Origin of Psychology

UNIT 1 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY*

Content
1.1 Introduction
1.0 Objectives
1.2 Definition of Psychology
1.2.1 Early Definitions
1.2.2 Current Definitions
1.2.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour
1.3 Historical Development of Psychology
1.4 Psychology: As a Science
1.4.1 Characteristics of Science
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.9 References and Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. The field of
psychology deals with behavioural aspects of human beings and that is probably
the reason why everyone is interested to know about psychology. On the other
hand, there are many misconceptions about psychology also. Many people think
that psychology deals with dealing of abnormal people only. Some others feel
that psychologists can read your mind just by looking at you or your face/forehead.
They tend to equate psychologists with astrologers, gemologists, numerologists,
palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your problems of life and predict
your future. You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’,
‘mental’ etc., but do you know what is the meaning of psychology and how did
it evolve? Is psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? What is science and what are its
characteristics? What is the subject matter of psychology? In this chapter you
will find answer to these and many more such questions. By studying psychology,
you will be able to understand what psychology is and what it is not. This unit
introduces the subject of psychology.

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Define psychology;
Describe the historical background and perspectives of psychology;
Illustrate the methods and subfields of psychology; and
Delineate the researches of psychology in Indian context.

* Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001,
Block 1) 7
Introduction To Psychology
1.2 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors.
Psychologists have been debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”,
“consciousness” or “behaviour”. Let us look at how the definitions of psychology
have come a long way over the past years.

1.2.1 Early Definitions

Earlier, psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested
in the study of the soul. Thus, it was first defined in terms of ‘the science of
soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings,
it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in the middle
ages. There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume
of soul.

Dandapani (2004) states that “people were rather naïve to believe in esoteric
terms such as Soul, Mind and Consciousness. It was believed, and rightly so,
that every human being is endowed with a soul that would remain sublime at all
times. To a philosopher soul is the firm foundation upon which ethical values are
erected. Realisation of one’s soul was considered the chief mission of life.
Definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable primarily
because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul was
furnished. It was discarded because of its METAPHYSICAL nature. It was found
inadequate to satisfy the canons of science;…….”.

Thus, this definition was not accepted by psychologists. Next, psychology was
defined in terms of ‘the science of mind’, by some ancient Greek philosophers.
According to them, psychology was held as a branch of mental philosophy. Since
this definition does not include overt behaviour of human beings and mind cannot
be measured directly, this definition was also dropped by psychologists.

Later, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousness’. According to

Bagga & Singh (1990), at one time during the history of Psychology, it was felt
that the main business of Psychology was with the conscious experience.

Consciousness makes us conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around

us. This definition too is now obsolete and it has been rejected due to the following
reasons:

Consciousness cannot be studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective.

Second objection came from the fast developing branch of the abnormal
psychology which brought the study of unconscious part of our mind within the
province of Psychology. The term consciousness does not include animal or human
behaviour.

The term consciousness also was supposed to have a philosophical-tinge and not
accepted by the modern scientific minded psychologists. Finally, the modern era
has defined Psychology as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the early decades of
twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of ‘Behaviourism’, defined
psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to Morgan et al. (1986), Watson
rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be
restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable (or potentially observable)
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activities of people and animals. Watson held the opinion that there are no essential Origin of Psychology
differences between human and animal behaviour and that we can learn much
about our own behaviour from the study of what animals do. Watson emphasised
that nothing is innate and everything can be learned. In this context, Woodworth
(1948) had earlier stated that, first psychology lost its soul, then its mind, and
then it lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort. As we will see below,
the term ‘behaviour’ is still there in almost all the modern definitions.

1.2.2 Current Definitions

Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson (1975) have compiled the changing definitions
of psychology starting from that of William James (1890) to that of Kenneth
Clark and George Miller (1970). Bagga & Singh (1990) have also cited the
following two definitions of Woodworth and Munn, respectively: “Psychology
is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation to his
environment”.

“Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour,

including from the stand-point of behaviour to much of what earlier psychologists
dealt with as experience”. Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in
chronological order, are as follows:
Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the
application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are
affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external
environment (Tavris and Wade, 1997)
Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about
the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
The science of behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
Scientific study of behaviour and mind. (Nairne, 2003)
A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand
the internal processes leading people (and members of other species ) to
behave as they do. (Eysenck, 2004)
The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Ciccarelli &
Meyer,2006; Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
The science that studies behaviour and mental processes.( Rathus, 2008)

As is evident in the above definitions, study of behaviour (human and animal)

has been emphasised in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included
‘cognitive/mental processes’ in their definitions of psychology. But, what is
behaviour? We will now look at the nature and characteristics of behaviour.

1.2.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour

Behaviour is a broad term and a complex phenomenon. In this section, we will
discuss the nature and characteristics of behaviour. According to psychologists,
9
Introduction To Psychology behaviour is everything or anything that a human being or animal does that can
be observed in some way. In other words, behaviour includes all actions and
responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly. Behaviour
not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive
processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal
vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through
what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different problems and
situations.

We will now consider some of the general characteristics of human behaviour,

as described by Parameswaran & Beena (1988, 2002). These are:

Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors

Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors such as biological, cultural,
social, environmental, past experience, motivational, emotional, cognitive
(e.g. feelings, emotions, motivation, thoughts) etc.

Behaviour varies in complexity

Behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen, waving a friend or reflex
responses like sneezing etc. Some other behaviours include certain skills
which become a habit over a period such as playing guitar, cycling etc. Yet
some other behaviours involve complex activities like repairing a car.
Activities such as landing on the moon, flying a fighter plane, rock climbing
etc. are some of the examples of highly complex behaviour.

The factors influencing behaviour are of different kinds. Behaviour is

influenced by two large sets of factors:
i) Those belonging to the individual; and
ii) Those belonging to the environment.
Factors pertaining to an individual can be categorized under physiological
(biological needs such as hunger, thirst etc.) and psychological ( ideas,
opinions, attitudes etc.).

The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends,

the larger society and even the overall cultural and social background.

Individual differences
Behaviour also varies from one person to the other as well as from one
group of people to the other group of people. People differ in their
physiological and bodily conditions, in their past experiences, in their
abilities, in their background etc. It is therefore, natural that if ten people
are put in same situation, each person’s behaviour differs from that of others,
in some respects or in some degrees.

Behaviour also shows similarities

Though behaviour differs from person to person but this does not mean that
all people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is
also a considerable degree of similarity in behaviour among people. For
instance, if a particle of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove
it. This type of behaviour is universally found.
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 Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive Origin of Psychology

Human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always directed
towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and studying suddenly gets up
and takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water and the
purpose is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying
and feels cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here the goal is to
switch off the fan and the purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. So, all
our behaviours can be categorized under:
i) Approach behaviour (Positive goal directed) or
ii) Avoidance behaviour (Negative goal avoidance)
Behaviour is changeable to a large extent
It was mentioned earlier that a number of factors influence behaviour. In
view of this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these factors.
It is this changeability which enables a bad man to become a good man and
a good man to become a bad man. It is again this very characteristic which
helps people to adjust to new surroundings. These changes are the results of
one’s practice or experiences (learning).

Behaviour also shows stability

Though emphasis has been laid on the possible changes in behaviour, it
must be mentioned that life is not always full of all sorts of changes. While
behaviour changes, at the same time there is also a certain stability in
behaviour. It does not change with every change in the environment nor do
all forms of behaviour change. Human behaviour shows a lot of stability.
For instance, you may still find your grandmother preferring old ideas and
old ways of life, though she is living in an ultra modern society.

Behaviour is integrated
As already mentioned, behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and
a variety of purposes. Every human being has physiological, psychological,
personal and social purposes. He/she has also been the subject of different
learning experiences. In spite of all this, behaviour always shows an order
and a hierarchy of purposes. Every individual behaves as a total person and
this process of the organisation of different purposes, different learnings
and different influencing factors results in an integration of behaviour.
Thus, an individual put in different situations, still shows certain characteristic
ways and styles of behaviour which help us to understand and predict his/her
behaviour. We often say, Ram is a pleasant person. Gobind is an unpleasant
person, Krishna is a sociable person and so on. Psychologists use the term
Personality to describe this process of integration. The greater the degree of
integration in a person’s behaviour, the more effective her/his behaviour is likely
to be. It can therefore be appreciated that behaviour is a complex phenomenon
and studying behaviour is not an easy task.

1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

PSYCHOLOGY
The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived
from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means 11
Introduction To Psychology “knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). The word
‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the nineteenth century, and the field
of psychology did not actually become an independent science until the middle
of the nineteenth century.

Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a

German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at
the University of Leipzig, Germany. According to Bolles (1993), Wundt was a
medical doctor by training and early in his career, he was fortunate to work with
some of the great physiologists of the nineteenth century. The intellectual roots
of psychology lie at the union of philosophy and physiology. Wundt is traditionally
recognised as the founder, or father of the modern psychology. The year of 1879
is seen as a remarkable year when psychology finally emerged as a unique field.
Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because there were
no official psychologists or psychology departments. Wundt started studying the
structure of mind which referred the immediate (conscious) experience, the
contents and processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts,
feelings and emotions.
Thus, formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)
Fill in the following blanks:
1) ......................................... established the first psychology laboratory at
the University of Leipzig, Germany.
2) ......................................... includes all actions and responses of organisms
that can be measured directly or indirectly.
3) ......................................... held the opinion that there are no essential
differences between human and animal behaviour
4) Human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always
directed towards.........................................
5) Modern era has defined Psychology as ..........................................

1.4 PSYCHOLOGY: AS A SCIENCE

Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like
physics, chemistry, biology and zoology or some thing different? In this section
we will look at some of the definitions of science. We will also discuss the nature
and characteristics of science and understand psychology, as a science. Let us
look at the following definitions of science:
Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully
observing and measuring events (Morgan et al.,1986).
Science is an approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation
(Lahey,1998)
The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and
phenomena of the material world. By using a combination of accurate observation
and experimentation, logic and intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules
that govern all levels of the natural universe.
12 Let us now look at the characteristics of science.
1.4.1 Characteristics of Science Origin of Psychology

The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by

classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict
new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same
way as the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a number
of features with them. In common with other sciences, psychology, as a science,
has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al. (1986).

Empirical observation
Like other disciplines of science, the discipline of psychology, rests on
experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief.

Systematic approach and theory

Data from observations and experiments are essential to science in order
“to make some sense” in helping us to understand events. The scientist tries
to find a limited number of principles which will summarize the data
economically. Like other scientific theories, psychology also follows a
systematic procedure of observation, data collection, analysis and
interpretation.

Measurement
Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined
as assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules.
Physics is ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has
developed the most precise measurements.

Definition of terms
Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The
procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable
behaviour (operational definition). When we define a concept operationally,
we define it in terms of measurable and observable operations. For example,
the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence,
motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of observable
operations, which can be performed to measure them. However, psychology
cannot measure many behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty
etc. as these cannot be defined operationally. The above characteristics are
common to all sciences including psychology. However, psychology is a
different type of science (Behavioural science). In physics or chemistry,
researchers investigate processes and events which remain stable and
constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and predict
with a reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human
behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears to
be much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical
substances. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man,
psychology studies man himself. The methods used in psychological research
include observation, interviews, psychological testing, laboratory
experimentation, and statistical analysis.
Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry,
the ‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology,
13
Introduction To Psychology economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc. (Rush, 1972).
The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects
like physics, chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include
such subjects as biology, botany, zoology etc. The application of knowledge to
practical problems is an art; it is the skill or knack for doing things which is
acquired by study, practice and special experience. Since principles and laws of
psychology are applied to solve human problems in a number of situation
(families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as treating behaviour
disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-II)
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include subjects such as anthropology,
economics, education, history, linguistics, sociology etc. .......................
2) Like other disciplines of science, the discipline of psychology, rests on
experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief.
.......................
3) The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects
and phenomena of the material world. .......................
4) Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour........................
5) Psychology is categorized under the physical sciences group. .....................

1.5 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that the psychology emerged as
an independent academic discipline from philosophy. In this unit, the term
‘Psychology’ was defined and the nature as well as its historical development
was also discussed. Lastly, characteristics of psychology as a science were also
discussed in this unit.

1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the origin and evolution of psychology.
2) Enumerate the nature and characteristics of behaviour.
3) Describe the historical development of psychology.
4) Describe the characteristics of science.
5) Can we consider psychology as science? Support your answer with
appropriate justifications.

1.7 GLOSSARY
Behaviour : Observable actions and responses of human beings and
animals. Behaviour also includes not so directly
observable activities, such as, inner mental (cognitive)
processes (e.g. feelings and thoughts) as long as they
can be observed and measured in a systematic way.

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Behaviourism : Emphasises that psychology should focus obehaviour Origin of Psychology
rather than on mind.
Critical thinking : Critical thinking means reasoned judgments (logical
and well thought out judgments).
Pseudo-psychology : Any unfounded system that superficially resembles
psychology.
Psychology : The science of human behaviour and cognitive
(mental) processes.
Science : Science is a systematised body of knowledge gathered
through carefully observing and measuring events.

1.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ-I
1) Wilhelm Wundt
2) Behaviour
3) Watson
4) Some goal or the other
5) A science of behaviour

SAQ-II
1) False
2) True
3) True
4) True
5) False

1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and
Bacon.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Bagga, Q. L. & Singh, A. (1990). Elements of General Psychology. New Delhi:
Arya Book Depot.
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn & Bacon.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical Thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation. 15
Introduction To Psychology Bolles, R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson
Education, Inc.
Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind
and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition). Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Dandapani, S. (2004). General Psychology. Hyderabad (India): Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Das,J.P.(19980. The Working Mind: An Introduction to Psychology, New Delhi,
Sage Publication
Eysenck, M.W.(2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. Psychology
Press.
Feldman, R.S.(2004). Understanding Psychology (6th edition), New Delhi (India):
Tata McGraw Hill.
Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to
Psychology (6th edition). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.Y.:Holt.
Lahey, Benjamin B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Nairne, J.S. (2003). Psychology: The Adaptive Mind (3rd edition).
USA:Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (1988). Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada:
Wadsworth.
Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A
perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in
organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking
for a new age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in Perspective (2nd Ed). New York:
Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

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Woodworth, R. S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York: Origin of Psychology
Ronald.
Dalal, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India. Foundations
of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27.
Jain, A. K. (2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.
Misra, G., & Paranjpe, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. In
Encyclopedia of the History of Psychological Theories (pp. 881-892). Springer
US.
Singh, A. K. (1991). The Comprehensive History of Psychology. Motilal
Banarsidass Publication.
Bangalore University. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from www.bangalore
university.ac.in
NIMHANS. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from http://www.nimhans.kar.nic.in/
mhsp/default.htm
National Seminar on Psychology in India: Past, Present and Future. Retrieved
March 18, 2018, from http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/
Souvenir-Internet1.pdf
History of Development of Psychology in India. Retrieved March 19, 2018, from
http://anilpinto.blogspot.in/2014/04/subject-history-of-development-of.html
Mathew, V. G. (n.d.). A Short History of Indian Psychology. Retrieved March 19,
2018, from http://www.psychology4all.com/historyi.htm

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