Fundamentals of Liquid

HYDRAULICS
DISCHARGE OF FLOW RATE, Q

● IS THE AMOUNT OF FLUID PASSING THROUGH A SECTION PER

UNIT OF TIME
● MASS FLOW RATE (KG/SEC)
● WEIGHT FLOW RATE (KN/SEC)
● VOLUME FLOW RATE OR FLOW RATE (M³/S, LIT/S)
 VOLUME FLOW RATE

𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗

WHERE:

Q = DISCHARGE IN M³/S OR FT³/S

A = CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF FLOW IN M² OR FT²

𝒗 = MEAN VELOCITY OF FLOW IN M/S OR FT/S

 MASS FLOW RATE

𝑴 = 𝝆𝑸

WHERE:
Q = DISCHARGE IN M³/S OR FT³/S
M = MASS FLOW RATE
𝝆 = MASS DENSITY IN KG/M³ OR SLUGS/FT³
 WEIGHT FLOW RATE

𝑾 = 𝜸𝑸

WHERE:

W = WEIGHT FLOW RATE

Q = DISCHARGE IN M³/S OR FT³/S

𝜸 = WEIGHT DENSITY IN N/M³ OR LB/FT³

 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

CONTINUOUS
STEADY UNIFORM
LAMINAR
UN-STEADY NON- UNIFORM TURBULENT

ONE DIMENSIONAL
ROTATIONAL COMPRESSIBLE
TWO DIMENSIONAL
THREE DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL INCOMPRESSIBLE
 STEADY FLOW VS. UNSTEADY FLOW

● FLOW NOT CHANGING WITH UNSTEADY FLOW

TIME
● THIS OCCURS WHEN THE
DISCHARGE, Q, PASSING A
GIVEN CROSS-SECTION IS
CONSTANT WITH TIME.
● IF THE FLOW Q AT THE CROSS-
SECTION VARIES WITH TIME,
THE FLOW IS UNSTEADY
STEADY FLOW VS. UNSTEADY FLOW
 UNIFORM VS. NON-UNIFORM FLOW

UNIFORM FLOW: This occurs if, NON- UNIFORM FLOW: In stream

with steady flow for a given length, or where the cross-sections and velocity
reach, of a stream, the average changes, the flow is said to be non-
velocity of flow is the same at every uniform.
cross-section

This usually occurs when an

incompressible fluid flows through a
stream with uniform cross-section
 CONTINUOUS FLOW
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

THIS OCCURS WHEN AT ANY TIME, THE DISCHARGE, Q AT EVERY SECTION OF THE STREAM IS THE SAME.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
For incompressible fluids:
𝑄=𝐴1𝑣1=𝐴2𝑣2=𝐴3𝑣3=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For compressible fluids:
𝜌1𝐴1𝑣1=𝜌2𝐴2𝑣2=𝜌3𝐴3𝑣3
𝛾1𝐴1𝑣1=𝛾2𝐴2𝑣2=𝛾3𝐴3𝑣3
 LAMINAR FLOW
THE FLOW IS SAID TO BE LAMINAR WHEN THE PATH OF INDIVIDUAL FLUIDPARTICLES DO NOT CROSS OR
INTERSECT. THE FLOW IS ALWAYS LAMINAR WHEN THE REYNOLDSNUMBER 𝑅𝑒 IS LESS THAN (APPROXIMATELY)
2,100.
 TURBULENT FLOW
THE FLOW IS SAID TO BE TURBULENT WHEN THE PATH OF INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES ARE IRREGULAR AND
CONTINUOUSLY CROSS EACH OTHER.
TURBULENT FLOW NORMALLY OCCURS WHEN THE REYNOLD’S NUMBER EXCEED 2,100 (ALTHOUGH THE MOST
COMMON SITUATION IS WHEN IT EXCEEDS 4000)
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
THIS OCCURS WHEN IN AN
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID, THE
DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDE OF
THE VELOCITY AT ALL POINTS ARE
IDENTICAL.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

THIS OCCURS WHEN THE FLUID

PARTICLES MOVE IN PLANES OR
PARALLEL PLANES AND THE
STREAMLINE PATTERNS ARE IDENTICAL
IN EACH PLANE.
 STREAMLINES

THESE ARE IMAGINARY CURVES

DRAWN THROUGH A FLUID TO
INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF MOTION
IN VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE FLOW
OF THE FLUID SYSTEM.
 STREAMTUBES

THESE REPRESENTS ELEMENTARY

PORTIONS OF A FLOWING FLUID
BOUNDED BY A GROUP OF
STREAMLINES WHICH CONFINE THE
FLOW.
 FLOW NETS

THESE ARE DRAWN TO INDICATE

FLOW PATTERNS IN CASE OF TWO-
DIMENSIONAL FLOW, OR EVEN THREE-
DIMENSIONAL FLOW.
 ENERGY AND HEAD

THE ENERGY POSSESSED BY A FLOWING FLUID CONSIST OF

-KINETIC ENERGY
-THE ABILITY OF THE FLUID MASS TO DO WORK BY VIRTUE OF ITS
VELOCITY
-POTENTIAL ENERGY
-THE ENERGY POSSESSED BY THE FLUID BY VIRTUE OF ITS POSITION
OR ELEVATION WITH RESPECT TO A DATUM PLANE.
 KINETIC ENERGY

𝐾.𝐸.=(1/2) 𝑀𝑣2
𝐾.𝐸 =(1/2) (𝑊𝑔) 𝑣2

𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐾𝐸/𝑊

𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = 𝑣2/2𝑔
 KINETIC ENERGY

FOR CIRCULAR PIPE OF DIAMETER D FLOWING FULL

ELEVATION ENERGY
PRESSURE ENERGY
 TOTAL FLOW ENERGY, E

SUM OF KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

TOTAL ENERGY = KINETIC ENERGY + POTENTIAL ENERGY
TOTAL HEAD, 𝑬=𝒗𝟐 / 𝟐𝒈+ 𝑷/𝜸 + 𝒛
 POWER AND EFFICIENCY

POWER-A RATE WHICH THE WORK IS DONE

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑸𝜸𝑬
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
WHERE:
Note:
𝑄= DISCHARGE (M3/S)
1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
𝛾=UNIT WEIGHT (N/M3)
1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
E =TOTAL ENERGY (M)
1 Watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 Joule/sec
POWER = N-M/S (JOULE/SEC) OR WATTS
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

● APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
● FIRST DERIVED (1738) BY THE SWISS
MATHEMATICIAN DANIEL BERNOULLI, THE
THEOREM STATES, IN EFFECT, THAT THE TOTAL
MECHANICAL ENERGYOF THE FLOWING FLUID,
COMPRISING THE ENERGYASSOCIATED WITH FLUID
PRESSURE, THE GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
ENERGYOF ELEVATION, AND THE KINETIC ENERGY
OF FLUID MOTION, REMAINS CONSTANT.

Credit NLM / SCIENCE SOURCE / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Assumptions made for deriving the

Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation of
motion:
1. Fluid is ideal, i.e. inviscid and
incompressible.
2. Fluid flow is steady, one-dimensional
and uniform
3. Fluid flow is irrational
4. Forces which are considered are only
pressure force and gravity force. Rest
forces acting on fluid are neglected.
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM
𝒑𝑨 𝒗𝟐𝑨 𝒑𝑩 𝒗𝟐𝑩
𝒛𝑨 + + + 𝒉𝑷 = 𝒛𝑩 + + + 𝒉𝑳
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

Where:
𝑍 = Vertical distance above an arbitrary horizontal datum
𝑃
= pressure head
𝛾
V = average velocity flow
𝑣2
= Velocity head
2𝑔
ℎ𝑃= energy head imparted to the water by the pump
Note: + ℎ𝑃will be replaced by -ℎ𝑃 if turbine is in the line instead of a pump
ℎ𝐿 = total head loss between sections A and B
 FORMS OF ENERGY EQUATION

1. VELOCITY FORM
2. HEAD FORM
 FORMS OF ENERGY EQUATION
1. VELOCITY FORM
ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)
● ENERGY GRADE LINE IS ALWAYS ABOVE
THE HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE BY ANAMOUNT
EQUAL TO THE VELOCITY HEAD.
● THUS, THE DISTANCE OF ENERGY
GRADIENT ABOVE THE DATUM PLANE IS
ALWAYS (V /2G + P/Γ+ Z).
● ENERGY GRADE LINE THEREFORE IS THE
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE
TOTAL ENERGY OF FLOW.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EGL
● EGL SLOPES DOWNWARD IN THE DIRECTION
OF FLOW AND WILL ONLY RISE WITHTHE
PRESENCE OF PUMP.
● THE VERTICAL DROP OF EGL BETWEEN TWO
POINTS IS THE HEAD LOST BETWEEN THOSE
POINTS.
● EGL IS PARALLEL TO HGL FOR UNIFORM PIPE
CROSS SECTION.
● EGL IS ALWAYS ABOVE THE HGL BY V /2G.
● NEGLECTING HEAD LOSS, EGL IS HORIZONTAL.
 FORMS OF ENERGY EQUATION
2. HEAD FORM
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL)
● HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE, ALSO CALLED
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND PRESSURE
GRADIENT, IS THE GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION OF THE POTENTIAL HEAD
(PRESSURE HEAD + ELEVATION HEAD).
● IT IS THE LINE TO WHICH LIQUID RISES IN
SUCCESSIVE PIEZOMETER TUBES. THE LINE
IS ALWAYS AT A DISTANCE (P/𝛾+ Z) ABOVE
THE DATUM PLANE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HGL
● HGL SLOPES DOWNWARD IN THE DIRECTION OF
FLOW BUT IT MAY RISE OR FALLDUE TO CHANGE IN
PRESSURE.
● HGL IS PARALLEL TO EGL FOR UNIFORM PIPE CROSS
SECTION.
● FOR HORIZONTAL PIPES WITH CONSTANT CROSS
SECTION, THE DROP IN PRESSURE GRADIENT
BETWEEN TWO POINTS IS EQUIVALENT TO THE HEAD
LOST BETWEEN THESE POINTS.