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Physical Geography Notes
Physical Geography Notes
Definition
o They are the crusts that float on the mantle
Plate tectonics
Definition
o The process by which the crustal plates are being moved by convection
currents
How does plate moves?
o The force that brings about the motion of the crustal plates comes
from the tremendous heat found in the Earth’s interior
o This heat causes the rocks in the mantle to melt and become molten
rocks called magma
o When magma is heated, it expands rises and generates convection
currents, which push the plates away from each other
o When it cools, the magma sinks and brings the plates towards each
other
o This constant rising and sinking of the magma results in the movement
of the plates over the Earth’s surface
Plate movements
Types
o Divergent plate movement
o Convergent plate movement
o Transform plate movement
Divergent plate movement
o Constructive plate boundaries
o Tensional force
o Oceanic-oceanic crusts
Ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
Lava fountains in the middle of ridges
o Continental-continental crusts
Rift valleys (East African Rift Valley)
Magma rises and squeezes through the widening cracks,
sometimes to erupt and form volcanoes
The rising magma puts more pressure on the crust to produce
additional fractures and, ultimately, the rift zone
Convergent plate movement
o Destructive plate boundaries
o Compressional force
o Oceanic-continental crusts
Mountains (Andes)
Trench (Peru–Chile Trench)
Earthquakes
o Oceanic-oceanic crusts
Oceanic trenches (Marianas Trench)
Volcanic islands island arcs (Hawaiian Islands)
Earthquakes
o Continental-continental crusts
Fold mountains (Himalayas)
Transform plate movement
o Conservative plate boundaries
o Frictional force
o Fault lines (St Andreas Fault, San Francisco)
o Earthquakes
Folding
Description
o When two plates collide, the compressional force puts the rock layers
that form the Earth’s crust under great pressure
o Eventually, the bend and fold
Where
o Usually found in sedimentary rocks because these rocks are softer and
more flexible than other types of rocks
Why
o Have the ability to deform under pressure
o Folding found along convergent plate boundaries where two plates
collide
Faulting
Process
o When plates move, parts of the Earth’s crust may be subjected to
compressional force or tensional force, which pulls the Earth’s crust
apart
o These forces can cause the crust to fracture or tear apart
o The type of rock is a key factor that determines whether the rock will
respond to pressure by folding or faulting
o While folding tends to be common in sedimentary rocks because of
their flexibility, faulting is common in rocks that are brittle such as
igneous and metamorphic rocks
o These rocks tend to fracture and break under pressure
o Unlike folding which tends to release stress gradually, faulting tends to
store up stress and then release it suddenly
o This may result in earthquakes
Tensional force
o A-shaped
Block mountain (rises)
o V-shaped
Rift valley (lowers)
Compressional force
o A-shaped
Rift valley (lowers)
o V-shaped
Block mountain (rises)
Normal faulting
o Caused by tension
o One block is lowered relative to adjacent block
Reverse faulting
o Caused by compression
o One block rises relative to the adjacent block, forming an overhanging
escarpment
o The overhanging escarpment will be weathered and would disappear
over time, forming a steep slope
Block mountain
o A raised block of land that has been uplifted or left standing after the
surrounding areas have sunk during faulting
o Initially, a block mountain will have steep sides and a flat top
o Erosion and weathering may reduce it to a range of rounded hills over
time
o The distribution of uplifted block mountains can be found along fault
lines caused by either compression or tension
Rift valley
o Occurs when the central block of land between two parallel faults sinks
o The rising convection currents that pull the two plates apart also
produce volcanoes in the rift valley
Vulcanicity
Definition
Another major tectonic process
The upward movement of magma to the Earth’s surface forms volcanoes over
time
Volcanoes are usually found along or near the plate boundaries
Generally, a volcano is built up by the emission of lava and ashes from a vent
in the Earth’s crust
Classification of volcanoes
By frequency of eruption
o Active volcano
Constant emission of lava, ash, dust and smoke
Strong sulfur smell
o Dormant volcano
Has not erupted for hundreds of years
May erupt any time in the future
o Extinct volcano
Has no record of eruption in recorded history
No sign of possible eruption
By shape
o Shield volcano (Mauna Loa, Hawaii)
Cone-shaped with gentle slopes
Consists of many layers of lava due to repeated flows
Hot and fluid basic lava flows from a central vent
Spreads over a wide area
Cools and solidifies slowly
Frequent eruptions but usually quiet and gentle with large
quantities of fluid basic lava
o Acid lava dome volcano (Mt. Mayon, Philippines)
Done-shaped with steep convex slopes
Viscous acidic lava flows from a central vent
Cools and solidifies quickly
Lava may even cool and solidify as it flows up the vent
When lava solidifies and blocks the vent, gases, and pressure,
build up inside the volcano
A massive and violent explosion may occur
The entire top of a volcano may be blown off
o Composite volcano (Mt. St Helens, USA)
Large and con-shaped, with steep slopes
Alternate eruptions of viscous acidic lava, ash and cinder
Creates violent explosions
Lava may escape through the sides of the cone
Type of lava
o Basic
Low viscosity (very fluid)
Low silica content
High temperature
Flows readily
o Acidic
High viscosity (not very fluid)
High silica content
Low temperature
Flows slowly
Formation of volcanoes
o Composite volcano
Viscous lava solidifying in the central pipe
Gas pressure builds up as magma cannot escape
When pressure cannot be suppressed, eruption occurs
Ash and cinders thrown into the air falls back near vent
Lava flows over the ash and cinders
Repeated eruptions form alternating layers of ash and cinders
and lava.
o Shield volcano
Basic lava is less viscous
Hence spreads over a large area before solidifying
o Acid lava dome volcano
Acid lava is more viscous
Hence cools quickly before it can travel far
Other possible extrusive features
o Caldera
Definition
An enlarged crater
o Formation
Collapse of volcano into magma chamber
Eruption of volcano
o Crater lakes
Definition
Crater filled with water
o Formation
Rainwater filling up crater and empty magma chamber over
years
Usefulness of volcanoes
o Fertile volcanic soils
o Valuable minerals and precious stones are found in volcanic rocks
o Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of the
tourism industry, which is an important source of revenue
o Geothermal energy is an important source of clean energy for
generating electricity
Earthquake LORMS
Use of technology to prevent fire hazards
o Fire is commonly seen after earthquakes as gas pipes are ruptured by
the stress the earthquakes put on the pipes. With live wires going
across the whole city, the leaking gases are easily ignited causing a
fire, which could possibly cause more damage.
o One way to prevent this is to install systems capable of detecting
earthquakes, which would then cut supply of gas in the pipes and
electricity in the wires to the affected area minimizing the chances of
fire.
o This method is successful because it minimizes the chance of a fire and
thus reduces loss of life and damage to property.
o This method is limited because it may be expensive to implement
because of the fact that these systems would have to be installed all
over the city.
Construct earthquake-resistant buildings
o In areas with frequent earthquakes, buildings can be constructed to
meet the earthquake-resistance standards. High-rise buildings should
have flexible frames, while smaller buildings should have concrete
frames with reinforcing bars to absorb the impact of earthquakes. The
foundations of tall buildings should be built on solid bedrock rather
than loose materials such as clayey soil. Fire-resistant materials can
also be used to construct the buildings.
o The Transamerica Pyramid Building in San Francisco has been built to
withstand tremors caused by earthquakes with steel bars and deeper
foundations.
o This has been very successful as proven by the 1989 San Francisco
Bay earthquake registering 7.1 on the Richter scale. Not only no one
was hurt, there was minimum damage suffered by the building.
o This method is limited because of the cost involved to have reinforcing
structures. It is also impossible to add this reinforcement into the
buildings that are already standing.
Use of technology to predict and monitor tectonic activities
o Advanced technology can be used to carry out earthquake prediction
more accurately. Scientists estimate earthquake probabilities though a
number of ways. Accurate predictions and monitoring provide crucial
information so that people living in affected areas can be warned.
These people can then be evacuated before a disaster strikes.
o One way is to study the history of massive earthquakes in a specific
area to determine the likelihood of such earthquakes reoccurring.
o The success of this method is people can be pre-removed from the
affected area and would not be part of the victims, so the loss of life
would not be so serious.
o The limitation is that this method is highly expensive and developing
countries may not be able to afford for the advanced technology
required to predict earthquakes.
Weather
Definition
o The conditions in the atmosphere of a particular area at a particular
point in time
o Short-term condition of the atmosphere
o Changes all the time and varies from place to place
Climate
Definition
o Average weather conditions over a long period of time (at least 30
years)
Relative humidity
Definition
o The ratio of the actual amount of water vapor in the air compared with
the maximum amount of water vapor that a unit of air can hold at that
temperature
Effects of temperature
o As the temperature increases, the amount of water vapor the air can
hold also increases and the relative humidity falls
o When the temperature drops, the relative humidity increases because
the air has less capacity to hold water vapor
o This is why during the day, when the temperature is high, relative
humidity tends to be low while at night when the temperature
decreases, relative humidity increases
Saturation point
o Definition
The point where the air can no longer absorb any more water
vapor
Dew point
o Definition
The temperature at which the saturation point is reached
Rainfall
Types of rain
o Convectional rain
o Relief rain
Formation of convectional rain
o During summer, the Earth’s surface becomes very hot
o Intense warming of the air air rises quickly
o Air expands and cools
o Condensation takes place rainfall
o The cool air then falls and is caught and dragged back upwards by
more rising air, forming a convection cell
Formation of relief rain
o Occurs when air is forced to rise over physical barriers such as a
mountain range
o Parcels of moist air coming in from the sea are forced to rise as they
encounter a tall mountain range running along the coast
o As the parcels of air are lifted up, cooling takes place
o Eventually, condensation occurs which followed by heavy rainfall
o Clouds form mainly on the side of the mountain range facing the
incoming wind where the air parcels are forced to rise
o This side of the mountain range receives most of the rain and is known
as the windward side
o By the time the winds pass over the mountain range, the winds have
lost most of their moisture
o This side of the mountain receives little or no rain, and is known as the
leeward side
Air pressure
Definition
o The force exerted on a unit area of the Earth’s surface by the weight of
a column of air above it
Factors
o Temperature
The higher the temperature, the greater the air expansion, the
lower the pressure
The lower the temperature, the smaller the air expansion, the
higher the pressure
o Density
The less dense the air, the lower the pressure
The denser the air, the higher the pressure
o Altitude
The higher the altitude, the less dense the air, the lower the
pressure
The lower the altitude, the denser the air, the higher the
pressure
Local winds
o Types of local winds
Land breeze
Sea breeze
o Land breeze
During the night, the land cools down much faster than the sea
This creates an area of higher pressure over the land
The cooler and denser air from the land begins to move
towards the sea to replace the warmer and lighter air over the
sea
o Sea breeze
During the day, air over the land is heated up more rapidly
than the air over the sea
As warm air rises, a low pressure area is formed
Air over the sea, however, is cooler because the sea is heated
up more slowly
This cooler air, which is denser sinks
Hence, air pressure is high over the sea
This causes wind to blow from the sea towards the land,
lowering temperatures along the coast
Regional winds
o Types of regional winds
Monsoon winds
o Monsoon winds
In December, Central Asia experiences winter which results in
lower temperatures and thus, a high pressure zone
In Australia at the same time, Australia experiences summer,
which results in higher temperatures and thus, a low pressure
zone
Winds travel from a higher pressure zone to a lower pressure
zone
Due to the Coriolis Effect, which deflects the winds to the right
in the Northern Hemisphere, and after passing the equator, the
winds are deflected to the left and on to Australia, the winds
travels from Central Asia towards Malaysia through the South
China Sea
In the South China Sea, the winds collect a lot of moisture and
bring the moisture to Malaysia
Once at Malaysia, the moisture falls back to the Earth as rain,
as the winds collected a lot of moisture, a heavy downpour is
experienced in Malaysia in December
This is called the Northeast Monsoon because the winds came
from the northeast
In June, Australia experiences winter which results in lower
temperatures and a high pressure zone
Central Asia experiences summer which results in higher
temperatures and a low pressure zone
Winds travels from the high pressure zone to the low pressure
zone
Due to the Coriolis Effect, the winds are deflected to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere, as it goes into the Northern
Hemisphere , the winds are deflected to the right, the winds
therefore travel through the Indian Ocean, collecting moisture
as it travels towards Malaysia
Due to the fact the winds need to travel through Indonesia, the
moisture is lost in the form of rain in Indonesia, there is only
minimal rain in Malaysia
This is known as the Southwest Monsoon as the winds came
from the southwest
Flooding LORMS
Building flood barriers
o One measure to prevent excessive damage from floods is the erection
of barriers such as dams, artificial levees, and floodwalls. They help to
prevent water in rivers from overflowing. In coastal areas, the building
of structures such as seawalls, breakwaters and floodgates, fulfill the
same purpose. In coastal area where flooding can be caused by storm
surges or in some cases by tsunamis due to earthquakes, coastal
defenses such as flood barriers are constructed to stop the high waves
from crashing into the coastal areas
o At the mouth of the River Thames in England, a flood barrier is built
across the mouth to protect against floods caused by high tides.
o The success of this method is that the effectiveness of a barrier. The
barrier has protected London from river flooding repeatedly.
o The limitation is that this method may be highly expensive and
developing countries may not be able to afford such a protection
measure.
Ensuring proper urban planning
o Proper urban planning is crucial for flood control in urban areas. An
effective public information system, close coordination among
important agencies and effective power back-up systems are
important for minimizing the damage caused by floods. By far, the
most effective way to control and prevent widespread damage by
floods in an urban area is a good and well-maintained sewerage
system. Drains and canals can be widened to accommodate more
rainwater, and underwater sewerage systems must be properly
maintained to prevent any blockage by rubbish.
o Inadequate urban planning led to the high number of deaths in the
2005 Mumbai flood, showing the importance of proper urban planning.
o The success is that this method does not require a lot of money and
thus is a viable option for developing countries.
o The limitation is that even with proper planning, if the plan is not
abided to, the amount of planning does not matter.
Improving weather forecasting
o Better and more precise weather forecasting can improve flood
prediction. People can evacuate from their homes before the flood
occurs. If they cannot evacuate, at least they can be better prepared
when the flood comes.
o Accurate weather forecasting allowed the Thames Barrier to be closed
way ahead of time and for the media to notify the people in London so
they can be prepared for what is to come.
o The success is that this method would allow people to evacuate before
they are in harm’s way.
o The limitation is that this method may be highly expensive, as
advanced technology would be needed for accurate weather
forecasting.
Causes of droughts
Natural causes of droughts
o Shortage of rainfall
Studies on the historical trends of droughts suggest that dry
periods occur regularly as part of the Earth’s climatic conditions
They could also occur because of unusual weather conditions
that create a shortage of rain in a normally wet area
This unexpected shortage of rainfall could dry up soil moisture,
underground water, rivers and streams, thus resulting in
droughts
Human causes of droughts
o Increase in population
Rapid population growth increases the demand for more land
which is needed for agriculture and the building of industries
and settlements
Improper agricultural practices to increase food supply may
worsen drought situation
When farmers rear more cattle than the land can support,
overgrazing occurs and the vegetation is consumed faster than
it can be replaced
Another improper practice is when the land is used continuously
for growing crops, without allowing it to fallow
The land has little time to recover its nutrients
As a result, it may not be able to support the further growth of
vegetation
The reduction in vegetation due to the cutting down of trees
and the use of improper agricultural practices may upset the
water cycle
Clearing large amounts of forests may result in a reduction in
precipitation by at least 20% and an increase of evaporation by
30%
This reduction in the amount of moisture in the atmosphere and
the intensification of the dry condition could prolong a drought
o Climatic changes
Global warming that raises the average temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere could aggravate a drought condition
especially in hot and dry regions
Higher temperatures cause a higher rate of evaporation, thus
depleting the water resources available in the area
o Excessive use of wells and irrigation
Wells and irrigation systems in dry areas have improved the
lives of people living there
These facilities provide a source of water supply to meet the
daily needs of the people as well as the water demands of their
agricultural crops
However, during dry periods, the excessive drawing of water
for such purposes reduces the availability of water, and may
worsen the drought condition
Impacts of droughts
Social impact
o Health problems
As temperatures soar, the death rate increases especially
among the elderly as they are more prone to heat stroke and
other health problems related to dry and hot weather
o Disintegration of rural communities
Many farmers faced with the hardships of drought may have to
sell their land and move to the cities
An entire rural community may be broken up as a result of this
o Loss of lives
Water is an essential element for the cultivation of crops and
the survival of human beings
A prolonged drought affects the growth of crops and hence the
supply of food
This could lead to widespread famine and loss of lives due to
starvation and malnutrition
Economic impact
o Loss of income
As water is vital to crop cultivation, a severe drought could lead
to crop failure
It could also cause the death of livestock due to starvation and
thirst
This means a loss of income farmers and higher prices for
consumers
With little or no income, farmers will have to borrow money to
purchase feed for the surviving stock and import water to keep
them alive
Their inability to repay their debts could lead to the loss of their
farmland
o Devastation of economy
Prolonged drought leads to widespread famine
The entire economy of the country affected may collapse,
especially if the country is heavily dependent on the earnings
from agricultural produce
Environmental impacts
o Forest fires
Due to the hot and dry weather created by droughts, forest
fires may become common
o Desertification
Droughts alone do not cause desertification
Improper agricultural practices may worsen the dry condition
As a result, the water table drops and vegetation dies
Without plants to protect the soil, the topsoil is easily eroded
and removed by the wind and the sporadic rainfall
This could cause severe dust storms and the extension of
desert areas
o Reduction in aquatic life
As dams, rivers and streams dry up, the water quality will
decline
This may lead to the growth of toxic algae and result in unsafe
drinking water
Fish and other aquatic life that used to live in the rivers and
streams may not survive the toxic environment
Drought LORMS
Cloud seeding
o This method introduces particles into the air with airplanes or rockets
to encourage condensation to make artificial rain. It is an appealing
method, as it does not require the construction permanent and costly
structures such as a dam.
o This method has been practiced in China where cloud seeding has
been used to overcome droughts.
o This method is successful, as rain has been brought about by this
method.
o The method is limited because it is may be very expensive and not
effective; rain has not always been brought about using this method.
Advanced technology
o The use of modern technology to convert seawater to drinking water is
another way to overcome water shortage. The process called
desalination has been used in Singapore to convert seawater into clean
drinking water through the reverse osmosis process.
o This method is successful as water would be easily available especially
by nations located close to large bodies of saltwater.
o The method is limited because of the high cost involved in attaining
the technology required.
Remote sensing
o Advanced technology such as satellite-based remote sensing can be
used to monitor water availability and to locate the presence of
underground water in different geological sites. Remote sensing can be
used for drought surveillance. This may also provide an early warning
to minimize the effects of an impending drought.
o This has been used in the USA to look for water in Death Valley.
o This method is successful because if water is found, it could potentially
solve the problem with droughts.
o This method is limited because it is highly expensive and less
developed countries may not be able to afford for the technology
involved.