Chemistry Semester 1 Key Terms

acid-base neutralization anode

Any chemical reaction between an acid and a base that
results in a neutral solution of water and a salt.
acidic
A solution whose pH is less than 7.
actinides
Rare earth metals of Period 7 of the periodic table.
Actinides are characterized as silvery colored, great
conductors of electricity, and radioactive.
activity series
A list of metals arranged in their order of reactivity,
from highest to lowest.
actual yield
The amount of product actually formed in a chemical
reaction.
Albert Einstein
A German-born scientist who moved to the United
States after Adolf Hitler came to power. He was best
known for his theory of relativity.
alchemy
A practice focused on the attempt to transform cheap
metals into gold.
alkali metals
Highly reactive metals from Group 1, such as lithium,
sodium, and potassium.
alkaline earth metals
Group 2 elements of the periodic table. Alkaline earth
metals are characterized as silvery, hard, dense, and
reactive and usually have an oxidation number of +2.
analyze
To examine or interpret.
anion
A negatively charged ion.
The electrode at which oxidation occurs.
antioxidants
Substances that slow or inhibit oxidation reactions.
Antioxidants work within cells by reacting with
peroxides or oxygen free radicals, thereby protecting
cells from the damaging effects of oxidation.
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
A French chemist who discovered oxygen and is known
as the father of modern chemistry.
aqueous
Water-based.
Aristotle
A Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of
Alexander the Great. He significantly contributed to the
development of numerous sciences, including biology
and physics.
atom
The basic unit of matter.
atomic number
The number of protons in an atom's nucleus, symbolized
by Z.
atomic radius
A measure of the size of an atom. The atomic radius is
the length from the center of an atom to the atom's outer
edge.
atomic theory
A theory that describes the structure, nature, and
movement of atoms.
average atomic mass
The average of the atomic masses of each of an
element's isotopes, weighted by their natural abundance.
Avogadro's number cathode ray
The number of atoms or molecules in a mole — 6.02 × A stream of electrons emitted by the cathode in a
1023. vacuum tube.
balanced reaction cation
A reaction in which the number of atoms of each A positively charged ion.
element in the products and reactants is the same. cellular respiration
ball-and-stick model
The breakdown of food molecules in the presence of
A model display of the three-dimensional position of the oxygen, which releases chemical energy in the form of
atoms and the bonds between them. ATP.
basic charge
A solution whose pH is greater than 7. A property of matter that causes it to experience
electrical forces.
battery
chemical
A group of electrochemical cells that are arranged in a
series and continuously convert chemical energy into Any material with a constant chemical composition and
electrical energy. characteristic properties.
bent chemical bond
The shape of a molecule having a central atom bonded An attraction between atoms.
to two other atoms and having two lone pairs of chemical change
electrons.
A change in the chemical composition of a substance.
bias
chemical equation
Something that can change the results of an experiment,
make the experiment less reliable, or lead to an error. A representation of a chemical reaction that shows the
relative numbers of reactants (on the left) and products
binary compound (on the right).
A compound made of two different elements. chemical formula
biology The representation of a compound or molecule using
The scientific study of the living world. symbols and numbers to indicate the type and number of
atoms present.
Bohr model
chemical potential energy
A model of the atom proposed by Bohr in early 1900s.
Negatively charged electrons were thought to move in A type of potential energy due to energy stored in the
orbits around the nucleus, equally spaced apart from bonds of chemicals or molecules.
each other and the nucleus. chemical reaction
buoyancy A process in which substances are converted into new
An upward force in a fluid that acts to lift an object. ones with different properties.
cancer chemical symbol
A disease caused by uncontrolled reproduction of cells An abbreviation for the name of a chemical element; it
in the body. consists of a single capital letter or a capital letter
followed by a small letter.
carcinogen
chemist
Any cancer-causing substance.
A scientist who specializes in chemistry.
cathode
chemistry
The electrode at which reduction occurs.
The scientific study of matter, its properties and
composition, and the changes it undergoes.
civil engineering core electrons
The branch of engineering focused on the design and The electrons in the atom that do not participate in
building of very large structures for society's use. bonding.
closed system covalent bond
A system that only exchanges energy with its A type of bond in which electrons are shared between
surroundings; it does not exchange matter. atoms.
coefficient covalent compound
The relative number of particles of each substance A substance composed of cations and anions held
involved in a chemical reaction, which is the number together by covalent bonds.
written before the substance in a balanced chemical crop diversity
reaction.
The variance in genetic characteristics of plants used in
combustion reaction agriculture.
A heat-producing reaction between a compound and crossbreeding
molecular oxygen.
Combining different varieties of animals or plants to
complete ionic equation produce new traits.
A representation of a chemical reaction in which all current
compounds that dissociate completely in solution are
shown as their aqueous ions. The rate of electron flow.
composite d orbitals
A combination of multiple materials. Cloverleaf-shaped orbitals where electrons can be found.
Composite data
A combination of multiple materials. Pieces of collected information from which conclusions
may be drawn.
compression
data
A force pushing inward on a material.
Pieces of collected information or measurements.
concentration
decomposition reaction
The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of
solution. A chemical reaction in which one reactant breaks down
into two or more smaller products.
conclusion
Democritus
A statement or set of statements considered to be the
answer to a question. A Greek philosopher who partnered with Leucippus, his
teacher, in naming the atom about 2,500 years ago. He
conductive believed the atom to be the smallest possible unit of
Able to pass along heat, electricity, or sound. matter.
control group dipole moment
A sample set in an experiment that remains constant and A measure of the degree of separation of charge in a
is used as the standard of comparison. polar molecule.
Copernican revolution dipole-dipole forces
A major change in scientific thought. Intermolecular attractive forces between the negative
People moved from believing that the Earth was the end of one polar molecule and the positive end of
center of another polar molecule.
the universe to believing that the Earth orbited around dissolve
the sun.
To make a mixture that is the same throughout.
Dmitri Mendeleev electron configuration
A Russian chemist who developed a periodic table of the A method of writing the arrangement of electrons in an
elements. atom.
DNA electron dot diagram
A nucleic acid also known as deoxyribonucleic acid that A diagram using dots to represent valence electrons on
contains genetic information used in the development of an atom.
all organisms. electron orbit shell
double bond A pathway on which negatively charged electron
A covalent bond in which two electron pairs are shared particles continuously circle the nucleus of an atom.
between two atoms. electronegativity
double-replacement reaction The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract shared
A chemical reaction between two compounds in which bonding electrons.
the positive ions are exchanged, or switch places. electroplating
dry cells A process that uses electricity to coat the surface of a
Electrical batteries containing no free liquid. metal object with a thin electrochemical layer of metal.
electricity element
Energy from charged particles like protons or electrons. A specific type of atom.
electrochemical cell empirical formula
A device that uses a chemical reaction to create A representation of a compound that shows the relative
electricity. A battery is a common electrochemical cell. number of each type of atom in a molecule, using the
smallest possible number of atoms in each element.
electrochemistry
A branch of chemistry that deals with the production of energy
electricity by chemical reactions or the use of electricity The capacity to do work.
to cause chemical reactions. energy level
electrodes Amount of energy an electron has, which also indicates
Sheets of metal used to conduct electricity in an the position of an electron in an atom.
electrochemical cell. There are two types of electrodes energy sublevel
in any electrochemical cell: anodes and cathodes.
An energy level within the electron shell. Each sublevel
electrolyte is assigned a letter.
A substance that dissolves in water to create a solution engineering
that conducts electricity.
The application of scientific knowledge to solve
electrolytic cell problems in society.
A device that uses electrical energy to cause a redox engineering process
reaction to occur.
A set of steps engineers use. (1) Determine a need, (2)
electron Know the background, (3) Make a plan, (4) Do the
A negatively charged subatomic particle located outside work, (5) Evaluate the results, and (6) Look for
the nucleus of an atom. improvements.
electron cloud environment
The area around the nucleus where electrons are most Everything that surrounds an organism or object.
likely to be located. Ernest Rutherford
A British physicist who discovered the atomic nucleus.
ethics
Principles of right and wrong.
experiment
A test to find out if a hypothesis can be supported.
experimental group
A sample set in an experiment that is exposed to the
factor or condition being tested.
family
Elements on the periodic table that are generally
grouped together. All elements in a family have similar
properties.
first ionization energy The science of altering the structure of genetic material
The amount of energy required to remove the outermost in a living organism.
electron from an atom or molecule. gravitational potential energy
food engineering
An engineering field that combines chemistry, biology,
microbiology, and other branches of science to produce
food. It focuses on food preservation and distribution to
meet society's demands.
Food engineering
An engineering field that combines chemistry, biology,
microbiology, and other branches of science to produce
food. It focuses on food preservation, distribution, and
environmental effects to meet society's demands.
force
A push or pull that can change the motion of an object.
formula unit
The smallest identical repeating unit of a compound.
fossil fuel
A fuel consisting of organic materials derived from the
decay of dead organisms.
fuel efficiency
The measurement of how effectively a vehicle converts
fuel into useful power.
full octet
A full valence shell, usually consisting of 8 electrons.
funding
Money provided for a specific purpose, like scientific
research.
galvanic cell
An electrochemical cell that uses a spontaneous redox
reaction to produce an electrical voltage.
gas
A phase of matter without a definite volume or shape.
A phase of matter without a definite volume or shape; it
can spread out and fill any space.
gas formation reaction
A chemical reaction or physical change in which gas is
released.
gas phase
The physical state in which a substance has no fixed
shape or volume.
genetic engineering
A type of potential energy that results from the Earth's
gravity.
gravity
The natural force of attraction between two objects with
mass, which tends to pull them together. Near the
Earth's surface, this force tends to pull objects toward
the Earth's center.
green design
A type of building design that takes the structure's
environmental impact into account.
group
A column of elements in the periodic table, labeled by
number or letter. A group is also known as
a family. Elements in a group have similar properties.
groups
Columns of elements in the periodic table, labeled by
number or letter. A group is also known as
a family. Elements in a group have similar properties.
half-reactions
The oxidation or reduction components of redox
reactions.
halogens
Group 17 elements of the periodic table. They are
characterized as highly reactive, diatomic nonmetals.
heat energy
The energy due to the motion of the atoms or molecules
within a system.
hydrocarbons isotopic abundance
Organic compounds that contain only carbon and The relative quantity of all isotopes of a particular
hydrogen atoms. element as naturally found on a planet.
hydrogen bonding J. J. Thomson
A type of dipole-dipole force occurring between a A British physicist credited for the discovery of the
hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom, such electron and of isotopes.
as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. John Dalton
hypothesis An English chemist and physicist who pioneered the
A testable, possible explanation for a scientific problem. atomic theory and formulated the law of partial
pressures.
inert gas
joule
A nonexplosive gas that does not undergo chemical
reactions. The SI unit for energy, named after physicist James
Prescott Joule.
inorganic
kinetic energy
A substance that is not made from living matter and
rarely contains carbon. The energy of motion, which depends on temperature.
insoluble lanthanides
Unable to dissolve. Rare earth metals of period 6 of the periodic table.
Lanthanides are characterized as silvery colored and as
intermolecular force
good conductors of electricity.
An attractive or a repulsive force between molecules.
law
intramolecular force
A scientific generalization formed by observation that
The attraction that exists within a molecule. describes what happens in nature.
intramolecular forces law
Attractions that exist within a molecule. A description of facts or observations that is accepted as
ion true and can be used to predict future results.

A charged species that results from the gain or loss of law of conservation of energy
electrons from a neutral atom or molecule. A law stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed;
ionic bond it can only change forms.

An attraction between positively and negatively charged law of conservation of matter

ions. A law stating that matter cannot be created or destroyed
ionic compound in chemical reactions; it can only be rearranged.

A substance composed of cations and anions held Lewis structure

together by ionic bonds. A sketch of a molecule that uses dots to represent
ionic radius valence electrons.

A radius of an atom in an ionic state. limiting reagent

isolated system The reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical

reaction. It determines the total amount of product that
A system that does not take in or release energy or can be formed.
matter.
liquid
isotope
A phase of matter that has a fixed volume but lacks a
An atom of an element having a specific number of fixed shape.
neutrons in the nucleus.
lone pair
A pair of electrons that is not in a chemical bond on an
atom.
malleable
A property of matter that means it can be reformed into
a different shape without breaking.
Marie Curie
A French chemist who identified radioactivity and
discovered the elements radium and polonium.
mass
The quantity of matter in an object.
mass number
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's
nucleus; it is symbolized by A.
mass percent
The percentage of the mass of a substance in a mixture.
material failure
The point at which a material can no longer sustain its
structure and begins to break or buckle.
matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
matter, forces, and energy
A theme of science that describes matter, which is held
together by energy and forces.
metal
An element that is a shiny solid and a good conductor, is
malleable, and has a high melting point.
metallic bond
A type of bond in which electrons move freely among
the positively charged ions of metals.
metalloid
An element that has some properties characteristic of
metals and some of nonmetals.
mixture
The result of two or more substances combining but not closed shells. Group 18 elements have a stable electron
chemically bonding with each other.
models, evidence, and explanation
A theme of science that describes how things work
based on current evidence and explanations.
molar mass
The mass of 1 mole of atoms, molecules, or formula
units of a compound or element.
molarity
The concentration of a solution expressed as the number
of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution.
mole
6.02 × 1023 units of something, which is based on the
number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. 1 mole of
an element has the same mass as that element's atomic
mass (in grams).
molecular formula
A representation of a compound that shows the absolute
number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
molecule
A covalently bonded group of atoms.
negatively charged
Containing a negative electrical charge, due to having
more electrons than protons.
net ionic equation
An equation showing only the reactants involved in the
chemical reaction; spectator ions are not included.
neutral
Having no charge.
neutron
An uncharged subatomic particle in the nucleus.
Niels Bohr
A Danish physicist who contributed to understanding
atomic structure and quantum mechanics.
noble gas configuration
The electron structure of an atom in which the outer
electron shell contains eight electrons.
noble gases
Elements from Group 18 (the column on the far right-
hand side of the periodic table), whose electrons have
configuration, which makes them relatively unreactive.
Helium has a full outer shell with two electrons. The
other noble gases have eight valence electrons (an octet).
nonmetal
An element that does not demonstrate the classic
properties of a metal.
nonpolar oxidizing agent
Having no charge. The substance that does the oxidizing by accepting
electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.
nonpolar covalent bond
p orbital
A type of bond in which electrons are shared equally by
both atoms. A dumbbell-shaped orbital where electrons can be
found.
nonrenewable resources
pattern
Resources that cannot be replenished in a short period of
time. A predictable way in which something behaves or
functions.
nonspontaneous
peer review
A process that requires a continuous input of energy in
order to occur. The process of criticism of a scientific study, done by
members of the scientific community.
nucleus
percent composition
The center of mass and the positive charge of an atom.
The percentage of the mass of the elements that make up
observation
a compound.
The process of perceiving the environment with any of
percent yield
the five senses.
The actual yield divided by the theoretical yield,
octet rule
multiplied by 100.
The observation that atoms are most stable when they
period
are surrounded by 8 electrons in their outer shell.
A row of elements in the periodic table, labeled by
open system
atomic number. Elements in a period have the same
A system that takes in or releases both energy and number of core electrons but different chemical
matter. properties.
orbital periodic table
A space around an atom that can contain up to two A table that shows the elements and their atomic
electrons. Different types of orbitals have different number, symbol, and average atomic mass. Elements
shapes. with similar chemical properties are grouped together.
organic periodic trend
Of or relating to a living or once-living organism; based Patterns in the properties of elements based on where
on the element carbon. elements are on the periodic table.
organic molecule pesticides
A carbon-containing molecule. Chemicals that are used to kill plants and animals that
oxidation are harmful to agriculture.

The loss of electrons from an atom, which causes an phase

increase in the oxidation state. A distinct form of matter, such as solid, liquid, or gas.
oxidation state phase change
The charge an atom would have if it gained or lost A physical change from one form to another, such as
electrons; the most likely oxidation state for an atom is from solid to liquid.
the charge it would have if it gained or lost electrons to
photoelectric effect
get to a full octet.
A phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the
oxidize
surface of a metal when light shines on the metal.
To remove one or more electrons from an atom,
increasing the oxidation state of that atom.
photon prediction
A packet of light energy, technically called a quantum of A statement explaining that if the hypothesis is true,
electromagnetic radiation. then observations that agree with the hypothesis will be
made in an experiment.
physical change
prefixes
A change in the form of matter but not in its chemical
identity. Letters, words, or numbers used at the beginning of a
word or number to give or change a certain meaning.
physical property
An observable, measurable characteristic of a substance. product
Material produced during a chemical reaction.
physics
proton
The scientific study of matter, energy, and force in the
world around us. A positively charged subatomic particle located in the
nucleus.
plasma
A phase of matter. Plasma is typically in the form of hot, quantum mechanics
gas-like clouds, such as those that make up the sun and A theory that explains the behavior of matter and energy
other stars. on the atomic scale.
plum-pudding model radioactive
An atomic model proposed by Thomson in the late Containing atoms with nuclei that spontaneously
1800s but not held as true today. Negatively charged change.
electrons were thought to be scattered in a positively reactant
charged substance (like raisins scattered in pudding).
A starting material in a chemical reaction.
polar
reactive
Having an unbalanced arrangement of charge.
Having a tendency to react chemically.
polar covalent bond
reactivity
A bond in which electrons are unevenly shared between
atoms. The tendency of a substance to undergo a chemical
reaction.
polyatomic ion
redox reaction
An ion that is composed of more than one kind of atom.
Short for oxidation-reduction reaction, in which there is
positively charged a transfer of electrons from one substance to another
Containing a positive electrical charge, due to having during the chemical reaction. This changes the oxidation
more protons than electrons. states of the atoms in the reaction.
potential energy reducing agent
The energy an object has due to its composition or its The substance that does the reducing by donating
position relative to a force. electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.
precipitate reduction
A solid product separated from solution. The addition of one or more electrons to an atom,
decreasing the oxidation state of that atom.
precipitation reaction
reduction potential
A reaction in which two soluble compounds react to
form an insoluble solid, or precipitate, which separates The tendency of a molecule to gain electrons and be
from the solution. reduced. The more positive the potential, the more likely
it is that the molecule will be reduced.
renewable resources
Resources that can be replenished by natural processes
in a short time period.
representative elements
Normal or typical elements found on the far left and
right ends of the periodic table, excluding the middle
columns of Groups 3 through 12 and Group 18.
Robert Boyle
An Irish chemist who helped differentiate chemistry
from alchemy, therefore pushing chemistry in a more
scientific direction.
Robert Millikan
An American experimental physicist, known for
measuring the charge on the electron and for his work
on the photoelectric effect.
rule A principle that governs behavior.
s orbital
A spherically shaped orbital where electrons can be
found.
salt bridge
A tube that connects the compartments of a galvanic
cell. It allows the slow transfer of ions between
compartments and maintains the neutrality of the
electrolyte solutions.
science
A system of knowledge based on observation,
hypothesis, and experimentation.
scientific method
A set of steps used to investigate the world and acquire
new knowledge.
scientific notation
A method of writing very small or large numbers, using
powers of 10.
scientific question
A question that can be answered through
experimentation, by doing measurements and collecting
data.
scientist
A person who uses the scientific method to answer
questions regarding the universe.
shielding
An effect in which core electrons screen the valence
electrons from the positive charge in the nucleus.
SI
Known as Le Système International
d'Unités (or International System of Units) or the metric
system. It is a system of measurement based on
the meter as the unit of length, the liter as the unit of
volume, and the kilogram as the unit of mass.
single bond
A covalent bond consisting of a single pair of shared
electrons.
single-replacement reaction
A reaction in which a lone element replaces an element
in a compound. It has the general form AB + C CB +
A.
solid
A phase of matter that has a fixed shape and volume.
solubility
The maximum concentration of a substance that can
dissolve in 1 L of any solution.
soluble
The tendency of a substance to dissolve in a solvent.
solution
A homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.
spectator ions
Ions that do not change in a reaction.
spontaneous
Will occur on its own under the right conditions and
without an input of energy.
stability and change
A theme of science that describes how some things in
nature are stable, whereas some things are unstable and
readily change.
stable
Not likely to change.
standard cell notation
A shorthand method of writing the key characteristics of
a reaction in an electrochemical cell.
state
The form a reactant or product is in within a reaction,
described by a symbol in parentheses.
stick model transition metal
A model that shows only lines to represent 1 C–C bond. Elements in groups 3 to 12 of the periodic table.
The H atoms are not shown. Transition metals are characterized as very hard and
usually shiny and are excellent conductors, with high
stoichiometry
melting and boiling points.
The quantitative relationship between reactants and
trigonal planar
products and their component atoms in chemical
reactions. The shape of a molecule, with one atom at the center
bonded to three atoms at the corners of a triangle. It
structural model
exists in one plane.
A model that shows all bonds and atoms connected in
trigonal pyramidal
the molecule.
Describing a molecule that has the shape of a pyramid
structure and function
with a triangular base; formed by a central atom bonded
A theme of science that describes how a structure has a to three other atoms and having one lone pair of
specific function. electrons.
synthesis reaction triple bond
A chemical reaction in which two or more reactants A covalent bond involving the sharing of three pairs of
combine to form a larger product. electrons.
system A group of connected and related things. unit
systems, order, and organization A term of measurement in math that describes what a
A theme of science that describes how to organize number stands for.
information. unit conversion
technology The modification of a measurement into different units,
The practical application of scientific knowledge. through use of a conversion factor.

temperature unity and diversity

The measure of the kinetic energy in a system.
tension
A force pulling outward on a material.
tetrahedral
An object that is shaped like a pyramid with four
triangular sides (three of which slope in and join
together at a point).
A theme of science that describes how distinct forms of
matter are interconnected.
valence electron
An electron on the outer layer of an atom; valence
electrons are usually involved in bonding.
Van der Waals forces
Weak intermolecular attractions or repulsions.

theoretical yield voltage

The maximum amount of product that can be obtained
from given amounts of reactants in a chemical reaction.
theory
A tested explanation based on facts, observations, and
reasoning that describes how a natural phenomenon
occurs.
theory
An explanation of facts or observations that is supported repulsion theory, which is used to predict the structures
by repeated testing but cannot be proven absolutely.
The force that causes electrical current to flow.
voltaic cell
An electrochemical cell that uses a spontaneous redox
reaction to produce an electrical voltage.
volume The space occupied by matter.
VSEPR theory
An acronym for valence shell electron-pair
of individual molecules.