ME 55- ADVANCED MATERIALS ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING METHODS
FOR COMPOSITES AND
FAILURE PREDICTIONS
Ang, Mendoza, Mission, Temprosa
WHAT IS A
COMPOSITE?
a materials system composed of a
suitably arranged mixture or combination
of two or more micro or macro
constituents that differ in structure
and/or chemical composition, are
essentially insoluble in each other, and
have a clear interface separating them.
 FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastics & Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Epoxy Resins
 OPEN MOLDING CLOSED MOLDING
resin is impregnated into the fibers and composite materials are placed in
they are placed in an open mold, where a two-sided mold, closed to the
they cure or harden. atmosphere
 Relatively low cost due to little to
no tooling (the mold)

Allow for rapid product

development cycles for
OPEN prototyping – design changes are
easily made

MOLDING Secondary finishing processes

needed as only one side of the
finished part will have a good
surface finish (the side that was
against the mold)

Best for low volume production

(<1,500 parts per year) as well as
large and complex part geometries
HAND LAY-UP PROCESS
This is the simplest method of
producing a fiber-reinforced
part. To increase the wall
thickness of the part being
produced, layers of fiberglass
mat or woven roving and resin
are added. Applications for this
method include boat hulls,
tanks, housings, and building
panels.
HAND LAY-UP
PROCESS
SPRAY LAY-UP PROCESS
The spray lay-up method of producing
fiber-reinforced plastic shells is similar
to the hand lay-up method and can be
used to make boat hulls, tub–shower
units, and other medium- to large-size
shapes. Multiple layers may be added
to produce the desired thickness.
Curing is usually at room temperature,
or it may be accelerated by the
application of a moderate amount of
heat.
SPRAY LAY-UP PROCESS
VACUUM BAG–AUTOCLAVE
PROCESS
The vacuum bag molding process is used
to produce high-performance laminates
usually of fiber-reinforced epoxy
systems. Composite materials produced
by this method are particularly important
for aircraft and aerospace applications.
Carbon fiber–epoxy composite materials
are used mainly in the aerospace industry
where the high strength, stiffness, and
lightness of the material can be fully
utilized. Cost considerations have
prevented the widespread use of this
material in the auto industry.
VACUUM BAG–AUTOCLAVE PROCESS
FILAMENT-WINDING PROCESS
Another important open-mold
process to produce high-strength
hollow cylinders is the filament
winding process. The high degree of
fiber orientation and high fiber loading
with this method produce extremely
high tensile strengths in hollow
cylinders. Applications for this process
include chemical and fuel storage
tanks, pressure vessels, and rocket
motor cases.
FILAMENT-WINDING PROCESS
 Allows for more complex part
geometries

Produces better parts faster and

more consistently than open
CLOSED molding processes

MOLDING More expensive due to tooling

(mold) requirements

Less waste produced

COMPRESSION AND INJECTION MOLDING
These are two of the most
important high-volume processes
used for producing fiber-
reinforced plastics with closed
molds. These processes are
essentially the same as
Compression and Injection
Molding of Thermoplastic
Materials except that the fiber
reinforcement is mixed with the
resin before processing.
COMPRESSION MOLDING
In compression molding, the plastic resin
with reinforcement, which may be
preheated, is loaded into a hot mold
containing one or more cavities. The upper
part of the mold is forced down on the
plastic resin, and the applied pressure and
heat melt the resin and force the liquefied
plastic to fill the cavity or cavities.
Continued heating (usually a minute or
two) is required to complete the cross-
linking of the thermosetting resin, and then
the part is ejected from the mold. The
excess flash is trimmed later from the part.
COMPRESSION
MOLDING
INJECTION MOLDING
Injection molding is one of the most
important processing methods used for
forming thermoplastic materials. The
modern injection-molding machine uses
a reciprocating-screw mechanism for
melting the plastic and injecting it into a
mold. Older-type injection-molding
machines use a plunger for melt
injection. One of the main advantages of
the reciprocating-screw method over
the plunger type is that the screw drive
delivers a more homogeneous melt for
injection.
INJECTION
MOLDING
RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING (RTM)
RTM is a vacuum-assisted, resin
transfer process with a flexible
solid counter tool for the B-side
surface compression. This process
yields increased laminate
compression, a high glass-to-
resin ratio, and outstanding
strength-to-weight
characteristics. RTM parts have
two finished surfaces.
RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING (RTM)
THE SHEET-MOLDING COMPOUND (SMC)
The sheet-molding compound process
is one of the newer closed-mold
processes used to produce fiber-
reinforced plastic parts, particularly in
the automotive industry. This process
allows excellent resin control and good
mechanical strength properties to be
obtained while producing high-volume,
large-size, highly uniform products. The
sheet-molding compound is usually
manufactured by a highly automated
continuous-flow process.
THE SHEET-MOLDING COMPOUND (SMC)
CONTINUOUS-PULTRUSION PROCESS
Continuous pultrusion is used for
the manufacturing of fiber-
reinforced plastics of constant cross
section such as structural shapes,
beams, channels, pipe, and tubing.
Very high strengths are possible
with this material because of the
high fiber concentration and
orientation parallel to the length of
the stock being drawn.
CONTINUOUS-PULTRUSION PROCESS
 01 BATCHING
CONCRETE
is a ceramic composite 02 MIXING
material composed of
coarse granular material
(the aggregate) embedded 03 TRANSPORTING
in a hard matrix of a
cement paste (the binder),
which is usually made from 04 PLACING
portland cement and
water.
05 COMPACTING

06 CURING
 BATCHING
The process of measuring ingredients or
materials to prepare concrete mix is known as
batching of concrete
VOLUME materials are measured on the basis of volume.
It is less precise method of batching

BATCHING
To make 1:1:2 ratio concrete mix according to volume
batching, one should take one bag of cement (35 liters) , 1
gauge box of fine aggregate (35 liters) and 2 gauge boxes of
fine aggregate (70 liters). If the water-cement ratio is 0.5,
then half of the volume of cement which is 25 liters of water
should be taken
WEIGHT Materials are measured on the basis of weight.
It is accurate method of batching.

BATCHING
To prepare 1:1:2 concrete mix using weigh batching, measured
quantity of materials are 50 kg of cement, 50 kg of fine
aggregate and 100 kg of coarse aggregate.
 MECHANICAL
WEIGHT BATCHERS
weights are measured using spring and
dial gauge arrangement and it is widely
used equipment in weigh batching.
ELECTRONIC
WEIGHT BATCHERS
electronic scales and load cells
supported by hoppers are used to
measure the weight of ingredients of
concrete.
 MANUAL
WEIGHT used for small concrete production job
while other two types are used for large

BATCHERS concrete production

SEMI-AUTOMATIC
aggregate container gates are lifted
manually and it is automatically closed
after reaching required quantity in the
weighing machine.

FULLY AUTOMATIC
all the process will be done automatically and it
also measures the moisture content present in
the aggregate and corrects the required
quantity of water-cement with respect to
moisture content of aggregates
WEIGHT BATCHING VS. VOLUME BATCHING
Weigh batching is Moisture content Compressive Weigh batching Volume batching
most precise presence in the strength of same concrete mix does not require
method of aggregate should concrete mix at 7 gives medium to skilled workers
batching than also be considered days and 28 days very high slump but weigh
volume batching while batching. In is higher for while for the batching.
since it is difficult case of fully weigh batching same mix Selection of
to find the exact automatic weigh concrete mix proportion in batching method
volume of batching it can be than volume volume batching, depends upon
granular materials considered but batching slump differs size of project,
because of their volume batching is concrete mix. from low to high concrete
voids not suitable in such production rate
cases.
MIXING
Proper mixing of concrete ingredients is
of utmost importance in order to
produce good quality fresh concrete. If
the concrete is not well mixed, then it
tends to segregation and bleeding.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
HAND MIXING
Mixing concrete
WELL MIXED CONCRETE
manually without a Concrete should be of uniform colour.
mixer machine All concrete materials like cement, fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates and water
should be homogeneously mixed.
Cement paste should cover all the surface of
MACHINE MIXING the aggregate.
OF CONCRETE Segregation or bleeding of concrete should
Mixing concrete with not occur after the concrete mixing
a mixer machine

READY MIX
CONCRETE
Mixing in automatic
or semi-automatic
batching plant
 HAND MIXING
is the process of mixing the
ingredients of the concrete
manually without a mixer machine.
Mixing concrete without a mixer is
used only for small works where
the concrete requirement is less
and quality control is less
important. In the hand mixing of
concrete, uniformity of mixing is
difficult to achieve and requires
special care and efforts.
PRECAUTIONS Base platform must be clean, dirt free
and watertight.
IN HAND Use a good and clean shovel for the
mixing procedure.

MIXING If there are any dirt or debris in the

aggregates, wash them before use.
The personal protective equipment
like hand gloves, mask etc. are must
to be worn by the labours and
masons while mixing and handling
the concrete.
The mixing platform should be
cleaned at the end of the day’s work.
 MACHINE MIXING
is the process of mixing the
ingredients of the concrete with a
concrete mixer machine. It is highly
effective for fulfilling the demands
of short mixing time, optimum
consistency and homogeneous
quality of concrete
PRECAUTIONS Concrete mixer machine must be wet before use.
Take care of mixing time, speed and numbers of

IN MACHINE
revolution of mixer drum as per the
recommendation of the manufacturers of the mixer
machine.
Concrete should be used within 30 minutes after

MIXING mixing and discharged by the concrete mixer.

If your mixing is batch type then, after discharging
one batch of concrete, the interior surface of the
mixer drum should be cleaned thoroughly. If not,
lumps of hardened concrete from the mix of
previous batch may form a part of the subsequent
batch and deteriorate the quality of concrete.
If your mixing is of a continuous type, it is necessary
to clean the concrete mixer after fixed intervals.
The inner portion of the concrete mixer should be
carefully inspected at regular intervals to check for
damages, shatter or corrosion.
 READY MIX
is particularly useful on congested
sites or in road construction where
there is little space or no space
available for a mixing plant or for
storage of aggregates. In this method,
quality control of concrete is easy as
the batching and mixing of concrete is
done at the mechanized central
batching plant. This method of mixing
is very useful for several places i.e. in
congested area, at night concreting
work, at large construction site etc.
 TRANSPORTING
Transportation of concrete must be well thought
out and organized efficiently. All delays must be
avoided to prevent honeycombing or cold joints.
MORTAR PAN
Mortar pan is used when the concrete
is carried out in small quantities

WHEELBARROW
The wheelbarrow is used for
transporting concrete at ground level
CRANE BUCKET
AND ROPEWAY
A tower crane bucket and ropeway
are the methods for transporting
concrete above the ground level

SKIP AND HOIST

Skip and hoist are adopted for
transporting concrete vertically for
high rise building construction

CHUTE
A chute is adapted for transporting
concrete from ground level to the
lower level
 TRANSIT MIXER
Transit mixer is one of the most
popular equipment for transporting
concrete over a long distance mostly
in RMC plant (Ready Mixed Concrete
plant)
PUMPS AND
PIPELINES
Pumping of concrete is universally
accepted and more reliable method of
concrete transportation and placing

BELT CONVEYORS
Belt conveyors are used for a small
horizontal distance such as 5-meter to
10-meter.
 TREMIE
Tremie is the most common method
for underwater transportation of
concrete, tremie pipe is used for that

MONORAIL SYSTEM
Monorail system consists of a track
and a power wagon mounted on the
single rail track, which can move at a
speed of 80-90 meter/minut

DUMPERS AND TRUCKS

Dumpers and trucks are the ordinary
open steel tipping lorries used for long
hauls in horizontal transport at ground
level
PLACING AND COMPACTING
These two operations are performed almost simultaneously.
Placing must be done so that segregation of the various
ingredients is avoided and full compaction—with all air bubbles
eliminated—can be achieved
PLACING 01 Planning for Concrete Placement
Concrete placement is an important
process in the construction that
determine the success of the Formwork Requirements for Concrete
02 Placement
structure and its life. Technical and
environmental conditions are taken
into strict consideration while placing
the concrete. 03 Concrete Placement in Special Conditions

Considerations in Concrete Placement

04 Layers

Consideration for Segregation during

05 Concrete Placement
 MACHINE
HAND COMPACTION (BY
COMPACTION VIBRATORS)
Hand compaction is obtained for small
In machine compaction we compact
quantities of concrete. Hand compaction
the concrete by using vibrators.
requires high water content. It can be
Following vibrators can be used for
done by Tamping, Ramming and Rodding.
compaction: Internal vibrators,

Surface vibrators, Formwork vibrators,

Platform vibrators

 RODDING
It is a method of poking with
2m long, 16 mm diameter rod at
HAND
COMPACTION
sharp corners and edges. The
thickness of layers for rodding
should be 15 to 20 cm. A piece
of bamboo maybe used for
rodding the concrete.

RAMMING
It is generally used for compaction
on ground in plain concrete. It is not
used either in RCC or on upper
floors.

TAMPING
It is adopting in compacting roof or
floor or road pavements where the
thickness of concrete is
comparatively less and surface to be
finished smooth and level.
 FORMWORK
VIBRATOR
Formwork vibrator is used for the
concreting columns , thin walls or in
the casting of precast units. The
machine is clamped onto the external
walls surface of the formwork.
 TABLE VIBRATOR
This is the special case of formwork
vibrator, where the vibrator is
clamped to the table or table is
mounted on springs which are
vibrated transferring the vibration to
the table. They are commonly used
for vibrating concrete cubes. This is
adopted mostly in the laboratories
and in making small but precise
prefabricated R.C.C. members
PLATFORM VIBRATOR
Platform vibrator is nothing but a
table vibrator, but it is larger in size.
This is used in the manufacture of
large prefabricated concrete
elements such as electric pole ,railway
sleepers, prefabricated roofing
elements etc.
 SURFACE VIBRATOR
Surface vibrator is sometimes knows
as, “Screed Board Vibrator”. A small
vibrator is placed on the screed board
gives an effective method of
compacting and levelling of thin
concrete members, such as floor slab ,
roof slab and road surface. Mostly ,
floor slabs and roof slabs are so thin
that vibrator or any other type of
vibrator cannot be easily employed
CURING
Curing is the process or operation which
controls the loss of moisture from concrete
after it has been placed in position, or in the
manufacture of concrete products, thereby
providing time for the hydration of the
cement to occur.
Curing Methods
There are three basic ways of curing concrete.

1. The first involves keeping the surface of the concrete moist by the use
ponding, spraying/sprinkling, damp sand or damp hessian.
2. The second prevents the loss of moisture from the concrete by covering it
with polythene sheeting or leaving the formwork in place.
3. The third involves the use of spray or roller applied curing compounds.
WATER CURING
Water curing, if properly carried out, can
be the most efficient - and the most
appropriate for some types of work, e.g.
floors, and include ponding, sprinkling,
and wet coverings.
 PONDING

WATER On flat surfaces such as pavements, footpaths,

and floors, concrete can be cured by ponding. An
efficient method for preventing loss of moisture
from the concrete, ponding is also effective for

CURING maintaining a uniform temperature.

SPRINKLING
A fine spray of water applied continuously
through a system of nozzles provides a constant
supply of moisture. This prevents the possibility
of "crazing" or cracking caused by alternate
cycles of wetting and drying

WET COVERINGS
Wet coverings such as hessian or other moisture
retaining fabrics are extensively used for curing.
The coverings should be kept continuously moist
so that a film of water remains on the concrete
surface throughout the curing period.
SHEET CURING
Sheet curing methods may not be so
efficient but are usually satisfactory for
all except very special work, and they
have the big plus point that they can be
carried out more easily on both
horizontal and vertical surfaces.
 POLYTHENE SHEET

SHEET A simple, yet effective, way of keeping moisture

in the concrete is to cover it with 125-micron
(500-gauge) polythene sheeting

CURING
USING POLYTHENE
Wait until the water sheen has evaporated, but
not so long that the concrete starts to dry out.
When the surface of the slab has a special finish -
such as a texture - the polythene should be
spread over light frames above the concrete.

FORMWORK PROTECTION
formwork protects concrete against loss of
moisture, and thus allows curing to proceed. It is
only after it has been struck that further curing -
of columns, walls and beams, for instance - may
be necessary.
MEMBRANE CURING
Membrane curing methods are likewise,
not as efficient as sheet curing
methods, but have the advantage over
the previous two methods in that they
do not need any further supervision
once applied.
 SPRAY-ON COMPOUNDS

MEMBRANE Curing compounds are sprayed on the surface - hand-held

garden spray is suitable for most jobs - and can be used on both
vertical and horizontal surfaces. Mostly, the compounds consist
of a resin in a solvent that evaporates after it has been applied,
leaving behind a thin, continuous film or membrane that seals-in

CURING most of wind and sun after about for weeks

WHEN TO SPRAY
The compounds should never be applied to dry
surfaces since these will absorb the compound,
and staining or discoloration may result. If the
surface is dry, that is a sign that the curing has
been left too late.

USING COMPOUNDS
There are various points to watch when you are
applying a curing compound. Before you start,
make sure that you have enough stock in for the
job in hand- you will need about a litre for each 4
of surface area - and sufficient cleaning solvent,
too.
EXPOSED CONCRETE
All concrete that will be permanently exposed to
the weather needs to be cured with extra care,
and for at least seven days. This is particularly
important for visual concrete, including white
and coloured concrete, plus special architectural
finishes created by abrasive blasting or tooling.
COLOUR UNIFORMITY
The colour of concrete can vary according
to how long the formwork is left is position
after placing, and whether the day on
which it is struck is dry or wet.
PAVING & FLOOR
SLABS
Always start the curing soon after the
water sheen has disappeared. However, if
you are using polythene sheeting, allow the
concrete to stiffen slightly first, so that the
surface will not be marked or damaged as
the sheet is placed on top of it.
MINOR ROADS,
PATHS & DRIVES
A curing membrane, applied by a hand-operated
garden-type spray, is most convenient for small
paved areas built by semi-manual methods of
construction. Always use a white pigmented or
aluminised super grade of compound, if available,
because this will reflect the suns rays
 REINFORCED CONCRETE
Concrete containing steel reinforcements in the form of rods,
wires, wire mesh, etc., are referred to as reinforced concrete.
TENDONS
are steel reinforcements and may be a tensioned steel rod or cable. The
advantage of prestressed concrete is that the compressive stresses
introduced by the steel tendons have to be counteracted before the
concrete is subjected to tensile stresses.
PRETENSIONED POSTTENSIONED
(PRESTRESSED) (PRESTRESSED)
CONCRETE CONCRETE
 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE
The manufacturing and production of metal matrix composites can be done
one of four different ways. There are solid state methods, semi-solid state
methods, liquid state methods, and through vapor deposition.
SOLID STATE Powder Blending and
Powder blending and consolidation
is when a manufacturer takes a

METHODS
powdered metal and some
Consolidation discontinuous reinforcing material,
mix them together, and then bond
them through a process of
compaction, degassing, and
Solid state methods, as the
thermo-mechanical treatments
terminology implies, typically (often through isostatic pressing or
involves two or more solid extrusion).
materials, and these
materials are often
sandwiched together or
infused via thermal or Foil diffusion bonding is when the
mechanical means. manufacturer takes copious layers
Powdered materials can also Foil Diffusion Bonding of some metal foil and then
act as the matrix material, sandwiches long fibers from
another material between each
and these powders are often
layer.
used to coat the outer layers
of a base or reinforcing
material.
Powder Blending and Consolidation Foil Diffusion Bonding
SEMI-SOLID Semi-Solid Powder
Semi-Solid Powder Processing is a
process where a powder mixture is

STATE METHODS Processing

heated up to a semi-solid state and
pressure is applied to form the
composites.
LIQUID STATE Electroplating and
Electroplating and electroforming
is a method when a solution

METHODS Electroforming
containing metal ions loaded with
reinforcing particles are co-
deposited forming the composite
material.

Stir Casting Stir casting is a method where a

discontinuous reinforcement is
stirred into molten metal and it
Pressure infiltration is where a creates a composite when it
Pressure Infiltration molten metal is infiltrated or solidifies.
impregnated into the reinforcement
through a technique involving
pressure (typically in the form of
gas).

Squeeze Casting Squeeze casting is a process where

molten metal is injected into a form
with reinforcing fibers pre-placed
inside of it.
 Spray deposition is a process

LIQUID STATE Spray Deposition where some molten metal is

sprayed onto a continuous fiber
substrate.

METHODS
Reactive processing is processing
Reactive Processing involving a chemical reaction where
one of the reactants forms the
matrix and the other forms the
reinforcement.

VAPOR Physical vapor deposition is a

process where the reinforcing fiber
Physical Vapor Deposition
DEPOSITION material is passed through a thick
cloud of vaporized metal (coating
it).
METHODS
 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE
Many ceramic matrix materials are solid powders before they are formed
into composite materials.
SINTERING
Sintering is a heat treatment
commonly used to increase the
strength and structural integrity of
a given material.
Another manufacturing method is to create a The slurry technique utilizes a slurry
percolating into a porous reinforcing
preform of continuous fibers using weaving,
preform
braiding, or knitting techniques. These fiber
preforms are then infiltrated with the powder
material, often by the slurry technique

chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

or chemical vapor infusion (CVI)
This is a slow process, but the results can be good because
bonding of the matrix to the fibers is usually excellent

a process in which the ceramic matrix is vaporized and

then enters the preform and coats the fibers. Further
gaseous ceramic material is infused and this material
reacts with the ceramic coating already on the fibers
and eventually fills the pores in the matrix
IN-SITU REACTION
SINTERING
employs two or more constituents in a
compact preform, which react during
sintering to form new phases.
FAILURE
PREDICTIONS
The design of composite structures is
complex.
DESIGN ANALYSIS

The design of composites details a

multitude of schemes such as joint
design, flexural stiffening,
investigation of stress areas, and
identifying the effects of failure and
damage on the material.
“IF THE DAMAGE IS VISIBLE, IT
SHOULD BE REPAIRED OR THE
PART SHOULD BE SCRAPPED. IF
THE DAMAGE IS NOT VISIBLE,
THE STRUCTURE SHOULD BE
CAPABLE OF WITHSTANDING
THE REQUIRED RESIDUAL
STRENGTH LOAD LEVEL.”
 ABRASION
a portion of the
VISUAL DAMAGE
surface worn away Aesthetics is important as it makes the
by nature, composite product attractive and
mechanical, chemical, pleasing to look at.
or man-made means.

CRACKS
are fractures in the
matrix or fibers

CUT
fibers severed
by a sharp edge
DELAMINATION
VISUAL DAMAGE
Aesthetics is important as it makes the
separation of
composite product attractive and
adjacent plies
pleasing to look at.

DENT
a concave depression
that does not rupture
plies or debond the
structure

GOUGE
a special type of dent
where some, but not
all, composite plies
are severed
 VISUAL DAMAGE
HOLE Aesthetics is important as it makes the
composite product attractive and
penetration through pleasing to look at.
the outer composite
laminate with damage
to the core material

SCRATCH
an elongated surface
discontinuity due to
damage that is very small
in width compared to
length
MECHANICAL
FAILURE
4 forces are important in composite
structures: Tensile, Compressive, Shear,
and Flexural. All of the forces are
important to determine the behavior of
composites.
TENSILE FORCE
is the stretching forces acting upon
the material and has two
components - tensile stress (σ) and
tensile strain (ε).
COMPRESSIVE FORCE
occurs when a physical force presses
inward on a material. This yields
information about the compressive
strength and stiffness of the material.
 The flexural strength of a material is
defined as the maximum bending stress
FLEXURAL FORCE that can be applied to that material
before it yields.
SHEAR FORCE
Shearing forces are unaligned forces
pushing one part of a body in one
specific direction, and another part
of the body in the opposite direction.
IMPACT FORCE
a high force or shock applied over a
short time period when two or more
bodies collide.
 FATIGUE
Fatigue failure is the formation and
propagation of cracks due to a
repetitive or cyclic load.
FATIGUE AND 01 FIBER FRACTURE
is the main damage mode in

CRACKING laminates subjected to tensile

and compressive cyclic loading.

There are three major categories of

cracking in composite structures: 02 INTERFACIAL FRACTURE
is usually due to poor material
selection and fabrication process
problems.

03 MATRIX CRACKING
The most common low-load
cracking mechanism in composite
structures
 VIBRATIONS
When a composite material receives a
sudden impact, it vibrates which should
be avoided in developing composites.
 FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
is a widely used method for numerically
solving differential equations arising in
engineering and mathematical
modeling.
 FINITE ELEMENT
ANALYSIS
allows detailed stress and deformation
solutions to complex shapes. The
analysis is based on dividing the
structure into a large number of small
elements and assigning each element
the appropriate material properties.

END.
Thank You!