BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF CHEMICALAND FOOD
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

Project on: solid waste characterization and management in Gamby

hospital

Prepared by: Name ID.

Hanna Kassahun….........................BDU0800886UR

Lioul Mequanint.............................BDU0800986UR

Yonas Fikade.................................BDU0800723UR

Supervised by: Mr. Bassazin Ayalew

Submission Date: - 18/05/2013E.C

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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DECLARATION

We, undersigned and declare that this project work entitled “Physico-chemical
Characterization of solid waste in the case of Gamby General hospital” is our original
work, has not been submitted before. All sources of material used for this report work
have been fully acknowledged.

Name of students: Signature: Date

Hanna Kassahun

Lioul Mequanint

Yonas Fikade

Advisor: Signature: Date

Mr. Bassazin Ayalew

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we would like to thanks God who helps us and being with throughout
our endeavor. Second, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our project
advisors, Mr. Bassazin Ayalew (Msc.in chemical Engineering, Bahir Dar university),
who provided us with extremely helpful guidance, support and continuous
encouragement to complete our work. We want to pass our special thanks to Mrs.
Melkam who is sanitary worker in Gamby general hospital, for providing us with the
required material and information to fulfill this research work.
We are also indebted grateful to the all-other persons not listed above, but who had
contributed to the completion of this project.

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ABSTRACT
Knowing the physical and chemical features of solid wastes are significant parameters
for the determination of the waste category and design of proper disposal method. In this
study the solid waste management system at Gamby hospital is assessed. The
measurement of the generation rate of wastes has been done for two random days of a
week for three consecutive weeks and the average amount of the waste generated per day
was 15kg. The solid waste types fall in to the category of food (21.8%), paper (19.13%),
plastics (9.53%), garden trimming (11.47%), textiles (5.87%), cardboard (15%) and
others (17.2%) by mass. The wastes proximate analysis (moisture content, ash content,
fixed carbon and volatile matter) and ultimate analysis (elemental analysis and energy
value) of the solid wastes were investigated. Finally, design of incinerator was done as it
is the better management system for medical wastes based on the waste type and waste
load.

Key word: solid waste, proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, energy content.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................ii

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................iii

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................vii

ACRONYMS...................................................................................................................viii

CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................1

1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background...............................................................................................................1

1.2. Problem Statement....................................................................................................3

1.3. Objective...................................................................................................................3

1.3.1. General Objective..............................................................................................3

1.3.2. Specific Objective..............................................................................................3

1.4. Scope of the Study....................................................................................................4

1.5. Significance of the Study..........................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................5

2. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................5

2.1. Solid Waste...............................................................................................................5

2.1.1. Source of Solid Waste........................................................................................5

2.1.2. Composition of Solid Waste..............................................................................5

2.1.3. Waste Generation Rate......................................................................................5

2.2. Classification of Solid Waste....................................................................................6

2.2.1. Municipal Solid Waste.......................................................................................6

2.2.2. Mining Wastes...................................................................................................6

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2.2.3. Agricultural Wastes...........................................................................................6

2.2.4. Industrial Solid Wastes......................................................................................6

2.2.5. Medical waste....................................................................................................7

2.3. Waste Handling, Sorting, and Storage......................................................................7

2.3.1. Solid Waste Collection......................................................................................7

2.3.2. Waste Transportation.........................................................................................7

2.3.3. Reuse/ Recycling and Composting....................................................................7

2.3.4. Disposal of Wastes.............................................................................................8

2.4. solid waste characterization......................................................................................8

CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................10

3. Materials and Methods..................................................................................................10

3.1. Materials.................................................................................................................10

3.2. Methods..................................................................................................................10

3.2.1. Waste Collection..............................................................................................10

3.2.2. Sorting of Waste in to Category......................................................................11

3.2.3. Determination of Generation Rate of Solid Waste..........................................11

3.3. Experimental design...............................................................................................11

3.3.1 Proximate Analysis...........................................................................................11

3.3.2 Ultimate analysis...............................................................................................13

3.3.3 Energy potential determination.........................................................................14

CHAPTER FOUR.............................................................................................................15

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................15

4.2. Solid Waste Compositions......................................................................................15

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4.3. Proximate Analysis.................................................................................................17

4.4. Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis...............................................................................19

4.5. Potential Management Options...............................................................................22

4.6. Design of single chamber incinerator.....................................................................24

4.6. Conclusion and Recommendation..........................................................................30

4.6.1. Conclusion.......................................................................................................30

4.6.2. Recommendation.............................................................................................30

REFERENCE....................................................................................................................31

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 proximate analysis of solid waste........................................................................8

Table 2.2 Typical data on inert residue and energy content of solid waste........................9

Table 3.1 Typical data on elemental composition of solid waste......................................15

Table 4.1: waste generation rate of randomly selected days..............................................14

Table 4.2: Solid waste component.....................................................................................16

Table 4.3: proximate analysis result...................................................................................17

Table 4.4: elemental analysis result for individual component….....................................19

Table 4.5: Elemental analysis result for total waste..........................................................20

Table 4.6: energy content result.........................................................................................21

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ACRONYMS

MSW municipal solid waste

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

PMC Percentage Moisture Content

HCW Healthcare Waste

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CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Wastes are the material that are not needed and are not usable economically with further
processing. It may be in the form of solid, liquid, and gas. They originate from the human
activities such as agriculture, industry, domestic activities etc. If these wastes remain
untreated, it leads to air, water, soil or solid waste pollution. Hence, waste management is
very essential [3].

Solid waste is defined as the generation of undesirable object or particles arising from
animal and human activities that are discarded as unwanted or useless.

Solid waste management is defined as the collection, transportation, processing,

recycling, and disposal of solid waste materials so as to reduce their effect on health,
environment and aesthetics [1].

Medical waste is “Any waste which is generated in the diagnosis, treatment or

immunization of human beings or animals or in research” in a hospital1. There are
serious health effects from public health standpoint if hospital waste is not handled
properly.

The major sources of health care waste are hospitals, medical clinics, dispensaries,
healthcare camps, medical and biomedical laboratories, medical research centers,
mortuary and autopsy centers, animal research and hospitals, blood banks and so on. Poor
healthcare waste management results in adverse effects on the environment and the
public health.

Solid waste generation and characterization are some of the most important parameters
which affect environmental sustainability [7].

Numerous factors, such as environmental, economic, technical, legislation, institutional

and political issues, have to be taken into consideration. The implementation of effective

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waste management practices has been identified as essential for economic development in
low- income countries in particular.

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An efficient system for solid waste management requires a good knowledge of the
characterization of wastes to be disposed. Physical features of solid wastes are significant
parameters for the selection and functioning of collection and transportation equipment,
energy transformation, studies related to recoverable matter, as well as selection and
design of proper disposal method. For this reason, physical features of solid wastes, such
as moisture content , calorific value (heating), and composition, should be well known for
their management through suitable methods [9].

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1.2. Problem Statement

In Gamby hospital the waste segregation system at the source has not yet been strictly
adapted and there is no sanitary landfill site, collected wastes are dumped in the open
dumpsite, which has a potential to cause serious health hazards. So that, need of efficient
solid waste management on one hand and steady growth of solid waste on other side are
still main features of the site. Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and
their characteristics is essential for the proper understanding of the behavior of waste, as it
moves through the waste management system. studying of the overall condition of solid
waste service should be the first move required to reduce this gap. Therefore, this study
was initiated to generated information on solid waste disposal rate and physico-chemical
characteristics investigation and designing the better potential solid waste management
system.

1.3. Objective
1.3.1. General Objective
To investigate physico-chemical characterization and management of the solid waste in
Gamby general hospital.
1.3.2. Specific Objective
 To estimate the waste generation rate of the study area.
 To categorize the solid waste based on composition.
 To characterize the wastes by conducting proximate analysis (moisture content,
volatile matter, ash content and fixed carbon).
 To characterize the wastes by conducting ultimate analysis (elemental analysis and
energy potential).
 To design waste management system (design of incinerator)

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1.4. Scope of the Study

This project concerns on solid waste characterization comprises of all activities including
waste generation rate, proximate, ultimate analysis and composition identification. and
also, designing waste management system (incinerator).

The waste sample was taken at the source and analyzed through experimental
investigations by conducting proximate and ultimate analysis

1.5. Significance of the Study

This study has two main significances. First it may give some guide line information to
policy makers, solid waste managers and environmental protection agencies about the
existing situation of solid waste management of Gamby general hospital. The study may
also be important in putting base line information to the next work who would like to
conduct detailed and comprehensive studies in Gamby hospital centers of Bahir Dar city.

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CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Solid Waste
Knowledge of the source and types of solid waste, along with data on the composition and
rate of generation, is basic to the design and operation of the functional elements
associated with the management of solid waste [2].

2.1.1. Source of Solid Waste

The sources of solid wastes are residential, commercial, institutional, construction and
demolish, municipal services, industrial, treatment plants sites and agricultural wastes.
Various industrial plants generate wastes, which are mainly hazardous wastes during their
raw material preparation, production or transportation processes. The waste generated
from such sources is not only hazardous but also inorganic requiring special treatment
before final disposal [2].

2.1.2. Composition of Solid Waste

Composition is the term used to describe the individual components that make up a solid
waste stream and their relative distribution, usually based on percent by weight. Studying
the composition of solid waste categories at a particular place, realizes the environmental
potential the waste bears on integrating technologies like recycling and resource recovery
in the solid waste management systems [5].

2.1.3. Waste Generation Rate

Solid waste generation rate: refers to the “amount of waste disposed during a given period
of time and the quantification of it involves different methods: by measurement at the
point of generation, through use of vehicle survey and by examination of records at the
disposal facility. [1].

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An accurate knowledge of quantity and rate of solid waste generation in a given area is
essential for preparation and implementation of appropriate MSWM. Because it provides
information on human, financial and equipment resources required for collection and
transportation of waste, to enact appropriate laws on waste reduction, and establish
current and future needs for solid waste disposal sites [1].

2.2. Classification of Solid Waste

2.2.1. Municipal Solid Waste

Comprise about 13% of the solid waste that result from various residential areas,
companies and small industries. These wastes comprise mixture of heterogeneous paper,
carton, fire wastes, glasses, rubber, textile, food waste and plastics [1].

2.2.2. Mining Wastes

It includes rocks and dusts resulting from the processes of drilling, mining, treatment and
extraction of different economic metals. The flow of acidic water and dissolution of some
toxic elements from mining waste can result into pollution of water sources and soil [5].

2.2.3. Agricultural Wastes

It is waste of agricultural crops and animal & chicken farms. Due to excessive use of
chemical fertilizers and concentration of breeding of cattle and chicken in confined areas,
thus agricultural waste became environmental problem, the process of soil erosion and
organic matter from fields have negative impact on environment, especially running
water cut pollution by pesticides and chemical fertilizers [5].

2.2.4. Industrial Solid Wastes

Solid industrial wastes are generally understood to be those wastes which arise from
industrial process and legal definition may include all wastes produced on industrial
premises, whether those wastes are produced from a manufacturing process or not [5].

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2.2.5. Medical waste

Medical wastes are of substantial importance due to their potential as environmental

hazards and their risks to human health.This type of waste contains infectious waste, toxic
chemicals and heavy metals, and may contain sub- stances that are genotoxic or
radioactive [6].

According to the study by WHO (2011), Waste and by-products cover a diverse range of
materials, as infectious waste, pathological waste, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, genotoxic
waste radioactive waste heavy metals waste:

2.3. Waste Handling, Sorting, and Storage

Waste handling and sorting involves activities associated with management of wastes until
they are placed in storage containers for collection. Sorting is an important component of
waste management and best-done onsite [2].

2.3.1. Solid Waste Collection

In most cases the solid waste problem begins with collection. collection involves the
process of picking up of wastes from collection points, loading them in to a vehicle, and
transporting it to processing facilities, transfer stations or disposal site [2].

2.3.2. Waste Transportation

There are two steps involved in the transfer of waste. Firstly, the transfer of wastes from
smaller collection vehicles to large transports equipment and secondly, the subsequent
transport of the wastes, usually over long distances to the disposal site. Generally, a
properly design transfer and transportation system highly reduces cost of collection [2].

2.3.3. Reuse/ Recycling and Composting

Recycling/ reuse is the removal or diversion of material from solid waste discarded as
useless and the use of material for the same purpose as was originally designed for, for
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other

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use in its original form, or processing (treatment and reconstruction) of material to

produce secondary raw material for other products.

Composting is the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic waste. It can be

beneficial when applied on land. Composting operations of solid waste include preparing
refuse and degrading organic matter by aerobic microorganisms [2].

2.3.4. Disposal of Wastes

Waste disposal is one of the most important management activities which need to be
carefully planned. Disposal activities are associated with final dump of solid wastes
directly to a landfill site [2].

2.4. solid waste characterization

Proximate analysis: -Proximate analysis includes four tests - loss of moisture, volatile
combustible matter, fixed carbon and as

Table 2. 1: proximate analysis of solid waste

No waste Moisture Volatile matter (%) Fixed carb Ash ontent
component content (%) (%)
(%)

Wet base Wet base Dry base Wet Dry Wet Dry
base base base base
1 Cardboard 3.91 73.3 76.4 22.6 23.6 22.2 23.1
2 Food 75.0 19.1 83.1 4.1 17.1 2.36. 9.9
3 Paper 4.82 80.8. 85.1 14.1 15.0 12.4 13.0
4 Plastic 0.24 96.2 97.1 3.7 4.0 4.43 5.1
5 Textile 1.34 92.1 93.0 6.1 7.1 5.04 6.13
6 Yard waste 30.4 65.3 91.9 5.8 8.1 6.43 9.1

Source: Muhammad Safar Koraiand et al.2015

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Energy Content

The energy content of the components of waste can be determined by calculation using
elemental composition. It is important for feasibility study of municipal solid waste for
incineration plan based on their energy value. An evaluation of the potential of the waste
material for use as a fuel in the incinerator requires the determination of its heating value,
expressed as kilo joules/ kilo grams (kJ/kg). The heating values are important in the
evaluation of incineration process as a means of energy recovery or disposal [4].

Table 2. 2: Typical data on inert residue and energy content of solid waste
Component Inert residue percent Energy kJ/kg
Range typical Range Typical
Food 2-8 5 3500-7000 6450
Paper 4-8 6 11600-18600 16750
Cardboard 3-6 5 13950-17450 16300
Plastic 6-20 10 27900-37200 32600
Textile 2-4 2.5 15100-18600 17450
Rubber 8-20 10 20900-27900 23250
Leather 8-20 10 15100-19800 17450
Garden trimming 2-6 4.5 2300-18600 6500
Wood 0.6-2 1.5 1745-19800 18600
Misc-organics 2-8 6 11000-26000 18000
Glass 96-99 98 100-250 150
Tin cans 96-99 98 250-1200 700
Nonferrous metal 90-99 96 300-450 375
Ferrous metal 94-90 98 50-1200 700
Dirt, ashes, brick. 60-80 70 2300-11650 7000
etc

Source: Howard S. Peavy text book of Environmental engineering

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CHAPTER THREE

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials
The analysis of waste samples was done through ultimate and proximate analysis of the
wastes. Oven, electronic balance, furnace and crucible. Glove and mask were used
during waste collection for safety. Oven was used to dry the samples to determine the
moisture content of the solid waste. Scaling balance was used to determine the weight of
waste generation and electronic balance was used through determination of moisture
content, volatile matter and ash content of the waste samples. Furnace was used to
determine the volatile mater and ash content of samples. Crucibles were used to hold the
samples inside furnace during volatile mater and ash content determination experiments.

3.2. Methods
Generally, the study comprises survey research through interview with waste collectors
and other workers of the hospital on where and when those solid wastes are disposed. A
preliminary survey includes identifying solid waste products composition (type), quantity,
collection system and way of disposal before solid waste collection and characterization.

3.2.1. Waste Collection

Three different areas were selected before the collection of wastes to get the potential to
represent different kind of solid waste. Three sacks were set to collect the fresh solid
waste in the chosen areas one day before collection. This was done in order to analyze
waste generation rate and waste composition more precisely. all solid waste collectors
were informed how and when the waste is collected. The wastes were collected in two
randomly selected days for three consecutive weeks. Monday and Thursday in the first
week, Wednesday and Sunday in the second week and finally, Tuesday and Friday for the
third week. The days were selected to take average and smooth the values.

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3.2.2. Sorting of Waste in to Category

The fresh solid wastes in the site were sorted and put in to categories as food, paper,
plastic, textile, card board, garden trimming, and other waste through manual sorting.
Then the sorted fresh wastes (wet basis) were weighed to determine the percentage
distribution of each waste component.

3.2.3. Determination of Generation Rate of Solid Waste

The generation rate was estimated by weighing the sorted wastes by using scaling mass
balance for each component of wastes for each day and taking average value of them.

3.3. Experimental design

Experimental phase was investigating proximate and ultimate analysis. All the analysis
was conducted according to the ASTM d2216 Standard methods.

3.3.1 Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis was done to determine the average percentage volatile matter content,
percentage ash content, moisture content and percentage content of fixed carbon of the
wastes.

i. Moisture content

Moisture content was determined by using standard oven dry method. The representative
portion of the samples to be tested were Prepared. 50g of the test sample was determined
and recorded as the “wet mass”. The mass of the container and sample was determined
and the mass of the crucible were subtracted. The samples were dried to constant mass at
105°C in oven. The drying time required to achieve constant mass was different [2].

𝑊1−𝑊2
𝑃𝑀𝐶 = × 100 ………………………. (2.1)
𝑊3

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Where, W1= the weight of crucible and raw samples

W2 = the weight of crucible and oven dried samples

W3= weight of raw samples taken the sample.

ii. Ash Content

The percentage ash content (PAC) was determined by heating 50g oven dried samples in
furnace within open silica crucible at 750°C for 1 hour. Then weighed to obtain the
weight of ash [2].

𝑊4−𝑊5
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = × 100 …………………………………… (2.2)
𝑊6

Where, W4 = weight of container and ash residue in grams.

W5 = weight of empty container in grams,

W6 = weight of dry sample waste used in gram

iii. Volatile Matter

50g oven dried samples were weighed using electronic balance and they were pulverized
in muffle furnace with a closed silica crucible and place at 950oC for 7 minutes. Then the
mass of the furnace heated samples was weighed. Finally, the mass loss was recorded as a
volatile matter of the waste [2].

𝑊2−𝑊3
𝑃𝑉𝑀 = × 100 …………………………………… (2.3)
𝑊2

Where, W2 = the weight of crucible and oven dried sample

W3= weight of crucible and heated sample taken

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iv. Fixed Carbon

The percentage fixed carbon (PFC) was computed by subtracting the sum of percentage
volatile matter (PVM), percentage ash content (PAC) and percentage moisture content
(PMC) from total of 100 % composition [2].

𝐹𝐶 = 100% − (%𝐴𝐶 + %𝑉𝑀 + %𝑀𝐶)………………………………………… (2.4)

3.3.2 Ultimate analysis

This analysis is key to determine the elemental composition (C, N, H, S, O etc.) of the
waste. It was estimated by using the typical element composition values of different types
of solid waste [2].

Table 3.1: typical elemental composition data of solid wastes

Percent by mass (dry basis)
Component Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen nitrogen sulfur Ash
Food waste 48.0 6.5 37.6 2.6 0.4 5.0

Paper 43.5 6.0 44.0 0.3 0.2 6.0

Card board 44.0 5.9 44.6 0.3 0.2 5.0

Plastic 60.0 7.2 22.8 10.0

Textile 55.0 6.6 31.2 4.6 0.15 2.5
Rubber 60.0 10.0 2.0 10.0
Leather 11.6 10.0 0.4 10.0
Garden 47.8 8.0 38.0 3.4 0.3 4.5
trimming
Wood 49.5 6.0 42.7 0.2 0.1 1.5
Misc. 48.5 6.0 37.5 2.2 0.3 5.0
organics
Source: Howard S. Peavy text book of Environmental engineering

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3.3.3 Energy potential determination

The energy content of solid waste was determined based on physical composition of waste
and using proximate analysis and elemental analysis [2].

Energy content for dry basis can be calculated as:

Kj/kg (dry basis) = kj/kg (energy as discarded * 𝑀 ………………. (2.5)

Energy content can be calculated as ash free dry basis by the following

equation: Kj/kg (ash free dry basis) = kJ/kg (energy as discarded) * 𝑀 ……

(2.6)

For elemental analysis the energy content can be determined by the following formula;

Kj/kg = 337C +142 +9S................................................(2.7)

Where ,…C –carbon

H-hydrogen

O-oxygen

S-Sulphur

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Waste Generation Rate

The waste generation rate result was recorded as follows:

Table 4. 1: waste generation rate of randomly selected days for three consecutive weeks
Type Mass of waste (kg/day)

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Average

Food 3.7 2.9 2.9 2.4 4.1 3.6 3.27

Paper 2.8 3.1 1.9 2.9 3.2 3.3 2.87

Plastic 1.2 1.5 0.8 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.43

Textile 0.85 1.1 0.6 0.7 1.1 0.9 0.88

Trimming 1.6 1.2 1.8 1.9 1.5 2.3 1.72

Card board 2.3 2.5 1.7 2.1 2.7 2.2 2.25

other waste 2.2 3.4 1.4 2.7 3.1 2.7 2.58

Total 15

From the above we can see that food covers the large portion of the total waste. the paper,
card board and other wastes have higher share but textile, plastic and garden trimming
have lower amount.

4.2. Solid Waste Compositions

The wastes were composed of many types of wastes including hazardous wastes but the
sorting and any other characterizations were done only for non-hazardous wastes. This

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includes food, papers, plastics, card boards and others. the waste components are listed
below in categories.

Table 4. 2: Solid waste component

Waste category Waste components

Food Injera, bread, cake, packed food, mixed food, Vegetables, banana,
avocado, mango, Papaya, orange

Paper
Included all paper products (printed or plain paper, newspapers and
magazines, notebooks)

Card board
all types of corrugated and non-corrugated carton boxes and packages,
etc.

Plastic
Film, rigid and foam plastic composed mainly of packaging, plastic
products, hard and flexible plastic, highland, etc.

Textile
Included both organic based (such as cotton, jute, etc.) and synthetic
based (synthetic clothes, wrappers, bags).

Garden trimming Leaves, grass and other

Yard and other house sweeping dust, any other wastes that cannot be distinctly
waste classified under any of the above six categories were all classified as
yard and others.

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composition of wastes
other 17%
food 22%

food
paper plastic

card board
15% textile
garden trimming

paper card board

19%
other
garden trimming 11%

textile plastic
6% 10%

4.3. Proximate Analysis

Table 4. 3: proximate analysis result

Waste Moisture Volatile Ash Fixed
category content (%) matter (%) content carbon
(%) content (%)

Food 63.8 10.89 13.7 11.61

Paper 12.3 48.98 18.9 19.82
Plastic 9.2 82.62 1.83 6.35
Textile 14.7 58.6 5.42 21.28
Trimming 27.6 38.36 19.7 14.34

Card board 13.4 46.35 22.5

Other waste 44.8 27.38 9.6 18.22

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i Moisture Content Determination

The high moisture content and organic composition of waste may lead to problem of
increased decomposition rates in the area because of the high average daily temperature
and this condition is suitable for the growth of microorganism and causes health
problem. To mitigate these problems much more frequent collection is needed to
remove organic waste before they are able to decompose. Wastes with different
moisture contents have different drying characteristics. Those with higher moisture
content (food 63.8%, other wastes 44.8%, garden trimming 27.6%) require a longer
drying time and much more heat energy, causing a lower temperature in the furnace; and
vice versa. If the moisture content is too high, the furnace temperature will be too low
for combustion, such that auxiliary fuel is needed to raise the furnace temperature and to
ensure normal combustion.

ii. Ash Content of the Waste Sample

The higher percentage of ash content was referred to quantity of card board 22.5%, paper
18.9% and garden trimming 19.7%. Due to the presence of high ash content of waste
generates small amount of flue gasses during combustion whereas the rest waste (food,
plastic, textile and other wastes) generates high amount of flue gases due to the presence
of small ash content.

iii. Volatile Matter Content

Organic and combustible materials such as plastic, card board, textile and paper are the
components with high percentage of volatile matter. Volatile matter is that portion of
the wastes which is converted into the gas phases during the heating process (950°C).
Since plastic wastes has high VM, should be distributed and mixed with other wastes
and not be concentrated in one charge. Loading an incinerator with high VM wastes
meant that the heating values would exceed the designed thermal capacity of the plant.
Also, high combustion temperatures due to high VM would damage the refractory
lining, resulting into excessive emissions. Wastes with high VM would release more
volatile gases at the primary chamber than wastes with low VM.

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iv. Fixed Carbon

Fixed carbon is the carbon remaining on surface as charcoal. From comparisons of the
waste type textile have high fixed carbon load. Fixed carbon content analysis contains
the errors and scatters of the other three measurements and is regarded as an
approximate figure.

4.4. Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis

Ultimate Analysis involves the estimation important chemical elements that makes up
the wastes, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and Sulfur. This estimation was
done according to the typical range data of the elemental composition of wastes. Table
4. 4: Elemental analysis result

Table 4.4: elemental analysis result for individual component

Component Dry Elemental composition (Kg)
mass
C H O N S Ash
(Kg)
Food 1.18 0.5678 0.0757 0.4450 0.0300 0.0047 0.4470

Paper 2.52 1.0995 0.1511 1.1100 0.0076 0.0051 0.5420

Plastic 1.29 0.7788 0.0934 0.2960 _ _ 0.0026

Textile 0.75 0.4130 0.0490 0.2340 0.0345 0.0012 0.047

Trimming 1.25 0.5956 0.0747 0.4730 0.0423 0.0038 0.3380

Cardboard 1.86 0.0746 0.1103 0.8331 0.0056 0.0037 0.5100

Other 1.43 _ _ _ _ _ 0.2470

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The above results are computation of the composition of waste sample and these values
are compressed in as follows:

Table 4. 5: elemental analysis result of total waste

Component Mass (Kg) Composition (%)

C 3.554 24.69

H 1.077 7.44

O 7.577 52.35

N 0.119 0.83

S 0.018 0.13

Ash 2.157 14.90

Total 14.502 100

As per the composition analysis of the majority of the site waste is food 21.8%, and C:
N ratio of the waste is 29.86 from the elemental analysis. Therefore, the waste is a
potential feed stack for an aerobic digestion since the optimum range of C: N ratio from
different literature is 25:1 – 30:1 this one can be say that it is within the optimum rage
from the literatures.

Energy Potential (Content) of Waste.

The energy content of the solid waste was determined based on percentage by mass
composition, proximate and ultimate analysis of waste. The waste components energy
values were estimated based on their typical energy content data as follows:

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Table 4. 6: energy content result

Type of waste Typical energy (Kj/kg) Percentage Total energy(kj)
composition by
mass (%)
Food 4650 21.8 101370

Paper 16750 19.13 320427

Plastic 32600 9.53 310678

Textile 17450 5.87 102431

Garden trimming 6500 11.47 74555

Card board 16300 15 244500

Yard and other waste 10500 17.2 180600

Total 100 1334562

From the above table, the typical energy content is taken from Howard S. Peavy text
book of Environmental engineering and this typical energy is used to estimate the total,
dry basis and specific ash free dry basis energy content of the waste sample. Because the
energy obtained from waste depends on the type of waste (composition) and the
proximate value of waste. From the above table the total energy of the waste is
1334562kj and per unit mass energy content from 15kg is 88970.8kj/kg, dry basis and
ash free dry basis are 129695.04 kj/kg and 164092.2 kj/kg respectively. The energy
content based on elemental analysis is estimated to be 9602.58 kj/kg.
The study reveals that prescribe components of solid waste are more suitable for either
composting or anaerobic digestion, whereas the rest of solid waste components like
paper, plastic and textiles have capacity to generate huge quantity of heat. This means,
thermal treatment such as incineration, Pyrolysis, and gasification is favorable for their
treatment in order to extract energy in terms of heat from them.

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4.5. Potential Management Options

An integrated approach to waste management will have to take into account community-
and regional-specific issues and needs and formulate an integrated and appropriate set of
solutions unique to each context. Solutions, which work for some areas, will be
inappropriate for others. Specific environmental conditions will dictate the
appropriateness of various technologies, and the level of industrialization and technical
knowledge present in the countries and cities will constrain solutions. There are
different management options available, but from the environmental and socio-
economic point of the study area, the following approach is emphasized.

Waste Reduction

First priority in waste management must be an overall reduction of solid waste

quantities. Reducing waste also reduces the cost of waste collection and treatment. It
would seem that the easiest and most effective way to reduce the amount of waste to be
disposed of would be to simply produce less in the first place.

Recycling

Recycling of solid waste has been recognized as the “most environmentally sound”
strategy. only second to the preventive strategy of source reduction and reuse. Recycling
of waste serves to transform from the wastes into products of their own genre through
industrial processing. It is environmentally friendly to reuse the wastes instead of adding
them to nature. Options are considered for collected in bulk with limited recovery of
recyclable materials and for materials segregated at source for more extensive recycling
and (in the case of food and garden wastes) composting.

Composting

It involves decomposition of organic wastes by microbes by allowing the waste to stay

accumulated in a pit for a certain period of time. Good quality garden and food wastes are
segregated at source and composted, producing a bulk reduced stabilized humus residue
of compost that is of sufficient quality to be marketed as a soil conditioner or growing
medium

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in agriculture or horticulture. A somewhat more low-technology approach to waste

reduction is composting.

Incineration

Another option for waste reduction and disposal is incineration. Incineration features
combustion of wastes to transform them into base components, with the generated heat
being trapped for deriving energy. As sorted gases and inert ash are common by-
products. Pollution is caused by varied degrees’ dependent on nature of waste
combusted and incinerator design. Incineration cannot be considered as a disposal
option since following incineration there are still some quantity of ash to be disposed
off, as well as the dispersal of some ash and constituent chemicals into the atmosphere.
As seen from the proximate analysis if incineration applied more than 80% of the waste
can be reduced in weight. This appears to be an extremely attractive option. Above all,
the high financial start up and operational capital required to implement an incineration
facility is the major barrier to the successful adoption.

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4.6. Design of single chamber incinerator

Disposal of medical waste through incineration process has been widely accepted in the
field of infectious and hazardous waste management with regards to its advantages, which
includes reduction in the quality (infectious state) and quantity (weight and volume) of the
waste, reduction in toxic emission, suitability for all types of waste apart from sharps,
exclusion of the risk of contamination of soil and local ground water and low construction
cost. Waste obtained from hospitals is heterogeneous in nature because they consist of
various degrees of elements in major and minor quantities, some of which are toxic and
extremely infectious if not properly managed. Hence, the need for incineration to
decontaminate the medical waste by subjecting it to thermal destruction process under
controlled operational conditions. The products of combustion are ash residue, water and
carbon dioxide. Incinerator is the unit in which the process occurs [7].

Advantages of installing incinerator: -

 A method suited for combustible refuse

 Suited in crowded cities where sites for land filling are not available
 Low construction and operation costs
 used to reduce the volume of solid wastes for land filling

Design calculations of the incinerator

Assumptions

 steady state air flow for both air inlet and outlet
 atmospheric air velocity is 2m/s and density of 1.225kg/m3
 oxygen occupies 21% of the atmospheric air
 design consideration for chamber volume follows 3 times of solid waste heap
 optimum time for combustion of 105kg of waste is considered to be 1hour

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First, we have to determine the suitable volume of the combustion chamber based on the
waste generated which will be combusted. From general design consideration, the suitable
volume ratio of combustible component to the volume of the chamber is 1:3 ratio [12].
If we plan to combust the solid wastes weekly the amount of waste generated will
be: 15kg/day × 7 days = 105kg of waste

Therefore, volume of the combustion chamber can be designed as: -

The mass of solid waste to be combusted is 105kg.
Volume of the waste can be calculated as
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 3 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒
= 3 × 1𝑚3
= 3𝑚3
For rectangular incineration chamber the volume of the chamber is given by:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑙 × 𝑤 × ℎ
Many general combustion chamber design considerations use the ratio of 1:2:1 length,
height and width respectively.
From this the combustion chamber dimensions will be,
Length=1.144m
Height=2.288m
Width=1.144m

The amount of air needed to combust the waste must be determined to design pipe
diameter of the air inlet pipe. the air requirement for combustion can be calculated from
the chemical equation of the combustion reaction of waste.

The empirical chemical equation of the waste can be derived from the elemental analysis
of waste as follows [2].

1. determining the elemental analysis

2. compute the molar composition of the elements

3. compute the normalized mole ratio using the smallest mole / usually sulfur

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The results of the above steps are tabulated as:

Element Mass(kg) Mole Mole of element/
(Mass/molar mole of sulfur
mass)
C 3.554 0.2960 525.75
H 1.077 1.0770 1912.96
O 7.577 0.4730 840.14
N 0.119 0.0085 15.09
S 0.018 0.0006 1

The chemical equation is therefore: -

C525.75H1912.96O840.14N15.09
Generally, the combustion of the materials with enough supply of oxygen releases heat,
gas and moisture which is given by:
CaHbOcNd + O2  CO2 + H2O + Heat
The chemical equation of combustion of these waste through enough oxygen supply is:
C525.75H1912.96O840.14N15.09 + 583.67O2  525.5CO2 + 956.48H2O + Heat

The amount of air required to combust 105kg of waste can be calculate from combustion
equation through mass to molar mass ratio method.
105𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
=
21904.6𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 18677.44𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

Mass of oxygen =89.53kg

The percent of oxygen in the air is 21%, then the total mass of air is
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
0.21

Mass of air=426.33kg

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The volume of air is given by

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Here, density of air is 1.225kg/m3
426.33𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
1.225kg/m3

Volume of air = 348.027m3

If the combustion is assumed to take place for one hours [13].

The flow rate of air will be:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

= 348.027𝑚3/3600𝑠
= 0.0966𝑚3/𝑠

The flow rate of the air

is:
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
If we install circular pipe air inlet, the required pipe diameter is calculated as

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 (area of a circle)

The atmospheric air velocity in Bahir Dar varies from 1m/s to 3m/s, take an average air
velocity of 2m/s
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑚/𝑠 × 3.14𝑟2
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0.0966𝑚3/𝑠
𝑟 =
2
2𝑚/𝑠 × 3.14
𝑟 = 0.1237𝑚

Design summary / specification:

 Volume of the combustion chamber-3m3

 Length of the combustion chamber-1.144m
 Height of the combustion chamber-2.288m
 Width of the combustion chamber-1.144m
 Air required to combust the solid wastes-348.027m3
 Air inlet pipe radius-0.1237m
 The combustion chamber made of bricks with 10cm diameter

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Air out let

Waste insertion

Air inlet

Ash residue

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4.6. Conclusion and Recommendation

4.6.1. Conclusion

Waste reduction and minimization are possible by adopting integrated solid waste
management plan. The average daily solid waste generation rate of Gamby general
hospital was estimated 15Kg/day.

The major composition of the house hold solid waste was food (%21.8), paper (19.3%),
plastic (9.53%), textile (5.87%), garden trimming (11.47%), cardboard (15%) and yard
and other wastes (17.2%).

The estimated ash free dry basis energy content is 164092.2kj/kg. The estimation of the
energy content of municipal solid waste can be practical interest in the design and
operation of the related energy conversion systems. solid waste characterization is
necessary in the design and operation of municipal solid waste-based engineering
application.

4.6.2. Recommendation

We recommend for the future works that, as there were serious data gaps in solid waste
generation. Therefore, it is useful to conduct detailed quantitative surveys for attaining
data accuracy, such as visiting all type of wastes in every day. In addition to that, if
design of incinerator is installed with pollution control scrubber and waste recovery or
waste to energy conversion mechanism. We also recommend that to conduct sampling
across various seasons as solid waste characteristics and composition shows variation.

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REFERENCE
[1]. Abel Afon, (2007). An Analysis of Solid Waste Generation in a Traditional African
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[2]. AbejeHiruy. 2009. An Assessment of Institutional Capacity for Municipal Solid
Waste Management: The Case of Sanitation, Beautification and Parks Development
Agency of the City of Government of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

[3]. Christopher M. (2016). Municipal solid waste composition characterization for

sustainable management systems inMbeya city, Tanzania

[4]. Samuel Shimelis, (2006). Commercial solid waste generation and composition
Analysis:

[5]. A. Pruss, E. Giroult and P. Rushbrook,(1999) “Safe Management of Wastes from the
public Healthcare Activities,” World Health Organization, Geneva.

[6]. Agarwal, R. (1998). Medical waste Disposal. Issues, Practices and Policy. An Indian

and International Perspective. Seminar on Health and the Environment. Centre for
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[7]. Akter, N., R. E. Acott, S. A. Chowdhury, (1998). Medical Waste Disposal at BRAC
Health Centres: An Environmental Study. BRAC Research, Research and Evaluation
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[8]. Meenakshi p. (2005). Elements of Environmental Science and Engineering, Prentice

Hall of India Private limited, India

[9].Solomon Cheru. (2011). Assessment of municipal solid waste management Service in

Dessie town

[10]. GebrieKassa. (2009). Management of Domestic Solid Waste in Bahir Dar Town:
Operational Analysis and Assessment of Constraints that Affect Solid Waste
Management, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
[11]. Alqader, A.A and Hamad, J. 2012. Municipal solid Waste Composition
Determination Supporting the Integrated Solid Waste Mana gement in Gaza Strip.

[12]. Incinerator design and operating criteria volume II Biomedical waste

incineRators’ Ontario Ministry Of The Environment 135 St. Clair Avenue West Toronto,
Ontario October 1986.

[13]. Handbook of Operation and Maintenance of Hospital Medical Waste

Incinerators,1990. USEPA,EPA..No. 625-6-89024.

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APPENDEX