Module 1

Lesson Plan
S.N DATE TOPIC DATE REMARK
PLANNE ENGAGE S

1.1
D

Introduction to Control Systems:
D

1.2 Types of Control Systems

1.3 Effect of Feedback Systems

1.4 Differential equation of Physical Systems

1.5 Differential equation of Mechanical Systems

1.6 Differential equation of Electrical Systems

1.7 Analogous Systems

1.8 Examples

Dept.of ECE, MITE, Moodabidri 2

 Introduction
 A control system is a systematically arranged


interconnection of components which together act to
provide a desired response when excited by an input.

 Control systems are playing a vital role in the

advancement of science and technology and influence
every aspect of modern life.

 Automatic controls in heating and air conditioning

regulate the temperature and humidity for comfortable
living.

 Thermostats and alarm clock are other examples.

 Automatic control system in industries speed up the
production by way of quality control, inventory

control, machine tooling etc.
 Successful operation of space vehicles, satellites, war
planes, radars, humans travel to other planets etc,
depend on proper functioning of a number of control
systems.
 Today control systems are cheaper and more
sophisticated , because computers are used as

integral parts of control systems and also due to
recent development of semiconductor devices and
availability of inexpensive microprocessors.

 Control system engineers are concerned with

understanding the nature and to control the
environment and its effects upon the life of human
beings.

Terminology:
 Plant: The dynamic unit or equipment containing
components to perform a specified operation.

Example: A electrical machine, a CRO, an aircraft, a
chemical reactor etc.

Process: A progressive continuing operation with

gradual changes leading towards a specified result.
Normally plant and process are used in the same sense.
 Command input (desired output): motivating input signal
having full control on the system and is independent of
the output. 
 Reference input: form of input directly usable by the
system. Also called as actuating signal.

 Reference selector: unit that establishes the reference

input, also called comparator or controller.

 Disturbance : a signal which tends to adversely affect the

output. It may be internally generated in the system or
may be externally generated and behaves as an input.

Types of control systems

 Control systems are classified into two types
depending on the quantity of actuating signal.
 They are 
1) open loop system
2) closed loop system.
Open loop system:
➢ An open loop control system is that system in which
the control action is independent of output.
➢ It means that actuating signal has no component of
the output.
➢ Example: traffic control signal, toaster, DC generator
(voltage control)
 Traffic control signal
 Traffic control signal is time dependent.

 The traffic becomes mobile or stationary depending
on the duration and sequence of siganl (lamp) glow.

 The duration and sequence are controlled by relays

which are predetermined and not dependent on the
density of the traffic in any road.

Feedback control

 Feedback control is an operation, which in the presence of
disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the
desired output and the actual output.

 This difference is called error.

 The desired output is the input command.

 For comparing the actual output with the desired output,

actual output or its function is to be fedback to the input
side using feedback elements.
 Closed loop control systems:
 A control system in which the output has an effect on the
input in such a manner as to maintain the desired output,
ie to reduce the error. 
 All feedback systems are closed loop systems.
 Actuating signal: in the case of openloop systems, the
reference input is called the actuating signal.
 In the case of closed loop systems, it is the difference
between the reference input and feedback signal. This is
the input to the controller.
 The actuating signal in the case of unity feedback system
is the error signal.

Open loop Closed loop

1 Construction and design are Complicated design more expensive.

2.
simple, hence less expensive
Generally stability is not a
Designer should be careful as there
problem is tendency for less stability
3 Less accurate and less Highly accurate and more reliable
reliable
4 No feedback, output has no Feedback is present, output affects
effect on input input.
5 Sensitive to disturbances and Almost insensitive to both
environmental changes
6. Small bandwidth Larger bandwidth

7 Nonlinearities affect the Effect of nonlinearities is not to a

response greater extent
 General considerations in the design of
control systems:

 Stability
 Accuracy
 The speed of response

Stability:

Control systems must be stable .
For a given input, whether it is a reference change or a
disturbance, the response must attain and maintain
some useful value within a reasonable period of time.
An unstable system is useless.
 accuracy

 A system must be accurate within specified limits.
 That is the system must be capable of reducing errors
to zero or to some small tolerable value.
 All control systems must provide the demanded
degree of accuracy.

Basic Types of
Mechanical Systems

 Translational
 Linear Motion

 Rotational
 Rotational Motion

16
 Translational Mechanical Systems

Part-I

17

Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational
Spring
i)

Translational Mass
ii)

Translational
iii) Damper
 Translational Spring
A translational spring is a mechanical element

that can be deformed by an external force such
that the deformation is directly proportional to
the force applied to it.

Translational
Spring
i)

Circuit Symbols
Translational Spring

Translational Spring
If F is the applied force
x2  x1

if2 = 0
Then x1 is the deformation x F

Or ( x1 − x2 ) is the deformation. F

The equation of motion is given as

F = k ( x1 − x2 )
Where k is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m
 Translational Spring
Given two springs with spring constant k1 and k2,

obtain the equivalent spring constant keq for the two
springs connected in:

(1) Parallel (2) Series

21

Translational Spring
• The two springs have same displacement therefore:

k1 x + k 2 x = F 
(1) Parallel

( k1 + k 2 ) x = F

keq x = F
keq = k1 + k 2
• If n springs are connected in parallel then:

keq = k1 + k 2 +  + k n 22
 Translational Spring
• The forces on two springs are same, F, however

displacements are different therefore:
(2) Series
k1 x1 = k 2 x2 = F

F F
x1 = x2 =
k1 k2

• Since the total displacement isx = x1 + x2 F = keq x

, and we have

F F F
x = x1 + x2  = +
k eq k1 k 2 23

Translational Spring
F F F
= +
k eq 
k1 k 2
• Then we can obtain

1 k1k 2
k eq = =
1 1 k1 + k 2
+
k1 k 2
• If n springs are connected in series
then:
k1k 2  k n
k eq =
k1 + k 2 +  + k n 24
 Translational Spring
• Exercise: Obtain the equivalent stiffness for the following
spring networks. 
i)

k3

ii) k3

25

Translational Mass
• Translational Mass is an Translational
inertia element. ii) Mass

• A mechanical system without

mass does not exist.

• If a force F is applied to a x(t )

mass and it is displaced to x
meters then the relation b/w F (t )
M
force and displacements is
given by Newton’s law.

F = Mx
 Translational Damper
• When the viscosity or drag is
not negligible in a system, we
often model them with the
damping force.

• All the materials exhibit the Translational

iii) Damper
property of damping to some
extent.

• If damping in the system is

not enough then extra
elements (e.g. Dashpot) are
added to increase damping.

Common Uses of Dashpots

Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
 Translational Damper

F = Cx F = C( x1 − x2 )

• Where C is damping coefficient (N/ms-1).

Translational Damper
• Translational Dampers in series and parallel.

C1C 2
Ceq = C1 + C2 Ceq =
C1 + C 2
 Differential equations of physical
systems:

 The term mechanical translation is used to describe
motion with a single degree of freedom or motion in
a straight line.
 the basis for all translation motion analysis is
newton’s second law of motion which states that the
net force F acting on a body is related to its mass M
and acceleration a by the equation Σ F=ma
 The three basic elements used in linear mechanical
translational systems are i) Masses
ii) springs
iii) dashpot or viscous
friction units

Outline of the procedure for writing

differential equtions:
1. Assume that the system originally is in equilibrium
in this way the often-troublesome effect of gravity is
eliminated. 
2. assume then that the system is given some arbitrary
displacement if no distributing force is present.
3. Draw a free body diagram of the forces exerted on
each mass in the system. There should be a separate
diagram for each mass.
4. Apply newtons law of motion to each diagram
using the convention that any force acting in the
direction of the assumed displacement is positive.
5. Rearrange the equation in suitable form to solve by
any convenient mathematical means.
 Modelling a simple Translational System
 Example-1: Consider a simple horizontal spring-mass system
on a frictionless surface, as shown in figure below.


mx = −kx
or
mx + kx = 0
33

Example-2
Consider the following system (friction is
negligible)
k 
x
F
M

• Free Body
Diagram
fk
M fM
F

• Where f k andf M are force applied by the

spring and inertial force respectively. 34
 Example-2
fk
M

fM
F

F = fk + fM
• Then the differential equation of the system is:

F = Mx + kx
• Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and
ignoring initial conditions we get

F ( s ) = Ms 2 X ( s ) + kX ( s ) 35

Example-2
F ( s ) = Ms 2 X ( s ) + kX ( s )
• The transfer function of the system is

X (s) 1
=
F(s) Ms 2 + k

• if
M = 1000kg
k = 2000 Nm −1

X (s) 0.001
= 2
F(s) s +2 36
 Example-2

X (s) 0.001
= 2
F(s) s +2

• The pole-zero map of the system is

Pole-Zero Map
40

30

20
Imaginary Axis

10

-10

-20

-30

-40 37
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis

Example-3
Consider the following system

k 
x
F
M

C
• Free Body
Diagram
fk fC
M fM
F

F = f k + f M + fC 38
 Example-3
Differential equation of the system is:

F = Mx
+ Cx + kx
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring
Initial conditions we get

F ( s ) = Ms 2 X ( s ) + CsX ( s ) + kX ( s )

X (s) 1
=
F(s) Ms 2 + Cs + k
39

Example-3
X (s) 1
=
F(s) Ms 2 + Cs + k

• if 2
Pole-Zero Map

1.5
M = 1000kg 1

k = 2000 Nm −1
Imaginary Axis

0.5

C = 1000 N / ms −1
0

-0.5

-1

X (s) 0.001
-1.5

= 2 -2
F(s) s + s + 1000 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
0.5 1

40
 Example-4
Consider the following system

• Free Body Diagram (same as example-3)

fk fB
M
F fM X (s) 1
=
F(s) Ms 2 + Bs + k
F = fk + fM + fB 41

Example-5
Consider the following system
x2

x1 k  B
F M

• Mechanical Network
x1 k x2

F ↑ M B

42
 Example-5
• Mechanical Network
x1 k x
2

F ↑ M B

At node x1

F = k ( x1 − x2 )
At node x 2

0 = k ( x2 − x1 ) + Mx2 + Bx
2
43

Example-6
• Find the transfer function X2(s)/F(s) of the following system.

k

M1 M2
B
 Example-7
x1 x2

k B 3 B4
M1 M2
f (t )

B1 B2

x1 B3 x2

f (t ) ↑ k M1 B1 B2 M2 B4

45

Rotational Mechanical Systems


Part-I

46
 Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational Spring

1
2

T = k (1 −  2 )

Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational Damper

C
1
2 T

T = C(1 − 2 )
 Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Moment of
Inertia


J T

T = J

Example-1

B1
1 k1  2 3 k2
T J1 J2

1 k1 2 B1 3

T ↑ J1 J2 k2
 Example-2

1 k1  2 B2
3 B4
T J1 J2

B1 B3

1 k1 2 B2 3

T ↑ J1 B1 B3 J2 B4

Analogous circuits

Analogous circuits represent systems for
which the differential equations have the
same form.
The corresponding variables and parameters
in the two circuits represented by equations
of the same form are called analogs.
 Advantages of analog electric
circuits:

1. An electric analog of a mechanical system can be set
up very easily in a laboratory.
2. A change in any electrical parameter (R,L and C) is
accomplished more readily in an electric circuit.
3. An electric circuit can readily be adjusted to
produce a desired response.

Key Concept: Analogous Quantities

Electrical
Quantity (Force-Current)

Mechanical Analog I
Mechanical
Analog II
(Force Voltage)
Voltage, e Velocity, v Force, f
Current, i Force, f Velocity, v

Lubricity, 1/B
Resistance, R Friction, B
(Inverse friction)

Compliance, 1/K
Capacitance, C Mass, M
(Inverse spring constant)

Compliance, 1/K
Inductance, L Mass, M
(Inverse spring constant)

Transformer, N1:N2 Lever, L1:L2 Lever, L1:L2

