MPa. The a n a lytica l m om ent-curvature responses are
compared w ith the envelopes o f the experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses o f
Specimens C B C -48-46-20 and C BC -48-46-10 in F igure 5.94 and 5.94, respectively.

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Based on these com parisons, a value o f fc.r equal to 38 M P a was chosen fo r the
specim en type C FT-48-46 and used fo r conducting the c y c lic fib e r analyses o f
Specimens C BC-48-46-20 and C B C -48-46-10. The cyclic m om ent-curvature responses
fro m the fib e r analyses o f C B C -48-46-20 and C BC -48-46-10 are shown along w ith the
corresponding experim ental c y c lic in Figures 5.96 and 5.97, respectively.
5.6.2.1 Comparison of Experimental and Analytical Results
Figures 5.82 to 5.97 show the com parisons o f the experim ental and analytical
m om ent-curvature responses o f the eight c y c lic C FT beam -colum n specimens. The
results fro m the fib e r analyses o f the CFT beam -colum n specimens, except Specimen
C BC -32-46-10, compare fa vo ra b ly w ith the experim ental results. The fib e r analysis
results are too conservative fo r Specim en C BC -32-46-10.
Table 5.4 shows the peak m om ent capacities (M u-c-ani) fro m the fib e r analyses o f the
c y c lic C FT beam-column specimens. The corresponding experim ental m om ent
capacites (M u.c) and comparisons o f the experim ental and an alytica l m om ent capacities
are also shown in Table 5.4. The fiber-based m odels predict the m om ent capacities o f
the c y c lic CFT beam -colum n specimens, except Specimen C BC -32-46-10, w ith
reasonable accuracy. The m om ent capacity predicted by the fiber-based m odel is too
conservative fo r Specimen C BC -32-46-10.
The fiber-based models fo r Specimens C BC -32-46-10 and C B C -32-46-20 (i.e.,
specimens belonging to specimen type C FT-32-46) assume a y ie ld stress o f 269 M Pa
fo r a ll the steel fibers o f the C F T cross-section (see Table 5.2). As m entioned
p re vio u sly in Section 3.2.2.1 , a sig n ific a n t va ria tio n in the e xp erim e nta lly measured
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stress-strain curves around the perim eter o f the square steel tube was observed fo r
specim en type C FT-32-46 (see Figure 3.7). The e xp erim e nta lly measured u n ia xia l
y ie ld stress varied fro m 228 M Pa to 297 M P a. The difference in the assumed y ie ld
stress fo r the steel fib e rs and the actual y ie ld stress o f the steel tubes o f Specimens
C B C -32-46-10 and C B C -32-46-20 m ay have caused the discrepancy between the
experim ental and a nalytical m om ent-curvature responses.
The difference between the experim ental and an alytica l moment capacities o f
Specimens C B C -32-46-20 and C BC -32-46-10 is 11.5% and 17.4%, respectively. The
co n trib u tio n o f the steel tube to the m om ent capacity o f a C F T cross-section increases
w ith decreasing levels o f axial load, and therefore a discrepancy between the
experim ental and an alytica l m om ent capacities due to an underestim ate o f the y ie ld
stress o f the steel tube w ill become larg e r at lo w e r a xia l load levels.
5.6.3 EVALUATION OF FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR CYCLIC BEAM-
COLUMN SPECIMENS
The results fro m the fib e r analyses o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens are
governed b y the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the
C FT cross-section. The assumptions and lim ita tio n s o f the fiber-based models and the
c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the c y c lic C FT
beam -colum n specimens are sum m arzied and th e ir im p lica tio n s are discussed.
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Fiber-based models fo r cyclic beam-column specimens
The 1.5 m test-length o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens was subjected to a
constant a xia l load and lin e a rly va rying p rim a ry bending m om ent. Thus, the inelastic
fa ilu re segment at the base o f the test-length was also subjected to a m om ent gadient
along the length. In addition, the test-setup constrains the inelastic volum e d ila tio n o f
the C FT cross-section at the base o f the test-length and thus constrains the local
b u cklin g o f the tube and confines the concrete.
The accuracy o f the fiber-based m odel o f the 305 m m fa ilu re segment at the base o f
the specim en test-length is governed by the cycLic stress-strain relationships o f the steel
and concrete fibers. However, the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and
concrete fibers do not account fo r the delay in the steel tube local b u cklin g and the
a d ditio n al confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill caused by the strain gradient over the C FT
cross-section, the moment gradient along the length o f the fa ilu re segment, and the
constraint at the base o f the test-length.
E n v e lo p e o f cyclic b e h a v io r
Previous research on the c y c lic stress-strain behavior o f steels indicates that steels
w ith a y ie ld ra tio greater than 0.83 e x h ib it c y c lic softening and steels w ith a y ie ld ratio
less than 0.71 e x h ib it cyclic hardening behavior (M anson et al. 1964). Previous
research on the c y c lic stress-strain behavior o f concrete also indicates that concrete
e xh ib its c y c lic softening behavior (Sinha et al. 1964). H ow ever, the envelopes o f the
c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the fiber-based
models rem ain constant irrespective o f the cum ulative plastic strain.
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As a result, the envelopes o f the a nalytical c y c lic m om ent-curvature responses from
the fib e r analyses remain constant irrespective o f the cum ulative inelastic deform ation,
w h ile the experim ental cyclic m om ent-curvature responses e x h ib it c y c lic softening (see
Figure 5.98). In addition, the envelopes o f the experim ental c y c lic m om ent-curvature
responses are s lig h tly d iffe re nt in the tw o loading directions (N o rth and South). The
fiber-based models do not account fo r these aspects o f the experim ental behavior.
Future developm ent o f the fiber-based models to account fo r c y c lic softening or
hardening behavior o f the fibers is recommended.
H y s te re tic b e h a v io r
The hysteretic behavior o f c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and
concrete fibers were shown in Figures 5.79 and 5.80, respectively. The fiber-based
models assume that the hysteretic behavior o f the fibers rem ains constant irrespective o f
the cum ulative plastic strain. The hysteretic behavior o f the steel fibers in Quadrant II
(in stress-strain space, see Figure 5.79) accounts fo r the effects o f local b u cklin g and
b ia xia l stresses in an approximate manner.
Com parisons o f the experim ental and analytical cyclic m om ent-curvature responses
indicate that the analytical results consistently overestim ate the pinching o f the
hysteresis loops in Quadrants I I and IV (in m om ent-curvature space). Figure 5.81
shows a typ ica l comparison o f the experim ental and a nalytical m om ent-curvature
hysteresis loops. As shown in Figure 5.81, the hysteretic behavior o f the concrete fibers
has a sm all influence on the m om ent-curvature hysteresis loops. The assumed
hysteretic behavior o f the steel fibers in Q uadrant I I (in stress-strain space, see Figure
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5.79) results in an overestim ation o f the pinching in the m om ent-curvature hysteresis
loops.
C urrently, there is a la ck o f know ledge o f the influence o f c y c lic loca l b u cklin g and
b ia x ia l stresses on the hysteretic behavior o f steel tubes o f C F T beam -colum ns. The
assumed hysteretic behavior o f the steel fibers in Quadrant I I (in stress-strain space, see
Figure 5.79) has not been established experim entally. H ow ever, it is a conservative
estim ate o f the influences o f lo ca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l stresses and was considered
adequate. Future experim ental and analytical research on the c y c lic behavior o f the
steel tube w alls o f C FT colum ns is recommended.
5.7 AXIAL LOAD - BENDING MOMENT (P-M) INTERACTION CURVES
FROM FIBER ANALYSES
A x ia l load - bending m om ent (P -M ) capacity interaction curves were developed fo r
the fo u r C FT specimen types using the fiber-based models and fib e r stress-strain curves
that were developed in th is chapter. The fiber-based m odel o f each specim en type was
analyzed fo r d iffe re n t levels o f constant axial load (0%, 5% , 10%, 15%, ...1 0 0 % o f the
a xia l load capacity). The m om ent-curvature response fro m a fib e r analysis was used to
obtain the m om ent capacity at that a xia l load level. The P -M interaction curves were
developed by p lo ttin g the corresponding constant a xia l load and m om ent capacity
values. Figures 5.99 to 5.102 show the P -M interaction curves fo r C FT specim en types
C FT-32-80, C FT-48-80, C FT-32-46, and C FT-48-46, respectively. The experim ental
results fro m the m onotonic and c y c lic beam-column tests are also shown in the figures.
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A d d itio n a lly , the P -M interaction curves that were developed in S ection 3.4.4, fo r the
fo u r C FT specim en types using the current A m erican Concrete In s titu te (A C I L995),
A rch ite ctu ral In stitu e o f Japan (A U 1987), and Eurocode (EC4 1996) code provisions
fo r C FT colum ns are also shown in Figures 3.99 to 3.102.
The P -M inte ractio n curves and the experim ental results shown in Figures 3.99 to
3.102 indicate that:
• The fiber-based m odels p re d ict the strength (m om ent capacity) o f the high strength
CFT beam -colum n specimens w ith reasonable accuracy.
• A t low er levels o f axial load, the P -M interaction curve predicted using the fib e r-
based m odel is s im ila r to the P -M interaction curve predicted b y the A C I code
provisions.
• A t higher levels o f a xia l load, the P -M interaction curve predicted using the fib e r-
based m odel lies between the P -M interaction curves predicted using the A C I and
A U code provisions.
• A t very high levels o f a xia l load, the P -M interaction curve predicted using the
fiber-based m odel lies between the P -M interaction curve predicted using the A U
and EC4 code provisions.
As m entioned p re vio u sly, the current A C I (1995) code provisions assume that the
m om ent capacity o f a C FT cross-section can be predicted based on the same
assumptions that are used fo r o rd in a ry reinforced concrete colum ns (i.e , plane sections
rem ain plane and the m om ent capacity is reached at an extrem e concrete compression
fib e r strain o f 0.003). The A C I code provisions do not account fo r the effects o f local
335
b u cklin g and the b ia x ia l stresses on the lo n g itu d in a l stress capacity o f the steel tube
w alls in com pression.
The fiber-based m odels use the steel and concrete fib e r stress-strain curves shown
in Figures 5.63 and 5.68, respectively. These stress-strain curves account fo r the effects
o f local b u cklin g and b ia x ia l stresses in the steel tube, and the confinem ent o f the
concrete in fill. A t lo w e r a xia l load levels, the steel tube has a greater con tribu tio n to the
m om ent capacity o f the C FT cross-section. As a result, at lo w e r a xia l load levels, the
m om ent capacity predicted by the fiber-based models, w hich accounts fo r the effects o f
local b u cklin g and b ia xia l stresses on the lo n g itu d in a l stress capacity o f the steel tube
w alls in com pression, is s lig h tly low er than the values predicted by the A C I code
provisions. A t higher a xia l load levels, the concrete in f ill has a greater contribution to
the m om ent capacity o f the C FT cross-section. As a result, at higher a xia l load levels,
the m om ent capacity predicted by the fiber-based m odels, w hich accounts fo r the
effects o f concrete confinem ent at longitudinal strains greater than 0.003, is larger than
the values predicted by the A C I code provisions.
5.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Fiber-based m odels were developed fo r the inelastic fa ilu re segment o f each
m onotonic beam -colum n specimen. The accuracy o f the fiber-based models is
governed b y the u n ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT
cross-section. T rilin e a r idealizations o f the experim entally measured uniaxial tension
stress-strain curves were used fo r the steel fibers in tension. The concrete fibers were
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assumed to have no tensile stress-capacity. FEM -based e ffe ctive u n ia xia l compression
stress-strain curves that im p lic itly account fo r the effects o f local b u cklin g and bia xia l
stresses in the steel tube and the confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill were developed fo r
the steel and concrete fibers.
The FEM -based e ffe ctive u n ia xia l com pression stress-strain curves o ffe r significant
insig h t in to the influence o f the steel tube y ie ld stress and b /t ra tio on the behavior o f
square C FT colum ns:
w h ile m aintaining the nom inal b /t ratio (32 o r 48) makes the steel tube more
susceptible to the effects o f lo ca l buckling.
• Increasing the b /t ratio o f the steel tube (fro m 32 to 48) w h ile m aintaining the
nom inal y ie ld stress (317 M Pa o r 552 M Pa) also makes the steel tube more
susceptible to the effects o f local buckling and b ia x ia l stresses.
• The higher strength steel tubes (nom inal y ie ld stress equal to 552 M Pa) o ffe r better
• Decreasing the b /t ratio (fro m 48 to 32) o f the steel tube w h ile m aintaining its
nom inal y ie ld stress at 552 M P a results in better confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
• The confinem ent o f the concrete in f ill occurs due to the contact forces between the
steel tube and the concrete in f ill at the com ers o f the C FT cross-section. Local
b u cklin g o f the steel tubes does not reduce the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
On the contrary, local b u cklin g o f the steel tubes results in s lig h tly better
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
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The fiber-based m odels along w ith the uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and
concrete fibers in tension and com pression were used to analyze the m onotonic beam-
colum n specimens. The results fro m the fib e r analyses w ere fou n d to be in reasonable
agreement w ith the experim ental results.
Fiber-based m odels were also developed fo r the ine la stic fa ilu re segments o f the
c y c lic beam -colum n specim ens. The accuracy o f the fiber-based models is governed by
the c y c lic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-
section. The u n ia xial stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers were used as
the envelopes fo r the c y c lic stress-strain relationships o f the corresponding fibers. The
hysteresis rules fo r the concrete fibers accounted fo r the effects o f stiffness degradation
and tension crack opening and closing behavior. The hysteresis rules fo r the steel fibers
accounted fo r the effects o f kinem atic hardening, local b u cklin g , and b ia xia l stresses on
the c y lic stress-strain behavior in an approxim ate manner.
The fiber-based m odels along w ith the c yclic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel
and concrete fibers were used to analyze the c y clic beam -colum n specimens. The
results fro m the fib e r analyses o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were found to be
in good agreement w ith the experim ental results.
A x ia l load - bending m om ent (P -M ) interaction curves were developed fo r the fo u r
C FT specimen types using the fiber-based models described in this chapter. The
experim ental m om ent capacities o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens
were predicted w ith reasonable accuracy b y the fiber-based m odels.
Researchers in the past (T o m ii et al. 1979b, Inai and Sakino 1996, and H a jja r et al.
1996 among others) have used em p irica l stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and
338
concrete fibers (in com pression) o f C FT cross-sections. These e m p irica l stress-strain
relationships were developed by ca lib ra ting the fiber-based m odels w ith experim ental
m om ent-curvature responses. The analytical approach presented in this chapter uses
FEM -based e ffe ctive com pression stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete fibers
to account fo r the com plex behavior o f the C FT beam -colum n specimens. The results
fro m the fiber-analyses o f the m onotonic and c yclic beam -colum n specimens compare
w ith reasonable accuracy to the experim ental results. Therefore, the fiber-based models
along w ith the m ethod used to derive the effe ctive stress-strain relationships is
recommended fo r m odeling high strength square C F T colum ns fo r the purpose o f
conducting static o r dynam ic analysis o f structural fram e systems.
339
Table 5.1 Parameters for idealized steel stress-strain curves.
Specimen Thickness CTy Ey £sh <Tu £u

(mm) (MPa) (MPa)
C FT-32-80 8.9 600 0.0030 0 .0 2 1 641 0 .1 2
C FT-48-80 6 .1 660 0.0033 0.023 738 0 .1 2
C FT-32-46 8 .6 269 0.0014 0.0013 414 0.18
C FT-48-46 5.8 471 0.0024 0.029 534 0.15
340
Table 5.2 Values defining fiber stress-strain curves
Steel tension Steel compression Concrete

compression
Specimen flange, web, flange & web corner fibers all fibers
type corner fibers fibers
stress strain stress s train stress s tra in stress strain
(M P a ) (M P a ) (M P a ) (M P a )
CFT-32-80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
600.0 0.003 572.7 0.0029 590.0 0.0030 110.4 0.0027

673.4 0.124 572.7 0.0033 590.0 0.0032 112.5 0.0033
379.5 0.0076 379.5 0.0076 79.0 0.0099
CFT-48-80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
660.0 0.0033 552.7 0.0028 595.1 0.0030 110.4 0.0027

737.6 0 .1 2 0 0 552.7 0.0034 595.1 0.0036 113.9 0.0032
372.6 0.0076 372.6 0.0060 64.9 0.0099
CFT-32-46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
269.1 0.0134 269.1 0.0134 269.1 0.0134 110.4 0.0027

279.5 0.0525 279.5 0.0031 279.5 0.0031 110.4 0.0030
427.8 0.2277 427.8 0.0057 144.9 0.0057 43.7 0.0099
CFT-48-46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
470.9 0.0024 420.9 0 .0 0 2 1 458.9 0.0023 110.4 0.0027

534.2 0.1480 420.9 0.0028 458.9 0.0029 113.9 0.0032
373.3 0.0039 269.1 0.0051 43.9 0.0099
241.5 0.0063
341
Table 5.3 Comparison of experimental and analytical moment capacities of monotonic
beam -colum n specimens
Monotonic Fiber analysis Experimental

Mu
beam-column moment capacity moment capacity
IVtu-anl
specimen Mu-anl (kN-m) Mu (kN-m)
BC -32-80-20 886.3 933.0 1.05
B C -32-80-40 770.3 806.2 1.04
B C -48-80-20 739.9 699.7 0.95
B C -48-80-40 664.5 574.3 0.87
B C -3 2-46-20 540.9 606.1 1.12
B C -32-46-40 535.3 543.4 1.01
BC -48-46-20 590.3 596.7 1.01
BC -48-46-22 595.4 629.4 1.05
Average 1.01
Standard Deviation 0.07
342
Table 5.4 Comparison of experimental and analytical moment capacities of cyclic
beam -colum n specimens
Cyclic Moment capacity Experimental

Mu-C
beam-column from fiber analysis moment capacity
Mjj-c.anl
specimen Mu.c.anl (kN-m) Mu_c (kN-m)
CBC-32-80-20 886.3 953.8 1.07
CBC-32-80-10 854.3 925.8 1.08
CBC-48-80-20 739.9 711.7 0.96
CBC-48-80-10 697.2 645.2 0.93
CBC-32-46-20 541.3 606.1 1.12
CBC-32-46-10 485.2 553.3 1.14
CBC-48-46-20 587.6 549.0 0.94
CBC-48-46-10 531.1 512.0 0.97
Average 1.03
Standard Deviation 0.08
343
.O j
,4>,M
Elem ent
Iss^^wutgasrasP-^jf^^gffigâsI
Segment
Slice w ith Fibers
e
F ib e r ct-e
Figure 5.1 Fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent
344
Stress ▲
L im itatio ns Com pression

2C
Up to 5 points in Compression
ic
Up to 2 points in Tension
Slopes in compression must keep
decreasing
3C
IT
IC
S train
Tension
IT
2T
Stress A
L im itatio n s
U p to 5 points
Slopes must keep decreasing
Same stress-strain relationship
in tension and compression
Strain
Figure 5.2 M o n oton ic stress-strain behaviors available in D R A IN -2 D X : (a) type ‘C ’

(b ) type ‘ S’
345
Stress (a)
Com pression
p=0.5/ / \ __
P = 0 .9 /> ^ ~ f
■ / / ; P = 0 .1 | < W /2
P = 0 .5
p=o.i Zero - stress S tra in
Tension
Stress (b)
Tension
S tra in
Compression
Figure 5.3 C y c lic stress-strain behaviors available in D R A IN -2 D X : (a) type ‘ C ’ ;

(b ) type ‘ S’
346
M
ii
305 mm
(T) Node 1 (2 ) Slice CD Fiber-Based Elem ent ( D N ode 2
Figure 5.4 Fiber-based m odel o f CFT fa ilu re segment.

<D
e?»5fcSr-: i?s •
OiiVftfawnW+‘i iyffaBacarfrVin
ijgjsgy^^defts^tf33tg»ssaeKcteic<^3ggssE3af<
;j?vsaaa5gEsa^5^gap6»&ggggw8fea^sargte^y<wgsafag»ggaPBas3aag3gpe»eaaeBsbaCT:
&ggS*^"S^;£^toSiSS*33aS^
ia^8ssâî^96s^8aaa»»aMa»*aaBBaiBga^8giga^
b-6t
rS^sessjiigaigigssa^^
ygqwawâatRgq»aaeia5ciBjBgg^Sv^fisa»ws»âft^Wia8§a!5epM»fegtgaftaffi^»aâwgt^^
.aassgmagaggsSSîgsE^^
sgajg^^sÊ^^gs^#ssgâgB^psâ^g^^-gaje^!^îgg!!^»T^&uggagg5ptj^s^gsi9t
gj«;
«i,itS£t.K« SiUl-l £L<
*sm-. Iuas«Szh£*i**z:agJ’.’&JSHrc;gSfc
b-6t
CD SteeI Flange Fibers CD Steel C o rn e r Fibers CD Steel W eb Fibers CD C oncrete Fibers
Figure 5.5 D iscretization o f CFT cross-section in to fibers.
347
840
CFT-32-80
Idealized
700i ■o-
T rilin ear
150 mm
Stress (MPa)
Flange Tension Coupons w, Id
42 a
CD I I® !
280-
140- V ® ® J )
. 150 mnl
C J ), (2 ) Flange Tension Coupons
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
Strain (mm/mm)
Figure 5.6 U n ia x ia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-32-80
840
Idealized CFT-48-80
-Trilinear
560 Flange Tension Coupons

Stress (MPa)
420-
280-
140-
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
S train (mm/mm)
Figure 5.7 U n ia x ia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-48-80
348
T rilin e a r
Id ealized ; E q uation (5.2)
.o -
420
C5 Idealized; E q u atio n (5.1)

I
280
Flange Tension Coupons
140-
0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250
Figure 5.8 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-32-46
840n---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C F T -4 8 -4 6
700-
Idealized
560-
cs
Cm
£
~ 420 T rilin e a r
«
m
m Flange Tension Coupons
53
280-
140-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
S train (m m /m m )
Figure 5.9 U n ia xia l tension stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT-48-46
349
( 7 ) Steel Flan g e F ib e rs Q) S tee l C o rn e r Fibers
( 3) Steel W e b F ib e rs ( 4) C o n c re te Fibers
Figure 5.10 F E M m odels fo r determ ining fib e r stress-strain curves in com pression
350
2 A
STEEL
CONCRETE
N O N -C O R E
CONCRETE
CORE v
tv
305 m m
— I— U n ia xia l gap-contact elem ent —AA V- L o n g itu d in a l bond spring
Figure 5.11 F E M m odel o f fa ilu re segment o f C FT colum n specim ens: (a) O verall
m odel; (b) Transverse interaction; and (c) L o n g itu d in a l interaction
351
84a
CFT-48-80
CFT-32-80
560-S CFT-48-46
Stress (M I'a )
CFT-32-46
420
280
140-i
0 0.0 2 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
S train (m m /m m )
Figure 5.12 Idealized uniaxial stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f C FT specimens
b/3
Figure 5.13 Geom etric im perfection fo r steel tube walls
352
220
f 'c + 4.1(72-,: Richart et al. (1928)

Stress, a,, (M P a )
165-
C o re - calibrated
°2 2 = c t33 = 13.8 M P a
110
Idealized U niaxial
022 = 033 =0
Non-core - calibrated
0v, = 13.8 M P a
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
Strain, £,, (m m /m m )
Uniaxial Biaxial Triaxial
Figure 5.14 U nconfined and confined concrete stress-strain curves
STEEL
TUBE
N O N -C O R E/
f
f
Figure 5.15 Idealization o f concrete in fill into core and non-core regions
353
4400
Longitudinal stresses
shown in Figure 5.17
'FE M = P 5 + P
r ,
5 2200
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Shortening, AFEM (m m )
Figure 5.16 A x ia l load - shortening response o f CFT-32-80
cr33 (M P a ) 2 CTi-avg (M P a ) 2
Figure 5.17 L o ng itu d in a l stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f CFT-32-80 at
91% o f the post-peak load
354
680
T u b e C o rn e r
T u b e W a ll
510-
es
ft.
S
T u b e w a ll
___
170- Tube
w all
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Effective S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 5.18 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls and comers o f
CFT-32-80
165"
Average;!
Layer 1 ;
Layer 2 !
Layer 3
Layer 4 ::
Layer 5 ;i
ss 110 Layer 6 !|
ft.
tn
a
Layer 1
td Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
Layer 6
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Effective S train (m m /m m )
Figure 5.19 E ffective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f CFT-32-80
355
4400-
L o n gitu d in al stresses
3 300- shown in F ig. 5.21
FE M
§ 2200-
ee
1100-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 .0

Shortening, A FEM (m m )
°33 (M P a ) ^l-avg (M P a )
.— . ^ 2 . 2 3 E * 02
V ' i H - - 1-90^ 02 0 9E-02

7 7E + 0 2
. - 1 . 2 6E» 02 4 5 E * 02
¥ .9 3 5e . 01 . L 4 E * 02
_s 1 3 E * 01 8 2E * 0 2
i m
i l l
Figure 5.21 Longitudinal stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f CFT-48-80 at
356
680
T u b e C o rn e r
T u b e W a ll
510-
cs
Bm
£
T u b e w all
340-
170- Tube
w all
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.22 Effective stress-strain curves for steel tube walls and comers o f CFT-48-80
165
Average
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
sc Layer 5
cu 110 Layer 6
s
zn
GJ
Layer 1
£ Layer 2
Ed
^ Layer 6
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.23 Effective stress-strain curves for concrete in fill o f CFT-48-80
357
4400'
3300-
Lo n gitu d in al stresses
shown in Fig. 5.25
•o fem Ps +
e 2200-
1100-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

< *33 (M P a ) 2 <*,.avg (M P a )
Figure 5.25 Longitudinal stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f C FT-32-46 at
358
560-
T u b e w a ll
420-
(S
(Sii
T u b e W a ll
O Tube
•Tube C o rn er w all
M 280-
>
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.26 Effective stress-strain curves for steel tube w alls and co m e rs o f C FT-32-46
' Average
"Layer 1
"Layer 2
"Layer 3
’ Layer 4
■Layer 5
« 110- ' Layer 6
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Average ■<
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.27 E ffective stress-strain curves for concrete infill o f C F T -32-46
359
4400
3300- Longitudinal stresses

shown in F ig . 5.29
® 2200-
"5
<
1100-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

ct33 (M P a ) CTi-avg (M P a )
1 . 93E-02
1 . S S E + 02
1 . 4 0 E - 02
1 . 16E-02 08E+02
- 2 . 8 6E+02
■«
Figure 5.29 Lo ng itu d in a l stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f CFT-48-46 at
91 % o f the post-peak load
360
560
T u b e C o rn er
T u b e W a ll
420-
T ube w all
Si 280-1
£
a
Tube
140-
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

E ffective Strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.30 Effective stress-strain curves for steel tube walls and comers o f CFT-48-46
165
Average
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
« 110- Layer 6
02
o
Layer 1
Layer 2
a
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.31 Effective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f C FT-48-46
361
1.2
C F T -3 2 -4 6
1.0-
tT :FT -32-80
b
t/i -C F T -4 8 -4 6
« 0.8-
-C F T - 4 8 -8 0
ZJ
>■
CJ 0.6-
w
-o
I 0 .4 .
U
e
Z
0.2-
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
N o rm a lize d Effective S train (s/sv)

Figure 5.32 N orm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f CFT
specimens
165
C F T -3 2-46
^ C F T -4 8 -4 6
110
C F T -4 8 -8 0
C F T -3 2 -8 0
Idealized un iaxial
(Unconfined)
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

A verage Effective Strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.33 Average effective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in fills o f CFT

specimens.
362
4400
L o n g itu d in a l stresses
/''^ 's h o w n in F ig. 5.35
3300
I 2200
-J
IS
'I
1100
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Figure 5.34 A x ia l load - shortening response fro m F E M analysis o f CFT-32-80

w ith o u t geometric imperfections.
cj33 (M P a )
cr, (MPa) 2
5.33E+02
k
L o n gitu d in al stress = 533 M P a

Transverse stress = 122 M P a 3 '
38E-01 Y ield stress = 600 M P a
Figure 5.35 L o ng itu d in a l stresses in concrete in f ill and steel tube o f C FT-32-80
w ith o u t geometric im perfections at 91% o f the post-peak load
363
680
T u b e walls
and corners
510
ss
s-
CJ T u b e w a ll
-A-
£ 340
G>
>
Ed
170- Tube
w all
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.36 E ffective stress-strain curve fo r steel tube o f CFT-32-80, w ithout

geometric im perfections
Average;
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3 |
Layer 4 |
Layer 5
Layer 6 .
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
Layer 6 -[
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Effective Strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5 .37 E ffective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in f ill o f CFT-32-80, w ithout
geometric im perfections
364
680 a. for CFT-48-80
ct. fo r C FT-32-80
C F T -4 8-80
510- C F T -3 2-80
g„ fo r C F T -48-46
C F T -4 8 -4 6
m 340
>
<jv fo r C F T /32 -4 6
C F T -3 2-46
170-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

E ffective S train (m m /m m )
eT
C F T -3 2 -4 6
C F T -3 2-80
S
L.
0.8
w
>1
C F T -4 8-80
5? 0.6
C F T -4 8 -4 6
Z
0.2
0.0
0 I 2 3 4
N o rm alized Effective Strain (e/sy)
Figure 5.38 Effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tubes o f CFT specimens, w itho u t
geometric imperfections: (a) A ctual values; (b) Norm alized
365
165-
CFT-32-80
CFT-48-80
CFT-32-46
Idealized uniaxial
(unconfined)
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Average Effective Strain (mm/mm)
Figure 5.39 Average effective stress-strain curves fo r concrete in fills o f CFT
specimens, w itho u t geometric im perfections
STEEL TUBE
9'
9"
<>- 1
Axis of Symmetry Steel Tube
Gap-contact element
Figure 5.40 F E M M odel o f constrained h o llo w steel tube.
366
700
L o n g itu d in a l stresses and
Steel tube corner
displaced shape in Fig. 5.42
O O c
560-
Effective stress (M P a) Steel tube w all
420-
280-
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Effective strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.41 E ffe ctive stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls and comers o f
C FT-32-80, from F E M analysis o f constrained h o llo w steel tube
CTl-avg (M P a )
Figure 5.42 D isplaced shape and longitudinal stresses in steel tube o f C FT-32-80 at
99% post-peak load, from FE M analysis o f constrained h o llo w tube
367
700
560-
C F T -4 8 -8 0
/■“ s
cz
Cm
S
420-
C F T -3 2 -8 0
C F T -3 2 -4 6
280-
Ed C F T -4 8 -4 6
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

E ffective strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.43 E ffective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f C FT specimens,

from F E M analyses o f constrained h o llo w steel tubes
1.2
F T -3 2 -4 6
1.0
C F T -3 2 -8 0
0.8
C F T -4 8 -4 6
0.6
C F T -4 8 -8 0
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4
N o rm alized strain, s/sy
Figure 5.44 N orm alized effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f CFT
specimens, from F E M analyses o f constrained h o llo w steel tubes
368
700-
C F T -4 8 -8 0
560-
C F T -3 2 -8 0
es
420-
C F T -4 8 -4 6
C F T -3 2 -4 6
S 280-
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

C F T -3 2 -4 6
tT
b C F T -4 8 -4 6
0.8 C F T -3 2 -8 0
C F T -48-80
0.4
B
Z 0.2
0.0
0 3 4
Norm alized E ffective S tra in (e/ev)
Figure 5.45 E ffective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube w alls o f CFT specimens
w ith a0 equal to 1.25 nun: (a) A ctu a l values; (b) N orm alized
369
165-
Average Effective Stress (M P a )

C F T -3 2 -4 6
LIO - C F T -4 8 -4 6
C F T -4 8-80
C F T -3 2 -8 0
55- Id ealized uniaxial

(unconfined)
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

A verage Effective S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 5.46 FEM -based average effective stress-strain curves for concrete in f ill
o f C FT specimens: aQ=1.25 mm
370
( 1 ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =2.5 m m
(2 ) Transverse interaction o n ly - no local buckling; ao=0

( D Constrained local b uckling only; a 0 =2.5 m m
( 4 ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a =1.2 m m
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.47 Com parison o f FEM-based effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube
w alls o f CFT-32-80
700
560-
— 420-
co
Z 280-
W
( T ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a0 =2.5 mm
140- (2 ) Transverse interaction o n ly - no local buckling; ao=0

( 3 ) Constrained local b u ckling only; a 0=2.5 m m
® Local buckling & transverse interaction; a =1.2 mm
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5 .48 Com parison o f FEM-based effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube
371
560
( T ) Local buckling & transverse Interaction; a 0 =2.5 m m
(2 ) Transverse interaction only-no local buckling; ao=0

(3) Constrained local buckling only; a 0 =2.5 mm
420-
( 4 ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a0 =1.2 m m
cg
S.
£ 2801
£d
140-
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.49 Com parison o f FEM-based effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube
~ 280-
(T) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =2.5 m m

( 2 ) Transverse interaction only - no local buckling; ao=0
( 3 ) Constrained local buckling only; a 0 =2.5 mm
( 4 ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a =1.2 m m
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.50 Comparison o f FEM-based effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube

372
165'
10-
m 55-
Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =2.5 m m
Transverse in teractio n only - no local buckling; ao=0
L ocal buckling & transverse interaction; a 0=1.2 m m
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

A verage E ffective S train (m m /m m )
Figure 5.51 Comparison o f FEM -based average effective stress- strain curves fo r
the concrete in fill o f C FT-32-80
165
55-
>•
< (7) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =2.5 mm
(2 ) Transverse interaction only - no local buckling; ao=0

( 3 ) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =1.2 m m
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

A verage E ffective S train (m m /m m )
Figure 5 .52 Comparison o f FEM -based average effective stress- strain curves fo r
the concrete in fill o f CFT-48-80
373
165
,(D
W 110-
V)
GJ
Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 = 2 .5 m m
Transverse interaction only - no local buckling; aQ=0
Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 = 1 .2 m m
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Average E ffective S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 5 53 Comparison o f FEM-based average effective stress-strain curves fo r the
concrete in f ill o f CFT-32-46
165
ez
no-
CJ
>
< 0 Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 = 2 .5 m m
( 2 ) Transverse interaction only - no local buckling; ao=0
(3) Local buckling & transverse interaction; a 0 =1 .2 m m
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Average E ffective S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 5 .54 Comparison o f FEM-based average effective stress-strain curves fo r the

374
(a) (b) (c)
A L, > AL2
Figure 5.55 Schematic o f deformed shapes o f CFT cross-sections: (a) O rig in a l

geometry; (b) Deform ed shape w itho u t local b uckling; (c) Deform ed
shape w ith local buckling
(a)
2 2
1 1
^ fem 1•5 mm
A verage effective strain = 0.005
Figure 5.56 Deformed shapes o f steel tubes from FE M analyses o f CFT-48-80:

(a) no local b uckling - from Section 5.4.1, (b) w ith local bu cklin g-from
Section 5.3.2
375
TnTflT-‘"^r~itmiinrrrtWfrtriry
5ca»v»iie«S5^55^5fc*5S5<N?»^^5SS5S55^555w^^S b- 6 t
Slice
305 mm
b -6 t
/ / / / / / / / /
Fiber-Based M od e l Discretization o f Slice into Fibers
0 Steel Flange Fibers 0 Steel C orn er Fibers 0 Steel W e b Fibers 0 Concrete Fibers
Figure 5.57 Fiber-based model fo r monotonic beam -colum n specimens
840
C F T -4 8 -8 0
700-
C F T -3 2-80
Uniaxial Stress (M P a )
560-
C F T -4 8 -4 6
420-
C F T -3 2 -4 6
280-
140-
0°—
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Uniaxial Strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.58 U nia xial tension stress-strain curves fo r steel fibers o f the fo u r CFT
specimen types
376
700
Tube corners - idealized
Used fo r corner fibers
560- T u b e walls - idealized

Used fo r flange and web fibers
3 280-
14 a
o 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.59 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f effective stress-strain curves fo r steel tube

walls and com ers o f CFT-32-80
700
T u b e corners - idealized
560-
T u b e walls - idealized
420-
« 280-
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

walls and com ers o f CFT-48-80
377
560
420-
S /3
S /3
T u b e walls and corners - idealized
Used fo r flange, w eb, and corner fibers
I 280-
a
>
3
140-
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01


w alls and comers o f CFT-32-46
560'
Tube corners - idealized

420
T u b e walls -idealized
53 280
a
>■
140
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

w alls and comers o f CFT-48-46
700
Compression
C F T -3 2 -8 0
525 C F T -4 8 -8 0
350
C F T -4 8 -4 6
S 175 C F T -3 2 -4 6
-1 75
-350
C F T -4 8 -4 6
-525
C F T -3 2 -8 0
C F T -4 8 -8 0 Tension
-700
- 0.010 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 - 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
U niaxial strain (m m /m m )
700
Compression
C F T -3 2 -8 0
525 C F T -4 8 -8 0
350
C F T -4 8 -4 6
175 C F T -3 2 -4 6
C -175
C F T -3 2 -4 6
-350
C F T -4 8 -4 6
-525
C F T -3 2 -8 0
C F T -4 8 -8 0 Tension
-700
-0.010 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 - 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
U n iaxial strain (m m /m m )
Figure 5.63 U n ia x ia l stress-strain curves fo r steel fibers o f CFT specimen types:

(a) Flange and web fibers; (b) Com er fibers
379
1651
Id e a lize d fo r
ee
L ay ers 1, 2
s 110 Idealized for
VI Layer 6
u
V.
u
53
a
> Idealized for
£u Layers 3, 4, 5
W Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4 -[
Layer 5
Layer 6
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.64 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f effective stress-strain curves fo r layers o f

165 r
e*
Id ealized for
u 110^
S concrete in fill
53
o
>
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

A verage Effective S tra in (m m /m m )
Figure 5.65 M u lti-lin e a r idealization o f the average e ffective stress-strain curve fo r

the concrete in f ill o f CFT-32-80
380
1125'
Using stress-strain curves shown in
Fig.5.64 for layers of concrete infill \
900-
=I 675- Using stress-strain curve shown in

Z Fig.5.65 for the concrete infill
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

Figure 5.66 M om ent-curvature responses from p re lim in a ry fiber-analyses o f
BC-32-80-20
1125
Using stress-strain curves shown in

900- Fig.5.64 for layers of concrete infill
y B C -32-80-40
/ E xp erim en tal
Z 675-
Using stress-strain curve shown in

Fig.5.65 for the concrete infill
450-
225'
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10 s (1/m m )
Figure 5.67 M om ent-curvature responses from p re lim in a ry fiber-analyses o f

BC-32-80-40
381
165-
Effective Stress (M P a )
C F T -3 2 -8 0
110
C F T -4 8 -8 0
C F T -4 8-46
55- C F T -3 2 -4 6
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 5.68 M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f FEM-based average e ffe ctive stress-strain

curves fo r concrete in fills o f CFT specim en types
382
BC-32-80-20 :
E x p e rim e n ta l:
aI B C -32-80-20 j
Z F ib e r analysis j
S 450'
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10‘5 (1 /m m )
Figure 5.69 E xperim ental and a n alytica l m om ent-curvature response o f B C -32-80-20

1125-
B C -32-80-40
900-
E xp erim en tal
S
4)
B C -32-80-40
| 450-
F ib e r analysis
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10'5 (1 /m m )
Figure 5.70 E xperim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature response o f B C -32-80-40
383
1125'
900-
B C -48-80-20
F ib e r analysis
Moment (k N -n i)
675-
B C -48-80-20
E xperim ental
450-
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10'5 (1/m m )
F igure 5.71 Experim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature response o f BC -48-80-20
1125
B C -48-80-40
F ib er analysis
Z 675-
o
S
e
B C -4 8-80 -40
E x p e rim e n ta l
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

Figure 5.72 Experim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature response o f BC -48-80-40
384
1125
900-
B C -3 2-46 -20
E x p erim en tal
675-
1
450-
B C -32-46-20
F ib e r analysis
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10* 5 (1 /m m )
F ig u re 5.73 E xperim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature response o f BC -32-46-20
1125'
900-
3 675- B C -32-46-40
Experim ental
2
450-
225- B C -32-46-40
F ib e r analysis
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

C u rv a tu re x 10*s (1 /m m )
F ig u re 5.74 E xperim ental and an alytica l m om ent-curvature response o f B C -32-46-40
385
1125
900-
•m BC-48-46-20
z;I 675* Fiber analysis
5
s 450-
BC-48-46-20
Experimental
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

Curvature x 10's (1/mm)
Figure 5.75 E xperim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature response o f BC -48-46-20
1125
900-
BC-48-46-22
s Experimental
Z 675-
| 450-
BC-48-46-22
Fiber analysis
225-
0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0

Curvature x 10's (1/mm)
Figure 5.76 E xperim ental and analytical m om ent-curvature response o f B C -48-46-22
386
(a)
* *
Node 2
□
Slice
305 m m
Node 1 ( j ) Steel F la n g e F ib ers Q Steel C o r n e r Fibers
777777777 Q) Steel W e b Fib ers Q ) C o n c re te Fib ers
Fiber-based m odel D iscretization o f Slice
(b)
Slaved to Node 2 Slaved to Node 2

.. -&■
Node 2 1
Fixed Fixed &
Slice
Node 1 --------*>- >c
777/ 7/777
M od ified fiber-based E lem ent 05 for D iscretization o f slice

analytical model each steel fib er into concrete fibers only
Notes:
1) Element 05 has zero-length
2) A ll Elements 05 not shown
Figure 5.77 Fiber-based m odels fo r fa ilu re segment o f c y c lic beam -colum n

specimens: (a) O rig in a l m odel; (b) M o d ifie d m odel
387
C O M P R E S S IO N
Envelope
Shoot to previous
value on envelope
T Elastic
unloading
t-e
Elastic Loading with
unloading elastic slope
T E N S IO N
t-h
o Intersection o f lines
with slope K,,. and
Figure 5.78 A n exam ple cyclic force-deform ation response o f Elem ent 05
Envelope
Quadrant I I Quadrant I
Local buckling and

biaxial stress effects / Elastic
[ unloading
r-/ Loading with

/ elastic slope
Elastic
unloading
Quadrant I I I Quadrant I V
Bauschinger’s effect
Intersection o f lines
with slope Es and Es h
Envelope o f Idealized Assumed hysteretic

cyclic c7 - e hysteretic behavior behavior, E lem ent 05
Figure 5.79 C y c lic stress-strain behavior fo r steel fibers

388
Envelope
VI
or
n;
<55.;,-
~fe» ■'
Strain, e
Figure 5.80 C yc lic stress-strain behavior o f concrete fibers: Influence o f P
1130.0
C B C -32-80-10
847.5
-282.5:
-847.5
-1130.0 -
- 8.0 - 6.0 - 2.0 2.0 6.0 8.0
C u rva tu re x 10‘ 5 (1/m m )
F ib er analysis F ib er analysis F ib e r analysis

" " (3=0.9 ' [3=0.5_________ p=0.1__________ Experim ent
Figure 5.81 E ffe ct o f p on c y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C BC-32-80-10
389
1130.0
847.5-
Moment (kN-111)
565.0-
© Experiment - N o rth cycle
© Experiment - South cycle

282.5-
© Fiber analysis: fc.r = 80 M Pa
( 4 ) Fiber analysis: fc r = 60 M Pa
© Fiber analysis: fc.r = 45 MPa
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rv a tu re x 10"s (1/m m )
Figure 5.82 Influence o f fc_r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC -32-80-20
1130.0
847.5-
565.0-
® Experiment - N orth cycle
282.5- © Experiment - South cycle
© Fiber analysis: fc_r = 80 M Pa
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rv a tu re x 10’s (1/m m )
Figure 5.83 Influence o f fc_r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC -32-80-10
390
1130.0
CBC-32-80-20 Experim ent
— F ib er analysis
847.5
565.0
282.5
0.0
S -282.5
-847.5
-1130.0
-40.0 -24.0 - 8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0
Curvature x 10's(l/m m )
Figure 5.84 C y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80-20
1130.0. CBC-32-80-10 Experiment

O s " 0
Fiber
8 4 7 .5 :
1 analysis
565.0:
S 282.5:
z
O
©
s -282.5:
-565.0 i
1130.0
-40.0 -24.0 -8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0
Curvature x 10_s(l/m m )
Figure 5.85 C y c lic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -32-80-10
391
1130.0
( D Experiment - N orth cycle
( D Experiment - South cycle
847.5
sI
Z
'S 565.0 -
r
282.5-
( D Fiber analysis: fc.r= 64 MPa
(D Fiber analysis: fc_r= 48 M Pa
(5 ) Fiber analysis: fc.r = 40 MPa
© Fiber analysis: fcr = 32 MPa

0
0 .0 8 .0 16.0 24.0
C u rva tu re x 10*s (1/m m )
Figure 5.86 In flu e n ce o f fc.r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC-48-80-20
1130.0-
(D Experiment - North cycle
847.5-
I
Z
•£ 565.0-
CJ
5
o
s
282.5- ( D Fiber analysis: fc r = 64 MPa
© Fiber analysis: fc_r = 48 MPa
© Fiber analysis: fc r = 40 MPa
® Fiber analysis: fc r = 32 MPa
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rva tu re x 10*s (1/m m )
Figure 5.87 In flu e n ce o f fc_r on the m om ent-curvature response o f CBC-48-80-10
392
lo o .o r
i C B C -48 -80 -2 0
I E xperim ent
847.5|
F ib e r analysis
565.0
282.5
Z
0.0 j-
c
£
-282.5 j
U s/
-565.0!
-847.5 j
-1 1 3 0 .0 -
-40.0 -24.0 - 8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0
C u rv a tu re x 10'5 (l/m m )
Figure 5.88 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f CBC-48-80-20
1130.0
C B C -4 8 -8 0 -1 0
847.5 Experim ent

Fiber analysis
565.0
282.5
In r
0.0 r
-565.0'
-847.5:
1
-1130.0-
-40.0 -24.0 - 8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0
C u rva tu re x 10'5 (l/m m )
Figure 5.89 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f CBC-48-80-10
393
847.5
(T ) Experiment - N orth cycle
(2 ) Experiment - South cycle
( 2 ) Fiber analysis: fc_r = 55 M Pa
( J ) Fiber analysis: f „ = 44 M Pa
565.0' ( 5 ) Fiber analysis: M Pa
I
z
282.5-
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rv a tu re x 10*s (1 /m m )
Figure 5.90 In flu e n ce o f fc_r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC-32-46-20
847.5
565.0-
*□
282.5- CD Experiment - North cycle

(2 ) Fiber analysis: fc_r = 55 MPa
( 4 ) Fiber analysis: fc r = 44 MPa
( 5 ) Fiber analysis: fc.r = 33 MPa
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rv a tu re x 10"s (1 /m m )
Figure 5.91 In flu e n ce o f fc.r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC-32-46-10
394
847.5
C B C -3 2 -4 6 -2 0
E xp erim en t
565.0 F ib e r analysis
Convergence failure
in fiber analysis
282.5
-282.5
-565.0
-847.5
-40.0 -24.0 - 8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0

C u rv a tu re x 10's ( l/m m )
F igure 5.92 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f C BC -32-46-20
i C B C -32 -46 -1 0
E xp erim en t
565.01
F ib e r analysis
282.5
0.0^
-282.5
-565.0
-847.5-
-40.0 -24.0 - 8.0 8.0 24.0 40.0
C u rv a tu re x 10*5 ( l/m m )
F igure 5.93 C y clic m om ent-curvature response o f C BC -32-46-10

395
847.5-
© Experiment - North, cycle
© Fiber analysis: fc.r = 43 M P a
(J ) Fiber analysis: fc r = 38 M P a
© Fiber analysis: fc r = 32 M P a
565.0-
282.5-
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

C u rv a tu re x 10"s (1/m m )
Figure 5.94 Influence o f fc_r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-46-20
847.5
565.0-
EI
Z
O
S
282.5- © Experiment - North cycle
0.0 8.0 16.0 24.0

Figure 5.95 Influence o f fc.r on the m om ent-curvature response o f C BC-48-46-10

396
847.5r
! C B C -48-46-20
.— Fiber analysis
565.0! Experiment
282.5!
0.0 r
-565.0!
-40.0 -24.0 -8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0

C u rva tu re x 10'5 ( l/m m )
Figure 5.96 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f C BC -48-46-20
847 5 C B C -48-46-10
Experiment
565.0! Fiber analysis
282.5!
I
z
Q
-282.5
-565.0
-847.5-
-40.0 -24.0 -8.0 0 8.0 24.0 40.0'
C u rv a tu re x 10‘s( l/m m )
Figure 5.97 C yclic m om ent-curvature response o f C B C -48-46-10

397
1130.0
847.5 r
C yclic Exp erim en t:
Moment (k N -m )
softening C B C -48 -80 -1 0

F ib e r analysis :
C B C -48 -80 -1 0
565.0 t 1
282.5
8 16 24
C u rv a tu re x 10‘5 (l/m m )
F igure 5.98 A ty p ic a l com parison o f the experim ental and a n a lytica l m om ent-
curvature response o f a c y c lic beam -colum n specim en
398
18000
A M o n o to n lc specimens
O C yclic specimens
CD ACI
CD Fiber-based model
13500]
CD A IJ
d ) EC4
« 9000
0 225 450 675 900 1125

Bending M om en t (k N -m )
Figure 5.99 C om parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M in te ra ctio n curves fo r
specim en type C FT-32-80
18000'-----
A M o n o to n ic specimens
G C yc lic specimens
® ACI
13500- CD F iber-based model
CD A IJ
<3) E C 4
o 9000
225 450 675 900 1125

Bending M om ent (k N -m )
Figure 5.100 C om parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M in te ra ctio n curves for
specim en type C FT-48-80
399
18000 T
© Cyclic specimens
® ACI
13500 (2 ) Fiber-based model

(D AIJ
@ EC4
® 9000 -i
4500
0 225 450 675 900

Bending M o m en t (k N -m )
Figure 5.101 Com parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M inte ractio n curves fo r
18000 -
O Cyclic specimens
® ACI
13500 - (2 ) Fiber-based model

( D A IJ
@ EC4
® 9000 :
4500 -
0 225 450 675 900

Bending M o m en t (k N -m )
Figure 5.102 Com parison o f experim ental results w ith P -M inte ractio n curves fo r
400
CHAPTER 6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE W ORK
6.1 S U M M A R Y
The behavior o f square C F T colum ns made fro m high strength m aterials was
investigated experim entally and a n a lytica lly. The influence o f the w idth-to-thickness
(b /t) ra tio o f the steel tube, the y ie ld stress (cy) o f the steel tube, and the a xia l load level
on the m onotonic and c y c lic force-deform ation response o f h ig h strength square C FT
colum ns was studied. The experim ental results were com pared w ith values predicted
using the current code provisions fo r C FT colum ns. Based on the com parisons o f the
experim ental results w ith values predicted using the current code provisions, sim ple
design provisions are recom m ended fo r high strength square C F T colum ns.
Three-dim ensional fin ite elem ent m ethod (F E M ) m odels o f the C FT colum n
specimens were developed and analyzed to gain additio n al in s ig h t in to the behavior o f
high strength square C FT colum ns. Fiber-based m odels along w ith FEM -based
e ffe ctive stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fib e rs were developed fo r
the C FT colum n specimens. The fiber-based models along w ith the FEM -based stress-
strain relationships can be used fo r static o r dynam ic analysis o f structural frame
systems w ith high strength square C FT colum ns.
401
6.1.1 S U M M A R Y O F E X P E R IM E N T A L IN V E S T IG A T IO N S
The behavior o f high strength square C FT colum n specimens subjected to axial
loading (stub colum ns), constant a xia l load and m o n oton ica lly increasing flexural
loading (m onotonic beam -colum ns), and constant a xia l load and c y c lic a lly applied
fle xu ra l loading conditions (c y c lic beam -colum ns) was exp erim e nta lly investigated.
The in flu e n ce o f the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube, the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube, and the
level o f a xia l load on the behavior o f h ig h strength square C FT colum ns was studied.
The C FT specimens were three-fourth scale m odels o f the base colum ns o f a 6-
story perim eter m om ent-resisting-fram e designed fo r the U.S.-Japan theme structure.
The C F T specimens consisted o f 305 m m square steel tubes fille d w ith 110 MPa high
strength concrete. The 305 m m square steel tubes had nom inal b /t ratios o f 32 or 48 and
were made fro m conventional (317 M Pa) o r high strength (552 M Pa) steel. Four stub
colum n specimens, e ig h t m onotonic beam -colum n specimens (a xia l load levels o f 20%
o r 40% ), and e ig h t c y c lic beam -colum n specimens (a xia l load levels o f 10% o r 20%)
were tested.
S tub c o lu m n specim ens
The a xia l load — displacem ent response o f the stub colum n specimens was nearly
linear alm ost up to the peak load. The peak load was reached due to inelastic behavior
o f the steel and concrete m aterials and was accom panied by local b u cklin g o f the steel
tube and crushing o f the concrete in fill. The stub colum n specimens fa ile d abruptly
sh o rtly a fte r reaching the peak load due to extensive local b u cklin g and crushing o f the
402
concrete in f ill. The axial section stiffness o f the stub colum n specimens was predicted
w ith reasonable accuracy by the transform ed section properties. The axial load capacity
o f the stub colum n specimens was predicted w ith reasonable accuracy by P85 , w h ich is a
superposition o f the yie ld strength o f the steel tube w ith 85% o f the com pressive
strength o f the concrete in fill. P8s is also recom m ended b y the current A C I provisions
fo r p re d ictin g the a xial load capacity o f C FT colum ns.
M o n o to n ic b e a m -c o lu m n specim ens
The m onotonic beam-column specimens were subjected to a constant a x ia l load
and m o n o to n ica lly increasing fle xu ra l loading. The m om ent - rotation response o f the
test-length o f each m onotonic beam -colum n specim en was presented. The peak
m om ent was reached due to the inelastic behavior o f the steel and concrete m aterials
and was accom panied by crushing o f the concrete in f ill and local buckling o f the steel
tube flanges close to the m id-height o f the specim en test-length. The fle xu ral resistance
decreased w ith increasing deform ations and was accom panied b y local b u cklin g o f the
steel tube webs. The m onotonic beam -colum n specimens fa ile d w ith the fo rm a tio n o f
approxim ately 305 m m long inelastic fa ilu re segments close to the m id-height o f the
specim en test-length. The behavior o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens was
q u a n tifie d using the moment - curvature response o f the fa ilu re segments.
The in itia l section flexural stiffness and the se rvice a b ility-le ve l section fle x u ra l
stiffness o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are predicted w ith reasonable
accuracy b y the uncracked transform ed section properties and cracked transform ed
section properties corresponding to 60% o f the m om ent capacity, respectively. The

403
m om ent capacities o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens are predicted w ith
reasonable accuracy and conservatively using the current A C I provisions (A C I 1995)
fo r C FT colum ns. The m om ent capacities predicted using the ALT provisions (A H
1987) are accurate but s lig h tly unconservative fo r the specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios
o f 32. The A IJ predicted m om ent capacities are accurate but m ore unconservative fo r
the specimens w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 48. The curvature d u c tility (|i$) o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens decreases s ig n ific a n tly w ith an increase in the axial
load level and b /t ratio o f the steel tube. H ow ever, the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube does
not have a sig n ifica n t influence on
C y c lic b e a m -c o lu m n specim ens
The cy c lic beam -colum n specimens were fix e d at the base and subjected to a
constant axial load and c y c lic a lly applied lateral loading conditions at the top. The
lateral loading history consisted o f elastic and inelastic cycles and was based on the
A T C - 24 (A T C -24 1992) guidelines fo r c y c lic testing o f structural steel components.
The cyclic lateral load - lateral displacem ent response o f each c y c lic beam -column
specimens was presented. The lateral load capacity was reached due to inelastic
behavior o f the steel and concrete m aterials at the base o f the specimen test-length. The
lateral load capacity was accom panied by local bucklin g o f the steel tube flanges above
the base o f the specimen test-length. The lateral load resistance decreased w ith further
c y c lic loading and was accom panied by local bucklin g o f the steel tube webs and
com ers, and fin a lly tension fracture o f the steel tube com ers. The c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens fa ile d w ith the fo rm a tio n o f approxim ately 305 m m inelastic failure
404
segments at the base o f the specimen test-length. The behavior o f the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens was q u a n tifie d using the envelopes o f the m om ent-curvature
responses o f the fa ilu re segments.
Com parisons o f the m om ent-curvature responses o f the m onotonic and c y clic
beam -colum n specimens indicate that c y c lic loading does n o t have a sig n ific a n t
influ e n ce on the section fle x u ra l stiffness and m om ent capacity o f C FT beam -colum ns.
H ow ever, the post-peak m om ent resistance o f the beam -colum n specimens decreases
m ore ra p id ly under c y c lic loading. Therefore, c yclic loading has a sig n ifica n t influence
on the curvature d u c tility o f C FT beam -colum n specimens, especially those w ith
nom in a l b /t ratios o f 32.
The curvature d u c tility o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens (p ^ c) decreases
s ig n ific a n tly w ith increases in the a xia l load level. The b /t ra tio and the y ie ld stress o f
the steel tube have a n e g lig ib le influence on p^c at higher a xia l load levels. A t low er
a xia l load levels, increasing the y ie ld stress o f the steel tube decreases p^c.
A d d itio n a lly , at lo w e r a xia l load levels and w ith a sm aller steel tube y ie ld stress,
increasing the b /t ra tio also decreases p^c-
The m om ent capacities o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t
ratios o f 32 are predicted w ith reasonable accuracy and conservatively using the current
A C I provisions fo r C FT colum ns. The A C I predicted m om ent capacities are accurate
b u t s lig h tly unconservative fo r the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens w ith nom inal b /t
ra tio s o f 48. The A H predicted m om ent capacities are accurate fo r the c y c lic beam-
colum n specimens made fro m high strength steel tubes w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f 32.
405
H ow ever, the A H predicted m om ent capacities are m ore unconservative fo r the cyclic
beam -colum n specimens made fro m h ig h strength steel tubes w ith nom inal b /t ratios o f
48.
6.1.2 SUMMARY OF ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Three-dim ensional F E M m odels o f the stub colum n specimens were developed and
analyzed using A B A Q U S V ersion 5.8 (A B A Q U S 1998a, b). The results fro m the F E M
analyses o f the stub colum n specimens o ffe r sig n ifica n t in s ig h t in to the behavior o f
square C FT colum ns. H ow ever, the F E M analyses o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens co u ld not be com pleted due to the lim ita tio n s o f the concrete m aterial m odel.
Fiber-based models were developed fo r the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n
specimens. FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel and
concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. C yclic hysteresis rules fo r the steel and
concrete fibers were developed using some s im p lify in g assum ptions. The results fro m
the fib e r analyses o f the m onotonic and c y c lic beam -colum n specimens compared
fa vo ra b ly w ith the experim ental results. The fiber-based models along w ith the method
used to derive the e ffective stress-strain relationships are recom m ended fo r m odeling
high strength square C FT colum ns fo r the purpose o f conducting static o r dynam ic
analysis o f structural fram e systems.
406
Three-dimensional F E M analyses
Three-dim ensional F E M m odels o f the stub colum n specimens were developed and
analyzed using A B A Q U S (1998a, b). The F E M models account fo r the effects o f local
b u cklin g and com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill.
P re lim in a ry results fro m the F E M analyses indicate that the concrete in fill delays the
lo ca l b u cklin g o f the steel tube and the steel tube offers confinem ent to the concrete
in fill. The co n fin in g forces develop p rim a rily from the comers o f the square CFT
cross-section resulting in tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube, tria x ia l confinem ent in a
core region, and b ia x ia l confinem ent in a non-core region o f the concrete in fill. The
tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube reduce its lo n g itu d in a l stress capacity below the
y ie ld stress in accordance w ith the V on M ises yie ld crite rio n . The concrete m aterial
m odel in A B A Q U S was calibrated to account fo r the effects o f tria x ia l and b ia xia l
confinem ent in the core and non-core regions.
F E M analyses o f the stub colum n models w ith geom etric im perfections and
calibrated concrete m aterial models were conducted. G eom etric im perfections in the
steel tube lead to the developm ent o f local bu cklin g in the steel tube, w hich results in a
concentration o f lon g itu d in a l strains in the tube. The concentration o f longitudinal
strains in the tube com bined w ith the lo n g itu d in a l bond between the steel tube and the
concrete in fill results in a concentration o f lo n g itu d in a l strains in the concrete in fill near
the region o f the geom etric im perfection. As a result, each stub colum n model fa ils
w ith the form ation o f an inelastic fa ilu re segment near the region o f the geom etric
im perfection, w hile the rem aining length o f the colum n unloads e la stica lly. Transverse
interaction occurs between the steel tube and the concrete in fill in the inelastic fa ilu re
407
segment. The transverse inte ractio n results in tensile hoop stresses in the steel and
confinem ent o f the concrete in fill. The analyses o f the F E M m odels o f the stub colum n
specimens d id not converge in the post-peak region o f the a xia l load — displacem ent
response.
Therefore, F E M m odels o f 305 m m inelastic fa ilu re segments were analyzed
separately. The a xia l displacem ent o f the com plete stub colum n specimen was
determ ined by adding the contributions o f the inelastic fa ilu re segm ent and the
e la stica lly unloading segments. The a xia l load —displacem ent response determ ined by
com bining the results fro m the F E M analysis o f the inelastic fa ilu re segm ent w ith the
contributions o f the e la stica lly unloading segments was in acceptable agreem ent w ith
the experim ental a xia l load —displacem ent response o f the stub colum n specimens.
Three-dim ensional F E M models were also developed fo r the test-length o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. These F E M models accounted fo r the effects o f
local buckling, com posite interaction between the steel tube and the concrete in fill,
confinem ent and tension cracking o f the concrete in fill. Converged results could not be
achieved from the F E M analyses due to the com bined tension cracking and com pression
in e la s tic ity o f the concrete in fill. The parameters o f the concrete tension cracking
m odel were varied s ig n ific a n tly and the F E M analyses were repeated. H ow ever,
converged results could not be achieved fro m the F E M analyses due to the lim ita tio n s
o f the concrete m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a, b).
408
Fiber-based models fo r monotonic beam-column specimens
Fiber-based m odels were developed fo r the 305 m m inelastic fa ilu re segments o f the
m onotonic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent th a t is
cu rre n tly available in D R A IN -2 D X (Prakash et al. 1993) was used to develop the fib e r-
based m odels. The discretization o f the C FT cross-section in to fibers and the u n ia xia l
stress-strain curves fo r the fibers were required to define the fiber-based models. The
accuracy o f the fiber-based models is governed by the u n ia xia l stress-strain curves fo r
the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. Therefore, FEM -based e ffe ctive
u n ia xia l stress-strain curves were developed fo r the steel and concrete fibers in
com pression as fo llo w s .
Three-dim ensional F E M models were developed fo r the 305 m m long inelastic
fa ilu re segments o f the C FT specimens and analyzed fo r a xia l com pression loading
conditions. These F E M models were s im ila r to those validated fo r the inelastic fa ilu re
segments o f the stub colum n specimens earlier, and accounted fo r the effects o f tube
local b u c k lin g and the transverse interaction between the steel tube and the concrete
in fill. The results fro m the F E M analyses were used to develop FEM -based e ffe ctive
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain curves fo r the steel tube w alls, com ers, and the concrete in f ill
o f the C FT specimens. M u lti-lin e a r idealizations o f the FEM -based e ffe ctive
lo n g itu d in a l stress-strain curves were developed and used as the stress-strain curves fo r
the steel and concrete fibers in com pression.
These FEM -based e ffective stress-strain curves o ffe r sig n ifica n t insig h t in to the
influence o f param eters, such as the steel tube y ie ld stress and the b /t ratio, on the
behavior o f square C FT colum ns. The e ffective stress-strain curves indicate that:
409
w hile m aintaining the nom inal b /t ra tio (32 o r 48) makes the com pression stress in
the steel tube more susceptible to being lim ite d by the effects o f loca l b uckling.
• Increasing the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube (fro m 32 to 48) w h ile m aintaining the
nom inal y ie ld stress (317 M Pa o r 552 M Pa) also makes the com pression stress in
the steel tube more susceptible to being lim ite d by the effects o f local b u cklin g and
b ia xia l stress conditions.
• The h ig h e r strength steel tubes (nom inal yie ld stress equal to 552 M Pa) o ffe r better
• D ecreasing the b /t ra tio (fro m 48 to 32) o f the steel tube w h ile m aintaining its
nom inal y ie ld stress at 552 M P a results in better confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
• The confinem ent o f the concrete in fill occurs due to the contact forces between the
steel tube and the concrete in f ill at the comers o f the C FT cross-section. Local
bu cklin g o f the steel tubes does not reduce the confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
On the contrary, local b u ck lin g o f the steel tubes increases s lig h tly the confinem ent
o f the concrete in fill.
The fiber-based models o f the m onotonic beam -colum n specimens were analyzed
under loading conditions s im ila r to those used in the tests. The FEM -based effective
stress-strain curves fo r the steel and concrete in com pression were used in these
analyses. The results fro m the fib e r analyses were found to com pare w ith reasonable
accuracy w ith the experim ental results.
410
Fiber-based models and analyses o f cyclic beam-column specimens
Fiber-based models were developed fo r the 305 mm Long inelastic fa ilu re segments
o f the cyclic beam -colum n specimens. The fiber-based beam -colum n elem ent in
D R A IN -2 D X was used to m odel the concrete in fill o f the C F T cross-section. The zero-
Iength spring Elem ent 05 in D R A IN -2 D X was used to m odel the steel fibers o f the CFT
cross-section. The accuracy o f these fiber-based m odels is governed by the cyclic
stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers o f the C FT cross-section. The
stress-strain curves developed fo r the fib e r models o f the m onotonic beam -colum n
specimens were steel and concrete fibers were used as the envelopes fo r the
corresponding c y c lic stress-strain relationships. The hysteretic behavior fo r the steel
and concrete fibers was based on some sim p lifyin g assum ptions. The fiber-based
models o f the c y c lic beam -colum n specimens were analyzed under loading conditions
sim ila r to those used in the tests. The results from the fib e r analyses were found to
compare w ith reasonable accuracy w ith the experim ental results.
6 .2 C O N C L U S IO N S
Based on the experim ental investigations sum m arized above, the fo llo w in g
conclusions are drawn:
• The in itia l and se rvice a b ility level flexural section stiffness o f C FT beam-columns
can be predicted w ith reasonable accuracy by the uncracked transform ed and
cracked transform ed section properties, respectively.
411
• The axial load and bending m om ent capacity o f high strength square C FT colum ns
can be predicted w ith reasonable accuracy using the current A C I code provisions
fo r com posite colum ns.
• The m onotonic curvature d u c tility (p^) o f h ig h strength square C FT beam-columns
decreases s ig n ific a n tly w ith increases in the axial load leve l o r the w id th -to -
thickness (b /t) ra tio o f the steel tube. H ow ever, the y ie ld stress (a y) o f the steel
tube does not seem to have a sign ifica nt influence on p<>.
• C yclic curvature d u c tility (m,.c) o f high strength square C FT beam-columns
decreases s ig n ific a n tly w ith increases in the a xia l load le ve l. A t higher axial load
levels, the y ie ld stress (cry) and the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube have a negligible
influence on H ow ever, at low er axial load levels, p^.c decreases w ith increases
in the yie ld stress (cry) o r the b /t ratio o f the steel tube,
Based on the a n a lytica l investigations conducted using the three-dim ensional FE M
m odels, the fo llo w in g conclusions are drawn:
• Three-dim ensional F E M models can be used to p re d ict the a xia l load —
displacem ent response o f high strength square C FT colum ns.
• The FE M m odel o f a C FT stub colum n fa ils w ith the fo rm a tio n o f an inelastic
fa ilu re segment near the region o f the geom etric im p e rfe ctio n in the steel tube,
w h ile the rem aining length o f the colum n unloads e la stica lly.
• Lo cal b u cklin g o f the steel tube and transverse interaction between the steel tube
and the concrete in f ill occur in the inelastic fa ilu re segment. The transverse
interaction between the causes tensile hoop stresses in the steel tube, tria xia l
412
confinem ent o f a core region o f the concrete in fill, and b ia xia l confinem ent o f a
non-core region o f the concrete in fill.
Based on the an alytica l investigations conducted using the fiber-based m odels and
FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves, the fo llo w in g conclusions are draw n:
• Increasing the nom inal y ie ld stress o f the steel tube makes the com pression stress in
the steel tube m ore susceptible to the effects o f local buckling.
• Increasing the b /t ra tio o f the steel tube makes the com pression stress in the steel
tube m ore susceptible to the effects o f loca l b u cklin g and b ia xia l stress conditions.
• The higher strength steel tubes o ffe r better confinem ent o f the concrete in fill.
• The fiber-based m odels along w ith the derived stress-strain relationships predict the
force-deform ation response o f the m onotonic and c y c lic high strength square C FT
beam -colum ns w ith reasonable accuracy.
• The fiber-based m odels along w ith the m ethod used to derive the e ffe c tiv e stress-
strain relationships are recomm ended fo r m odeling high strength square C FT
colum ns fo r the purpose o f conducting static o r dynam ic analysis o f structural
fram e systems.
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
E x p e rim e n ta l In v e s tig a tio n s
• The behavior o f high strength square C FT colum ns was thoroughly investigated in
th is research program . H ow ever, the research program d id not address the behavior
413
o f high strength square C FT colum ns subjected to cyc lica lly varying axial loading
com bined w ith fle x u ra l loading. Experim ental results fro m c y c lic a lly varying axial
and fle x u ra l loading conditions w ill provide additional in fo rm a tio n required to
evaluate the seism ic perform ance o f high strength square C F T colum ns.
• The research program d id not address the shear behavior o f C FT colum ns made
fro m high strength m aterials. Potential applications o f such com posite colum ns in
structures w ith short colum ns requires adequate know ledge o f the im pact o f high
shear forces on th e ir seism ic performance. Therefore, experim ental investigations
on the shear behavior o f high strength square C FT colum ns are recommended.
• C urre n tly, there is a la ck o f knowledge on the seism ic behavior o f m om ent resisting
and braced fram e systems w ith high strength square C FT colum ns. C urrently, a
research p ro je ct concerned w ith the seismic behavior o f structural fram e systems
w ith high strength square C FT columns is underway at L e hig h U nive rsity. The
results fro m these experim ental investigations w ill provide c ritic a l inform ation that
can be used to develop design guidelines fo r com posite fram es and members
subjected to seism ic loading.
A n a ly tic a l In v e s tig a tio n s
• As m entioned previously, the concrete m aterial m odel in A B A Q U S (1998a, b) has
some lim ita tio n s. There is a need to im plem ent a concrete m odel w ith a higher
order (m ore than tw o parameter) m u ltia xia l com pression p la s tic ity model and a
m ore robust tension cracking m aterial model in F E M - based com puter programs
s im ila r to A B A Q U S .
414
• The FEM -based e ffe ctive stress-strain curves developed in th is research program
do not appropriately account fo r the effects o f strain gradient on the local bucklin g
o f the steel tube, the b ia xia l stress-state o f the steel tube, and the confinem ent o f the
concrete in fill. Therefore, currently, there is a need to account fo r the influence o f
the strain gradient on the e ffe ctive stress-strain relationships.
• The cy clic stress-strain relationships fo r the steel and concrete fibers were based on
some s im p lify in g assum ptions. M ore sophisticated c y c lic stress-strain relationships
that can m ore accurately account fo r the effects o f c y c lic loading on loca l bucklin g
and concrete confinem ent should be developed.
• The seism ic behavior o f m om ent resisting o r braced fram e systems w ith high
strength C FT colum ns should be investigated using the fiber-based m odels and
stress-strain relationships developed in this research program .
415
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VITA
The author was bom to M r. H ariom Varm a and M rs. Pushpa Varm a on June 26, 1973,
in Thana, India. He graduated w ith a B.S. in C iv il E ngineering from the Indian In stitu te
o f Technology, Bom bay, in Ju ly 1994. He received his M .S . in C iv il Engineering from
the U n iv e rs ity o f Oklahom a, N orm an, in A ugust 1996. The title o f his M .S. thesis was,
“ Fatigue B ehavior o f Threaded C ouplings fo r Large D iam eter P iping.” He w ill receive
his Ph.D. in C iv il Engineering fro m Lehigh U n ive rsity, Bethlehem , in January 2001.
The author w ill be jo in in g M ichig a n State U n ive rsity, East Lansing, as an Assistant
Professor in the Departm ent o f C iv il and E nvironm ental Engineering.
428

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M orino (M ie U niversity) fo r serving as members o f m y Ph.D. committee.

Infrastructure Technology A lliance (P IT A ) through a grant by the Commonwealth o f

their invaluable assistance in conducting the experimental investigations.

2.2.4 FIB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS FO R C FT CROSS-SECTIONS 26

3.2.1.1 Fabrication o f Test Specimens 45

3.2.2.1 Steel M aterial Properties 46

3.2.2.2 Concrete M aterial Properties 49

3.3.1 STUB C O L U M N TEST-SETU P A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N 52

3.3.3 E V A L U A T IO N OF STUB C O L U M N S P E C IM E N RESULTS 57

3.4 MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 59

R ESU LTS W IT H PR ED IC TIO N S B A S E D O N C U R R E N T C O D E

3.5 CYCLIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 80

3.5.4 C O M P A R IS O N OF E X P E R IM E N T A L R ESU LTS W IT H 109

P R E D IC TIO N S BASED O N C U R R E N T C O D E PR O VISIO N S

3.7 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGH STRENGTH 116

SQUARE CFT COLUMNS

CHAPTER 4. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FEM ANALYSIS OF HIGH 188

STRENGTH SQUARE CFT COLUMNS

4.1 SYNOPSIS 189

4.2 FEM MODELS OF STUB COLUMN SPECIMENS 190

4.2.1.1 Idealized Stress-Strain Curves fo r Steel 192

4.2.2 L O C A L B U C K L IN G A N D G EO M ETR IC IM P E R F E C T IO N 193

4.2.3.1 Concrete M u ltia x ia l P la sticity M odel 196

4.2.3.2 Idealized Stress-Strain Curve fo r H ig h Strength C oncrete 199

4.2.4 F E M M O D E L OF C O M P O S ITE IN T E R A C T IO N 200

4.2.4.1 FE M M odel o f Transverse Interaction 201

4.2.4.2 F E M M odel o f L o n g itu d in a l Interaction 201

4.2.5 C O N F IN E M E N T O F C O N C R ETE IN S Q U A R E C FT C O LU M N S 202

4.2.6 C A L IB R A T IO N OF C O N C R ETE M A T E R IA L M O D E L 205

4.2.6.1 Values o f 0 fo r Core and N on-core Concrete 206

4.2.6.2 Values o f c0 fo r Core and Non-core Concrete 207

4.3.1 F E M A N A L Y S E S O F M O D E LS W IT H O U T IM P E R FE C TIO N S 212

4.3.2 F E M A N A LY S E S OF M O D E LS W IT H IM P E R FE C TIO N S 214

4.3.3 F E M A N A LY S E S O F IN E L A S T IC F A IL U R E SEG M EN TS 216

4.4 FEM ANALYSES OF MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN SPECIMENS 222

CHAPTER 5. FIBER-BASED MODELS AND ANALYSES OF CFT 266

5.1 SYNOPSIS 267

5.2 FIBER-BASED MODELS FOR MONOTONIC BEAM-COLUMN 270

5.2.1.1 Accuracy o f the Fiber-Based Beam -Colum n Elem ent 273

5.2.1.2 M onotonic and C yclic Stress-Strain Curves 274

5.2.1.3 Summary 275

5.2.2 D E V E LO P M E N T OF FIB E R -B A S E D M O D E LS 276

5.2.2.2 F ib e r Stress-Strain Curves in C om pression 280

5.3.1.1 F E M M odel o f Steel Tube 285

5.3.1.2 F E M M odel o f Concrete I n fill 287

5.3.1.3 F E M M odel o f Com posite In te ra ctio n 289

5.3.2 F E M -B A S E D E FFE C TIV E S TR E S S -S TR A IN C U R VES 290

5.3.2.1 Influence o f Parameters on E ffe c tiv e Stress-Strain Curves 293

5.4.4 E V A L U A T IO N OF FE M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E STR E S S -S TR A IN 302

5.4.5 E V A L U A T IO N O F FE M -B A S E D E F F E C T IV E S TR E SS -STR A IN 305

5.5.1 F IB E R STR E S S -S TR A IN CURVES 308