Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology

Anatomy is the study of structure. The word anatomy is derived Trivia

from Greek meaning “to cut up” or “to cut open.”
American first hospital (Pennsylvania) in Philadelphia
“ana” means up in 1751
“tomy” means process of cutting First hospital pharmacy in 1752
first studied by dissection First hospital pharmacist- Jonathan Roberts
Anatomist refers to the person Damian and Cosmas - twin brothers of Arabian
descent; Damian the apothecary and Cosmas the
Physiology studies the function of body structures. physician
Structure and function cannot be completely separated.
“physio” means nature
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS
“logy” means study of
Physiologist refers to the person Classification Scheme
Kingdom: Animalia
Pathophysiology is the study of the changes of normal
Phylum: Chordata
mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions, either caused
Subphylum: Vertebrata
by a disease or an abnormal syndrome.
Class: Mammalia
Pathology is the scientific discipline that studies Order: Primate
diseases Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
History Species: Sapiens
Scientific Binominal: Homo sapiens
In Western Civilization: began around the
Mediterranean Sea Levels of Organization in the Human Body
Mesopotamia
The Greeks 1. The simplest level of organization within the body is the
Hippocrates (~400 B.C.): Father of chemical level, which is composed of atoms and
Medicine molecules.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): structure and Atoms are the smallest units of matter.
function C, H, O, N, P, Ca, S are essential atoms in
Alexandria in Egypt maintaining life.
First Medical School, cadaver dissection Molecules
Herophilus (300 B.C.): Father of Anatomy Two or more atoms combine to form a
Rome (after Alexandria fell) molecule a water molecule, or a
Galen (A.D. 130-201): “the supreme vitamin.
authority” Glucose also known as blood sugar
Galen is credited for galenicals (class of Macromolecules
pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical Larger and more complex molecules
means) such as DNA and proteins.
After the Fall of Rome (476 A.D.): the dark ages 2. Cells
Medical knowledge saved by Byzantium and Molecules combine to form cells, the basic
the Islamic world structural and functional units of an organism
monasteries Cells are the smallest living units in the human
1200s body
Out of the dark ages e.g. muscle cells, nerve cells
Medical schools in Solerno, Bologna Italy 3. Organs
1400s: Renaissance Different tissue types that work together to
Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519) perform specific, complex functions form an
Andreas Vesalius: the “Reformer of Anatomy” (1514- organ.
1564) 4. Organ Systems
The father of modern anatomy The organ system level consists of related organs
The emergence of modern medicine that work together to coordinate activities and
NOTE: Claude Bernard-father of achieve a common function.
physiology; Stephen Hales- father of plant There are 11 organ systems in the human body.
physiology 5. Organism
All body systems function interdependently in a
single living human being, the organism.

The Four Types of Tissues in the Human Body Are:

1. Epithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities.
Example: The inner lining of the digestive system

2. Connective tissue protects, supports, and interconnects body parts and organs.
Can be solid (such as bone), liquid (such as blood), or intermediate (such as cartilage).
3. Muscle tissue produces movement.
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
4. Nervous tissue conducts impulses for internal communication.
Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Organ System Uses Consists of

1 Integumentary
2 Skeletal
3 Muscular
4 Nervous
5 Endocrine
6 Cardiovascular
7 Lymphatic
8 Respiratory
9 Digestive
10 Urinary
11 Male Reproductive
12 Female Reproductive
Provides protection Skin
Regulates body temperature Hair
Site of cutaneous receptors Nails
Synthesizes vitamin D
Prevents water loss
Provides support and protection Bones
Site of hematopoiesis (blood cell production) Associated cartilages
Stores calcium and phosphorus Ligaments
Allows for body movement Joints
Stores minerals and adipose tissue
Produces body movement Muscles attached to the skeleton by
Generates heat when muscles contract tendons
A regulatory system that controls body movement Brain
Responds to sensory stimuli Spinal cord
Helps control all other systems of the body Nerves
Also responsible for consciousness, intelligence, and memory Sensory receptors
Consists of glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones, some of Glands that secrete hormones
which regulate:
 body and cellular growth
 chemical levels in the body
 reproductive functions
Consists of a pump (the heart) that moves blood through blood vessels Heart
in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste Blood vessels
products Blood
Transports and filters lymph (fluid) Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes
Initiates an immune response when necessary Lymphatic organs
Responsible for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) Lungs
between blood and the air in the lungs Respiratory passages
Mechanically and chemically digests food materials Mouth
Absorbs nutrients Esophagus
Expels waste products Stomach
Intestines
Filters the blood and removes waste products from the blood Kidneys
Concentrates waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine Urinary bladder
from the body Ducts
Produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (e.g.: testosterone) Testes
Transfers sperm to the female Penis
Ducts
Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones (e.g., Ovaries
estrogen and progesterone) Uterine tubes
Receives sperm from male Uterus
Site of fertilization of oocyte Vagina
Site of growth and development of embryo and fetus Mammary glands
Anatomical Terminologies body or organ separating it
into superior and inferior
Anatomical position is a specific body position in which an parts.
individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the Sagittal plane (median plane)
floor. extends through the body or
The head is level organ vertically and divides it
Eyes looking forward toward the observer into left and right halves.
Arms at either side of body TYPE OTHER NAME KEYWORD
Palms facing forward coronal frontal anterior & posterior
Thumbs pointing away from the body transverse x-sectional superior & inferior
sagittal median left & right
Plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific Directional Terms of the Body
sections.
Coronal plane (frontal plane) is a vertical plane that RELATIVE TO FRONT OR BACK OF BODY
divided body into anterior and posterior parts. Anterior, Ventral* In front of
Transverse plane (cross-sectional plane; horizontal Posterior, Dorsal* In back of
plane) cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of *mostly used in veterinary
 Unit of measure: micrometer
RELATIVE TO HEAD OR TAIL OF BODY RBC: 7-8 um
Superior, Cranial* Toward the head; above
Inferior, Caudal* Toward the feet
*mostly used in veterinary Characteristics of cells [perform the general fxn necessary to
sustain life]
RELATIVE TO MIDLINE OR CENTER OF BODY Obtain nutrients and other materials from surrounding
Medial Toward the midline of body fluids; such as oxygen and minerals.
Lateral Away the midline Dispose waste products
Deep On the inside; underneath the Maintain shape and integrity
surface; internal Cell division through mitosis
Superficial On the outide; external
NOTABLE PERSONS
RELATIVE TO POINT OF ATTACHMENT OF APPENDAGE Robert Hooke Father of cytology;
Proximal Closest to point of Used microscope to examine cork
attachment of trunk (dead plant cells) that looked like
Distal Furthest from point of small boxes; and
attachment of torso Named these as cells because it
looked like small rooms that
monks lived in.
OTHER TERMS
Anton van Leeuwenhoek Dutch microscope maker; and
Ipsilateral On same side
The first to view living things
Contralateral On opposite sife under microscope.
Matthias Schleiden German botanist that concluded
Body Regions that all plants are made of cells;
and
The human body is partitioned into two main regions: The co-founder of cell theory.
Axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk which
Theodore Shwann German zoologist that concluded
comprise the main vertical axis of body.
that all animals were made of
Appendicular region is made up by the limbs or
cells ; and
appendages attached to body’s axis.
The co-founder of cell theory.
Rudolph Virchow German medical doctor that
Body Cavities
observed the cells dividing; and
Thoracic cavity is surrounded by the rib cage and is
“All cells come from pre-existing
separated from abdominal cavity by muscular
cells” by cell division.
diaphragm.
Separated into
right and left parts Cell Theory
by mediastinum
that houses the 1. All living things are made of cells.
heart, thymus, 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in
trachea, an organism; basic unit of life.
esophagus, etc. 3. Cells come from the production of existing cells
Abdominal cavity is bounded by (cell division).
abdominal muscles and contains
the stomach, intestines, liver, Basic Structure of Cell
spleen, pancreas, and kidneys.
Pelvic cavity is a small space enclosed by bones of 1. Cell membrane (plasma membrane) – the outer
pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of LI, and barrier that separates the internal content of cell
internal reproductive organs. from external materials.
Composed of double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipids? and proteins!.
Cells are the structural and functional units of all living Controls what goes in or out of cell
organisms. Living layer; FLUID
Building blocks of human body ? – Heads containing glycerol (fat) and
Phospholipids
Adult human contains ~75 trillion cells. phosphate which are hydrophilic
Each cell type performs specific fxns. ? – Tails that points inward toward each other
Cytology is the study of cells. are made of fatty acids which are hydrophobic.
? – allows small molecules such as O2, CO2 and H2O to
Individual cells are observable by light microscopy while enter.
subcellular ones are by electron microscopy (transmission and ! – Help move large molecules or aid in cell
scanning EM). recognition.
 Proteins

! – Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface  Phagocytosis (cell eating): engulfs a
(inner or outer). particle by internalizing it into a
! – Internal proteins are embedded completely through vacuole.
the membrane.  Pinocytosis (cell drinking):
incorporation of droplets of
Transport Mechanisms extracellular fluid by taking in through
small vesicles.
a. Diffusion: molecules move to equalize concentration. - e.g.: Griseofulvin (anti-
b. Active transport: movement of a substance across a fungal) and fat-soluble
plasma membrane against a concentration gradient. vitamins (ADEK)
Materials must be moved from an area of low Exocytosis: process in which an intracellular
concentration to an area of high concentration; thus vesicle moves to the plasma membrane and
requires: subsequent fusion of the vesicular membrane and
 Cellular energy (ATP) synthesized by plasma membrane ensues.
mitochondria
 Transport proteins (carrier-mediated) TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Fastest transport system Active transport Against by using energy
“pushing a rock uphill” Passive transport Along; most dominant
In some cases, active transport can exchange one Bulk transport Large quantities
substance for another.
 e.g.: the sodium-potassium pump 2. Cytoplasm – general term for all cellular contents located
 3 sodium (Na+) ions and ATP bind to Na between the plasma membrane and nucleus.
 The ATP breaks down to ADP and a Cytosol: matrix; intracellular material mostly
phosphate and releases energy. composed of H2O
 Sodium ions transported across the Organelles: complex organized structures that
membrane and into the extracellular fluid. are essential for normal cellular structure and
 potassium (K+) ions bind to the pump. activities; “small organs”
 The phosphate is released from the pump. 3. Endoplasmic reticulum – membranous organelles which
 Result: higher concentration of sodium is a network of hollow membrane tubules that connects the
outside the cell and a higher concentration nuclear envelope and cell membrane.
of potassium inside the cell Fnxs in the synthesis of cell products and
c. Passive transport: movement of substances along a transport.
concentration gradient. Endomembrane system includes nuclear
Higher concentration to lower concentation membrane connected to ER connected to cell
ATP is not required membrane (transport).
Most dominant but slowest Rough ER: makes membrane proteins and
“pushing rock downhill” proteins for export
C1. Facilitated diffusion: requires the participation of has ribosomes+ on its surfaces
specific proteins (special carriers in the plasma + - can be attached or free in cytoplasm.
membrane) that help specific substance or molecules Smooth ER: makes membrane lipids, regulated
move across the plasma membrane; carrier-mediated calcium in muscle cells, and destroys toxic
C2. Osmosis: special form of diffusion wherein fluid substances if located in liver.
flows from lower solute concentration. It often involves 4. Peroxisomes – vesicles made from rough ER that uses
movement of solvent (H2O) across a selectively oxygen to detoxify (metabolize).
permeable membrane; causes a volume change. Most abundant in liver SIDE NOTE
 Hypotonic: solutes in cell more than H2O2 H2O (by using oxygen) A: SI
outside, thus outside solvent will flow into D: Blood
5. Golgi bodies (golgi apparatus) – membranous M: Liver
cell (lysis) organelle which is made up of stacks of flattened E: Kidney
 Isotonic: solutes equal inside & outside sacs that has a shipping side (cis face) and
 Hypertonic: solutes greater outside cell
Faces the cell membrane receiving side (trans face).
thus fluid will flow out of cell. (crenation). Receives protein from ER, thus the protein
d. Bulk transport (vesicular transport): large quantities of packaging center of cell.
materials move into or out the cell through vesicle–a Modifies, sorts, and packages molecules from ER
bubble-like structure surrounded by a membrane that can for storage in vesicles or transport out of the cell.
form or fuse with cell membrane. 6. Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes that break down
Endocytosis: process by which cells absorbs food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts.
molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them. It is programmed for cell death, also known as
It is used by all cells of the body because most apoptosis.
substances important to them are large molecules Lyse and release enzymes to break down and
that cannot pass through the plasma membrane. recycle cell parts.
Cells take in food by phagocytosis; lysosomes
digest the food and get rid of wastes.
 7. Mitochondria – powerhouse of cell because it generates surface of cell; shorter and more numerous on
cellular energy (ATP). cells.
↑active cells (muscle), ↑ mitochondria Flagella: longer than cilia and usually occurs as
Site of cellular respiration (burning of glucose) single appendages that moves the cell (e.g.:
Surrounded by a double membrane sperm cell); fewere (1-3 on cells).
Has its own DNA
Cristae: folded inner membrane for the increase Tissues are groups of similar cells that carry out a common fxn.
of SA for chemical rxns.
Matrix: interior Types of Tissues
Mitochondria come from cytoplasm in the egg 1. Epithelial tissue – lines every body surface and all body
cell during fertilization, thus we inherit our cavities.
mitochondria from our mother. Forms both the external and internal lining of
many organs.
Non-membranous organelles – not made up of membrane yet Composed of one or more layers.
made of protein. No blood vessels; “Avascularity”
Classified based on shape of cells present:
8. Ribosomes – small dense granules that are made of Squamous “flat-like tiles”
proteins and rRNA. Cuboidal “like dice”
Site of protein synthesis. Columnar “like bricks on end”
Protein factories of cell. Classified based on number of cells:
9. Cytoskeleton – helps cell to maintain the shape. Simple- just one layer or cell shape
Coordinates cellular movements. Stratified- multiple layers and cell
Made of proteins. shapes
Microfilaments are threadlike and made of actin.  Simple squamous (lungs)
Microtubules are tube-like and made of tubulin.  Simple cuboidal (kidney)
Intermediate filaments are fibrous subunits.  Simple columnar (small intestine)
10. Centrosomes – area close to nucleus.  Stratified squamous (skin)
- Keratinized stratified squamous
11. Centrioles – exist as a pair; found in the centrosome. (skin)
protein that protects
Found only on animal cells. epithelial cells from - Non-keratinized stratified squamous
Paired structures near nucleus. damage or stress (esophagus, mouth, vagina)
Made of bundle of microtubules.  Transitional epithelium (urinary
Appear during cell division forming mitotic bladder)
spindle.  Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite (trachea)
ends of the cell. Protection
Functions
12. Nucleus – control center of cellular activities. Regulation of materials into and out of the organ
Usually the largest structure within the cell. or tissue
Appears as a single spherical or oval structure. Produce secretions
Contains the DNA in chromosomes. Endocrine glands
Bounded by a nuclear envelope. Exocrine glands
Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that Detects changes in the external environment at
carry genes that control cell characteristics. their surface.
Nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane): double Continuously supply information to the nervous
membrane surrounding the nucleus that contains system concerning touch, pressure, temperature,
nuclear pores for materials to enter and leave the and pain.
nucleus. 2. Connective Tissues – most diverse, abundant, and
CHROMATIN CHROMOSOME widely distributed of the tissues.
Designed to support, protect, and bind organs.
DNA* that is spread out DNA that is condensed
Binds body structures together.
Non-dividing cells Dividing cells a. Cells
*a polymer of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base) that fibroblasts - found in connective
is a double helix. It is the hereditary material of cell. tissue proper
Nucleolus: found inside the nucleus that adipocytes - fat
disappears when cell divides; makes ribosomes chondrocytes - cartilage
that makes proteins,. osteocytes - bone
SIDE NOTE 13. Appendages – extends from surface of some b. Protein fibers
Bone is highly cells. collagen fibers - strong and stretch-
vascularised, and Microvilli: short cytoplasmic resistant
calcified that extensions for absorption. elastic fibers - flexible and resilient
makes it very Cilia: usually occurring in large reticular fibers - form an
strong.
numbers that works together to interwoven framework
Cartilage is thin,
move materials or fluids along the
avascular, and
flexible.
Ligament is a
connective tissue
which attaches
bone to bone.
Tendon attaches a
muscle to a bone.
 c. Ground substance - mainly composed of
protein, carbohydrate, water
viscous (blood)
semisolid (cartilage)
solid (bone)
d. Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar
Reticular
Adipose
e. Dense Connective Tissue
Dense regular (tendons; ligaments)
Dense irregular (dermis of skin)
f. Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Bone or Osseous tissue
 Compact bone
 Spongy bone
g. Blood or Vascular Tissue
3. Muscle tissue – responds to stimulation from the
nervous system.
Produces voluntary and involuntary
movement.
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
4. Nervous tissue (neural tissue) – consists of:
Neurons or nerve cells: detect stimuli,
process information quickly, and rapidly
transmit electrical impulses from one region
of the body to another.
Glial cells: support, protect, and provide a
framework for neurons.
Nerve cells (neurons): receive and send
information in nervous system.
“Information processing”
Glial cells (neuroglia): surround neurons
and provide support for and insulation
between them. Types include:
oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
ependymal cells, Schwann cells,
microglia, and satellite cells.