UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION

PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

COURSE CODE: CEC105

YEAR I- SEMESTER I

THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Week 1 Building Component

Week 2 Site Preparation

Week 3 Method of Setting Out

Wee 4 Excavations

Week 5 Foundations

Week 6 Damp Proofing, Sub-Structural Works, Rising and seepage of ground

and underground water

Week 7 Floors

Week 8 Walls

Week 9 Brick Bonding

Week 10 Partition Walling

Week 11 Stairs/Staircase

Week 12 Roofs

Week 13 Flat Roofs

Week 14 Slates

Week 15 Suspended Ceilings System

 WEEK 1

COURSE: CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION 1

1.0 BUILDING COMPONENTS

1.1 Explain the term Building Component

To understand and to be able to explain the term building component.

It will be necessary to take cognizance of the following definitions:

BUILD – This is to make by putting elements, parts or materials

together to form something.

CONSTRUCTION – This is the putting together and assembling of

elements and material in other to erect or build a structure.

BUILDING – This is the act of constructing houses.

COMPONENT – This is a word that describes an element, part or

materials that contribute to the formation of a structure.

From the above definitions, it could be stated that Building

Components are structural elements or materials that can be

assembled, by the following approved construction procedures and

rules, to make up or form a building. The components to be used

depend largely on the purpose of the building (i.e. residential, factory

or recreations, etc.). high-rise building. Examples of building

 components are foundation floor, wall ceiling, roof, doors, windows,

etc.

A building is so called because of the assemblage of most of these

components. Absence of some of these component parts depending

on the purpose of the building, will render it incomplete, structurally

waste and inhabitable. E.g. imagine a building without a foundation,

walls or roof, will be as good as piece of land with first farmers a tree

without root, man with

1.2 Enumerate the building components, e.g. foundation, floor, wall,

ceiling, roof, fenestration, doors, windows, stairs, etc.

Foundation Columns

Floor Slabs

Wall

Ceiling

Roof

Fenestration

Doors

Windows

Stairs

Chimney
1.3 Identify the different functional requirements of building

components

The component parts or materials that make up or forms a building

are normally designed to perform some specific function or for a

specific purpose in the building. Part from the beautification of the

structure, building components should perform some certain

functional requirements as identified below:

1. Foundation: To safety its objectives, foundation must be

designed to satisfy certain requirements as to provide suitable

support and stability for the structure.

To safety sustain and transmit to the combined deal, imposed

and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any

settlement or other movement which would impair (weaken) the

stability or cause damage which or any part of the building or

any adjourning building.

- It must be taken down to such a depth as to safeguard the

building against the swelling shrinkage and or freezing of the

subsoil (especially on clay soil).

- It must be constructed to be capable of resisting any sulphates

attack and any deteriorate (harmful) matter present in the

subsoil.

2. Floor: The floor structure must fulfill several functions and

design considerations as follows:

- Provision of a uniform level surface; except in specified cases

for drainage purposes, floors are normally designed and

constructed to serve as a horizontal surface to support people

and their furniture, equipment and machinery.

- Sufficient strength and stability: The floor structure must be

strong enough to safety support the lead load of the floor and

its finishes, fixtures, parathions and services and the

anticipated imposed loads. This is largely dependent on the

characteristic of the materials used for the floor structure such

as timber, steel or concrete. It is also expected that the floor

should be stiff and remain stable and horizontal under the dead

half of the floor structure and the imposed loads. For stability

there should be adequate vertical support for the floor structure

and the floor should have adequate stiffness against gross

 deflection under load. Providing reinforcement where

necessary.

- Exclusion of Dampness from the inside of a building

(Ground floor),

There is usually an appreciable transfer of moisture from the

ground to the floor. To prevent this depends on the nature of

the subsoil. A concrete slab could be used on a gravel coarse

grained sand base where the water table is relatively below the

surface. A water concrete slab, where the subsoil is clay base.

- Thermal insulation (properties): The ground floor should be

constructed to minimize the transfer of heat from the building to

the ground or the ground to the building. The hand core and

the damp proof membranes will assist in preventing the floor

being damp and feeling cold and so reduce the transfer of heat.

In some cases the floor could be insulated against excessive

transfer of heat.

- Resistance to sound transmission and absorption (sound

insulation), Timber floors will more readily transmit sound than

a mass concrete floor, so the floors between dwellings (upper

floors) are generally constructed of concrete. The reduction of

 impact sound is best affected by a floor covering sound as

carpet that readers the sound of footsteps on either a timber or

a concrete floor sound absorption of floor can also be improved

by carpet.

- Resistance to fire:- Timber floor provides lesser period of

resistance to fire than a reinforced concrete floor. Upper floor

should be constructed to provide resistance to fire for a period

adequate for the escape of the occupants from the building

(normally 1 to 6 hours).

3. Wall: Classification and design conveniently divide into two

categories; external and internal construction. Most external

walls support the upper floors and roof and most external wall

are self-supporting only functioning as a means of dividing

space for the building into rooms and coo pertinent it must also

fulfill other design consideration as:

 Strength and stability, the wall should sagged by carrying its

own weight and the structural loads placed upon it. The

strength of the wall will depend on the strength of the material

of the wall and the thickness it can carry. The stability of a wall

may affect by foundation movement, eccentric loads

 (floors/roof) acting on the centre of the wall the thickness,

lateral forces (wind), and expansion due to temperature and

moisture changes.

 To assist weather, particularly during cold and the

exclusion of rain

This depends on the exposure of the wall to wind. The

behaviour of a wall excluding wind and rain will depend on the

type of material used in the construction of the wall and how

they are bonded. This wall must be designed so that the rain is

not absorbed to the inside force of the wall, by making the wall

of sufficient thickness, and by applying an external facing of

rendering, or by building cavity wall.

 Resistance to sound transmission and sound abortion, the wall

should be designed to resist the impact of noise. Sound is

transmitted as airborne sound and impact sound. Example of

airborne sound from radio and voices. Example of impact

sound is slamming of a door or footsteps on a floor. The

heavier and more degree the material of the wall, the more

effective it is reducing sound. Insulation against impact sound

 consists of some absorbent materials that cushion the impact of

carpet on a floor.

 Durability: The wall is designed with due regards to the

exposure of the wall to driving rain and with sensible….. it

should be durable for the anticipated life of the building and

should require little or no maintenance repair.

 Fire Resistance and thermal properties: The wall should be

resistance to collapse, flame penetration and heat transmission

during a fire (normally 1 – 6 hrs). to maintain reasonable and

economical conditions of thermal comfort in building, walls

should provide adequate insulation against excessive loss or

gain of heat, have adequate thermal storage capacity –

lightweight materials are used where loss of heat will be

encountered. While dense materials are used in continually

heated buildings.

 Roof: The structure is designed principally to prevent

penetration of inclement (severe) weather and to provide and

adequate barrier against heat loss. Other considerations

include an adequate appearance, the facility to absorb thermal

 and moisture strength and stability to accommodate

maintenance and rain loads expatriate.

 Door: the Fundamental purpose of a door is to provide access

into or out of a building and between the various compartments

within a building. Additionally, the following functions are to be

fulfilled, the extend depending on the building type and

purpose; the door should be designed to have sufficient

strength, shape and stability so as to provide adequate security

and privacy. A door should also function in excluding weather

(wind and rain), containing some waterproofing properties. Door

also act as barriers against fire, sound and thermal movement.

 Window: The functions of a window are to admit daylight,

provide natural ventilation and to exclude wind and rainwater. It

also acts as thermal and sound insulators. In some

circumstances, the view from a window provides an important

function as relief and pleasant relaxation from daily internal

routine (view). It contains some fire resistance properties and

can act as a means of escape in case of fire outbreak.

 Stairs: A stairway is initially designed to provide an effective

means of access between different floor levels. A secondary

function of considerable importance to provide a practical

escape route in the event of fire.

 WEEK 2

SITE PREPARATION

Before the commencement of actual building construction, there is the

need to conduct certain preliminary site activities. This is to enable the

building team have foreknowledge of a site. Some activities which

preceded the actual building construction are

 Site investigation ( ) and organization (layout)

 Site welfare facilities

 Storage and protection of materials

 Site fencing and hoarding

 Site clearance and excavation

 Leveling and setting out

 Ground water control.

1. Site Investigation and Organization – A preliminary examination or

survey of the job is made during the designing and post-designing

stages of a project. The survey enables the contractor or the engineer

to precisely have an idea about the site and assess if there are

peculiar problems to the proposed contract. It is this initial

understanding of these problems that the engineer will use to design

the building to suite the site. Similarly, the contractor could plan and
organize his activities, sufficiently to achieve success and minimize

time. This is done by producing a site layout plan and placing

equipment and materials in specific positions for easy reach, handling

and utilization.

Provision of services during site organization to a building site maybe

temporary where the work is transient (short period), e.g. construction

of highways. Elsewhere the services will be a permanent necessity

and should be installed accordingly to avoid repeating the work, e.g.

building construction. It is often advantageous to the contractor to

provide these services particularly electricity and water, from where

permanent installation could be mace. Other temporary services may

include access to site, watchman services, dust control (by watering

ground area), site clean (debris clearance), etc.

 SITE LAYOUT PLAN
Existing Building

Main Road
Store and

and Sand
Aggregate
Storage

Watchmen Dumper
Access Road

Bush
Watchmen Mixer
Sub-Road

PROJECT
Canteen

Crane
men
Dressing Tech. Engineering
Room
Clinic
Room Room
Toilet

Some considerations to be given by the contractor during

reconnaissance and layout prior to constructional works are

(a) Availability and means of access to the site whether by road,

rail or waterway.

(b) Availability of suitable materials/equipment and spare available

for erecting plant and or storing materials around the site.

(c) Availability of space to erect temporary site offices and welfare

facilities.

(d) The effect of vibration on adjacent structure when the

construction involves using heavy/massive equipment (e.g. in

piling) should be considered.

 (e) The availability of water and power supply should be

ascertained and the rate of payment investigated.

(f) Knowledge of the nature and type of soil, and the level of water

table is important as the way necessitate subsoil drainage and

cause flooding.

(g) The local planning authorities should be approached to

ascertain whether there is any special or significant restriction

which could adversely affect the development of site (e.g.

underground cables).

(h) Valuable information can be obtained by talking with the local

inhabitants of the area.

(i) Any special condition that may limit work in anyway should be

noted and taken care of e.g. weather or climatic condition.

2. Subsoil Exploration (Trial boreholes) – Trial boreholes to determined

the nature of a subsoil is an important part of an early site

investigation. The building design and structural loading can be

related to the detailed and thorough examination of the subsoil bearing

potential (ability to withstand load). Preliminary examination may be

with trial pits excavated by spade or a hand anger. When more

detailed information is required, a powered anger is more effective.

 The depth of boreholes can be several meters deep for high rise

buildings, and boring can be at random or regular intervals. Samples of

subsoil can be extracted loose or distorted, or undisturbed in steel

tubes. They are recorded on a borehole log, and samples are then

taken for laboratory analysis to establish the moisture content, bearing

capacity and chemical composition.

3. Site Welfare Facilities – The provision of shelter and accommodation

for taking meals and deposition of clothes is a basic requirement on

all sites. The builder should provide a hut for workmen so that meals

and short rest can be taken, and also for storage of clothing not

required for work during the day and protective clothing at night. The

mass room or canteen should be convenient for washing facilities.

Adequate wash basins, troughs and showers with soaps and towels

are required. (an isolated sanitary facility with water closets is also

required). Provision for first aid is also very important, and every

contractor must provide first-aid accommodation to include a couch,

stretchers, bandages, blankets, equipment, etc a trained person in

first-aid treatment is to be available on site during working hours.

4. storage and Protection of Materials – Materials such as cement,

timbers, bricks and blocks should be protected from weather by

 storing in a shed or well stacked in a suitable position on the site,

where they will not be liable to damage and are adequately protected.

Electrical and plumbing (sanitary) fittings should be kept in a locked

shed to avoid theft or breakage. Proper storage is necessary

because saturated cement with time sets and becomes hardened

resulting to wastage. Saturation also affects the mortar or concrete

strength. Water is readily absorbed by timber causing deformation

and rot, this should be avoided. A saturated brisk or block will be very

difficult to handle. They should be well protected.

5. Site Fencing and Hoardings – A permanent fence or a temporary

hoardings will be required around the site. This is a barrier made of

block wall, wooden or mental stalk or rail or wire in some cases used

old zinc to provide security and protect equipment and materials, and

to keep out intruders. It also protections the ugly sight of construction

and preserves the beauty till completion. The hoardings are removed

after the completion of the project. The hoardings should be well

erected and in sage order so as not to cause injury to workers or

passé.

6. Site Clearance excavation to soil – The site should be cleared of the

bushes, shrubs, trees, etc. which are on the building position and
 around the storage and temporary facilities area. The roads should

be grubbed up and completely removed.

Before any building is erected, it is essential that the area to be

occupied by the building has the vegetable top soil removed from site

completely or placed on one side, and spread level over areas after

completion of the project to provide gardens. The organic content of

the vegetable soil may be injurious to concrete, and so it should

never be used for backfilling, or making up levels under the building.

The path of excavation of topsoil is normally 150mm.

Leveling, land clearance and stripping of the topsoil are all easily

achieved with a bulldozer.

7. Ground Water Control: - Excavation and sample boreholes frequently

reveal and locate a level of saturation within a few meters below the

surface. This is known as the water table and it varies with season.

Excavation below the water table will be difficult and the strength of

any concrete placed in water will be seriously affected. A pre-

knowledge of this fact helps the contractor to be equipped and

prepare with his diesel powered water pump for the temporary

removal of water during excavation and concreting.

8. Setting Out and Leveling – After the stripping of the topsoil and

general site leveling, it is important that the structure is built in the

correct position as shown on the architect’s drawings. The position of

a building is marked out with string lines and pegs to indicate

foundation trenches and walls. The frontage line (building line) is an

imaginary line shown on the site plan, or determined by the local

authority, set back from the centre line of the road way.
 WEEK 3

METHOD OF SETTING OUT

There are three main methods of setting out

345 method

Builder’s square and

Theodolite methods

(a) 345 Method - This is based on the mathematical principle

that any triangle with the sides in the ration of 345 is a right

angle. The method is as follows first you determine the building

line and established one corner of the building by driving a peg

at that point. A tape is used to measure a distance of 3m along

the building lien and a second peg is established with a nail on

top. The ring of the tape is held over the second peg with the

12m mark of the tape. With an assistant and with the 3m mark

of the tape around the corner peg, the tap is then stretched out

to give the position of the third peg at 7m mark. Now a line can

then be extended through third peg to give the width of the

building. The line extended should be perpendicular or 900 to

the building line. The above procedure is also carried out for

the rest corners and any possible intersection within the

 building. To check the accuracy of the four-sided figure formed,

the diagonals should be measured to be equal in length.

3m 0.12m
P1
Building line
P2 a

P3 a
7m

The diagonals (a)(a) should be equal in length

to ascertain the accuracy of the setting out
operation.

(b) Builder’s Square Method This is similar to the 345 method, but in

this case instead of using a tape a steel builder’s square or a large

timber square and a line are used to establish the squareness of the

corners. Two pegs (P1,P2) with nails at their tops are driven along the

building line. One at the corner. A line is then held along the two

pegs tied at P1 going round the corner peg P2, the building’s square is

then held with its external angle point at nail of the corner peg, while

the line on P1, P2 is touching one entire side of the square. This line

is then pulled round P2 to touch the other entire side of the builder’s

square. Holding the line firm a third peg is the driven down where the

line touches the top of nail of P3.

 TIMBER
STEEL SQUARE
SQUARE

Nail

Builder’s Square Ranging line String line

P3
5 P3 Timber peg
4
Building line
P2 P1 P1 3 P2

Diagonal should
be equal

(c) Theodolite Method This is the most accurate method of setting out

of buildings. It involves using a surveying instrument called the

Theodolite. The theodolite is equipped with a telescope and cross

 hair for sighting and ranging, with an internal graduated readings in

degrees for establishing bearings (horizontal and vertical angles).

The method is as follows

A
E B Building line

F H

C
G

I. Mount and set the instrument at point A, sight the telescope, range

and peg out E and B to establish the building line.

ii. Turn the theodolite screws and adjust the degree readings to 0.00.

Turn the telescope of the instrument on the tripod stand towards the

right axis until you can sight 900 00” wide. The instrument clamp sight

the telescope and range to established and peg out points F and C.

iii. Transfer the instrument to point C, and follow the same procedure at

A, range A and F, set the angle 0.00”, turn towards the right axis to

sight and obtain 900 and to establish points G and D.

iv. Point H could be established by using a measuring tape.

 WEEK 4

EXCAVATION

Excavation in building construction is simply the act of removing or digging

out earth (soil) from the ground for the purpose of laying foundation,

construction of floor, basements, etc. The earth is originally dug up to

specified depth, width and length.

The technique of excavation is largely determined by sensitivity of the site

to vibration, intensity of work, availability of plant and the subsoil

composition.

There are basically two methods of excavation, the manual method and the

mechanical method.

The manual method involves the use of hand tools such as spades

diggers, hand augers, pickers (rakes) and other manual implements for the

purpose of excavation. The manual method is regarded as a cheap means

of excavation, it is virtually obsolete and time consuming. The method can

be used only in very small buildings, e.g. garages or house extension,

where the site is inaccessible to excavating plant, and where archeological

remains are discovered and particular care is necessary. The method is

also used for trimming excavations by mechanically means where outward

projections and deviations are specified.

The mechanical method is a process of using mechanical plant and

equipment for excavation. This use of mechanical plant and equipment

saves considerable man-hours, and are standard features on all sites. The

type of plant varies with the nature of work and the different construction

stages. Plant can commonly be used for

a. Striping clearance and light demolition

b. Striping of top soil

c. Trench excavation

d. Basement excavation

The principal types of plant machine used for excavation are

a. Bulldozer

b. Loader/backhoe
b. Loader/Backhoe (Backacter) – The backachter/loader has on one

end a toothed bucket and hydraulic boom which extend out and

excavate towards the cab. This end is used mainly for excavation of

trenches, basement and ditches. The other is equipped with a

faceshovel loader for loading excavated loose earth into a dumper, a

tipper or lorry.

c. Scrapper – The scrapper contains a larger bowl with covered cutting

edge for stripping soil. It is used in very large sties, airfield of

highway.

Bowl Drop d.p.r

Cutting edge
d. Dragline/Grab Crane – Where the volume of excavation is large, the

crane- mounted dragline is preferred. The bucket is swinging forward

to penetrate the subsoil and dragged back towards the cab. Deep

excavation into granular soils is more effective with a grab or

„clamshell‟.

EARTHWORK SUPPORT

When excavations (trench) are dug in water saturated soils, it is important

to provide supports to the side of the excavation. This is done to prevent

the walls from caving-in (collapse) causing severe injury or death to those

required to work inside the trench. Apart from causing injury and death, it

will be additional cost to the builder to re-excavate and renew the damaged

work in the trench. Should the sides support collapse, timber and steel are
normally used for trench. The process of supporting trenches is generally

termed “planking and strutting”. The amount of support, side and system of

arrangement of the various timers depends on

a. The type and nature of subsoil to be supported

b. The depth of excavation.

c. The length of time the trench is to remain open

d. The time of year or climatic conditions prevailing when the trench

is excavated.

Timber is often the most convenient material for shallow trenches. Steel

interlocking polings are often used for deep water-logged subsoil.

Adjustable steel struts are also more convenient and have considerable re-

use value for all depths of excavation.

The timbering members used in trench support are as follows

i. Poling board – There are of 1.0 to 1.5m in length to suit the trench

depth, and they vary in cross-section fro 175 by 35mm to 225 by

50mm. They are placed vertically and against the soil of all the sides

of excavation.

ii. Wallings – These are longitudinal members running the length of the

trench and supporting the poling boards. They vary in sizes from 175

by 50mm to 225 by 75mm.

iii. Struts – These are usually squared timbers, either 100 by 100mm or

150 by 150mm in sizes. They are used to support the wallings, which

in turn holds the poling boards in position. Adjustable steel struts are

also in great use.

iv. Sheeting – These consist of horizontal boards abutting one another

to provide continuous barrier when excavating in loose soils and

common size for the sheeting is 175 x 75mm and there is overlap of

about 150mm at the point of connection between two stages.

Alternatively, steel interlocking poling with adjustable steep struts are

used.

Poling Wedge

Strut

Sheeting

Timbering in loose subsoil

 Adjustable Steel Strut

In moderately firm ground, the timbering consists of a series of poling

boards which are widely spaced at about 60mm centres, supported by

wallings and struts. In shallow trenches, the poling boards would probably

only be needed at the about 1.8m centres with each pair of poling board

strutted individually with a single strut and no walling.

Poling Board
Walling

Strut

Timbering in Moderately Form Soil

In loose or saturated soil, a continuous horizontal sheeting supported by

pairs of poling boards and struts about 1.8m may be used. Alternatively, a
continuous length of poling boards or runners supported by walling and

struts may be used. If the trench exceed more than 1.5m in depth, it is

necessary to step up the timbering so that the lower stage fits inside the

upper section.

CONTROL OF GROUND WATER IN AN EXCAVATION

There are several methods available for controlling ground water during

excavation work. Some of the methods deals with lowering, while others

involves water exclusion from the site. Some of the methods employed in

the control of ground water during excavation work include

i. Plumbing Method ii. Dewatering

iii. Electro osmosis iv. Grouting

v. Soil stabilization

1. PUMPING FROM WELL OR (SUMP)

Pumping from sump is the most used for used of ground water

control since it is economical to install and maintain and can be

applied to all types of ground conditions.

The only problem is of the movement of the soil due to settlement

and there is also the risk of instability at the formation level of the

excavation. Where the excavation goes through permeable soil and

continued into impermeable soil, it is better to form a drain at the line

 of interception to carry water in the sump. With this system a sump is

constructed at one corner of the site which forms a well point

continuous pumping of water.

The pump which is mounted on the ground level has one

disadvantage due to imitation in the design of suction lift to some

types of pumps. The suction lift of most pumps is at 7.5m – 9m. For

deep excavation where the depth exceeds 9m, the pump will have to

be placed in the excavation or on a level suitable for the suction lift.

2. DEWATERING

This consists of lowering the water table over the area of the site and

is satisfactory for depths up to 16m, it is particularly suitable where

running sand is encountered for once the water has been removed in

the ground, the sand become relatively stable. The equipments used

for the separation comprises of

i. Jetting pump, for driving down the well points

ii. Suction pump iii. Header pipe and

iv. Rises pipe.

The operation of dewatering is carried out by first jetting the well

points into the ground, this is done by securing each well points to
38mm diameter riser pipe at the top of which there is a connection by

a hose to the jetting pump. The assembled well points are held on

the ground and the pump operator delivers water under pressure until

the point penetrates the ground. The well points on reaching the

desired depths, the points are “sounded in” the hose of the top of the

well point is determined from the jetting point and attached to 150mm

diameter header pipe has coupling joint at 760mm 1m intervals so

that rises can be jointed at this spacing. For dealing with large volume

of water in loose ground or lose sand. The equipment can be used

for 2 main types of work.

i. The ringing system ii. The progressive system for

trenching.

i. Ringing System – In this system, the building site is encircled

with needle points and for single stage work, until permit

building work to be done at depth up to 6.5m where excavation

of 9m – 12m are required 2 stage work is adopted. For this, the

top are in dewatered and excavated first, the area is then

ringed at this intermediate stage for dewatering the corner

depth.
ii. Progressive System – This is suitable for dewatering along

the line of trenches before excavation. The wall points are with

draw when work is completed and filled in dead of the work.

The header pipe in laid along the ink of the proposed trench as

near as practicable. In different ground the pipe is placed in the

trench and supported on struts.

 WEEK 5

FOUNDATIONS

A foundation is defined as, that part of a structure which is in direct contact

with the ground to which super imposed loads and dead loads are

transmitted or received. It is also an integral part of a building which

transfers the structural load from a building safely to the ground. Many at

times, during the construction of a building, the load on the foundation

gradually increases and eventually, this will result in settlement if the

settlement is slight and uniform throughout the area of the building, no

damage will occur to the building.

But if the settlement is extensive and unequal, serious damage may result

in the form of cracked walls, distorted doors and windows and in some

cases failure may be completed by the collapse of the building.

Selection of foundation types and design depends on the total building load

and the nature and quality of the subsoil. It is essential to achieve a

satisfactory balance between the building load and subsoil characteristics,

otherwise overstressing of the subsoil will lead to excessive building

settlement and serious structural defeats.

The purpose (importance) of foundation is to distribute the weight of the

structure to be carried over a sufficient area of bearing surface, so as to

prevent the subsoil from spreading and to avoid settlement of the structure.

A foundation should safety sustain (Carry) and transmit to the ground the

combined dead load, imposed load and wind load, without impairing the

stability of any part of the building.

A foundation is designed to support a number of different kinds of loads.

(a) The DEAD LOAD of the building, which is the sum of the weight of

the frame, the floors, roofs, and walls, electrical and mechanical

equipment and the foundation itself.

(b) The LIVE (IMPOSED) LOAD, which is the sum of the weights of

people in the building, the furnishings, sanitary fixtures and the

equipment they use, snow, ice and rain load on the roof.

(c) The WIND LOAD, which can apply literal, downward, and uplift load

to a foundation.

All foundation settle to some extent as the soil around and beneath them

adjust itself to the loads. Foundation settlement in most buildings is

measured in millimeters. If the total settlement occurs roughly at the same

rate from one side of the foundation to the other, no harm is likely to be

done to the building. This is because all parts of the building rest on the

same kind of soil. But if differential settlement occur (when the building

occupies a piece of land that is underlain by two or more areas of different

types of soil with very different load bearing capacities) in which the various

columns and load bearing walls of the building settle by substantial different

amounts, the frames of the building become distorted, floors may stapes,

walls and glass may crack, doors and windows may be difficult to open,

etc. the primary objective of foundation design is to minimize differential

settlement by loading the soil in such a way that equal settlement occur

under the various parts of the building.

SOILS IN FOUNDATION

Where the foundation of a building is on rock, no measurable settlement

will occur, whereas the building on soil will suffer settlement into the ground

by the compression of the soil under the foundation load. Some settlement

on soil foundation cannot be avoided, because as the building is erected,

the load on the foundation increases and compresses the soil. This

settlement must be limited to avoid damage. Bearing capacities for various

rocks and soils determined and should not be exceeded in the design of

the foundation to limit the settlement.

Soils are classified with regards to their size, density and nature of the

particles. Soil can be classified into three broad groups namely coarse

grained non-cohesive, fine grained cohesive and organic soils.

Coarse grained non-cohesive soil – This consist of coarse and larger

siliceous product under pressure from the loads on foundation. The soil in

this group compresses and consolidates rapidly by some rearrangement of

the particles and expulsion of water.

A foundation on this type of soil settles rapidly by consolidation of the soil,

as the building is erected, so that there is no further settlement once

building is completed.

Fine grained cohesive soils – This consists of natural deposits of the

finest siliceous and aluminous product or rock weathering such as clay.

Clay is smooth and greasy to touch, it shows high plasticity, dries slowly

and shrinks appreciably on drying. Under pressure of load on foundations,

clay soils are gradually compressed by the expulsion of water from the soil

so that the buildings settle gradually during building work and this

settlement may continue for some years after the building is completed.

Firm shrinkable clays suffer appreciable shrinkage on drying and expansion

of firm clay under grass extends to about 1 metre below the surface and up

to 4m or more below large trees. Building on shallow foundations should

not be close to trees, shrubs and trees should be removed to clear a site

for building on firm clay subsoil. This is because gradual expansion or

contraction (shrinkage) of the soil will cause damage to the building by

differential movement. This is as a result of the intake of subsoil water by

the tree roots.

Organic soils – Such as peat are not generally suitable foundation for

buildings. Foundation of this type soil are normally carried down to a

reliable bearing stratum.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

There are four principal types of foundation strip, pad, raft and pile

foundations.

1. STRIP FOUNDATION

This type of foundation is a continuous level support for load bearing

walls. It is usually made of a continuous strip of concrete of 136 mix,

and may be reinforced (126) mix for poor subsoil or high loading.

The continuous strip serves as a level base on which the wall in built

and should be of such width as to spread the load on the foundation

to an area of subsoil capable of supporting the load without stress.

The width of a concrete strip foundation depends on the bearing

capacity of the subsoil, the less the width of the foundation for the

same load. The minimum width of a strip foundation is 450mm and

least thickness is 150mm. they are suitable for low-rise construction.

 Solid brick wall
G.L.

P P x

2P + W

SECTION THROUGH A STRIP FOUNDATION

(a) Wide Strip Foundation

This type of foundation is used where the structural loading is very

high or relative to the subsoil bearing capacity. It is generally

cheaper to reinforce the concrete strip to reduce the equivalent

strength thickness to carry and spread the load.

 G.L. Wall

150m

1.2m

Reinforcement

(b) Deep Strip Foundation

This type of foundation has two applications

i. Narrow strip or trench fill

ii. Reinforced deep strip

The Narrow strip (trench fill) is designed to save considerable

structural construction time and where the nature of the subsoil such

as clay requires a considerable depth of 900mm, it is used to

excavate foundation trenches and fill them with concrete up to just

below the ground level say 2 brick coarse before the finished ground

level.
 G.L.

900

400

Reinforce deep strip are acceptable alternative to wide strip

foundation for soft clay subsoil conditions. The depth should be at

least 900mm to avoid effect of shrinkage and swelling and about

400mm wide to provide sufficient support for the wall. Reinforcement

is required to take care of compressive stress as subsoil may develop

voids in long periods of dry weather due to volume change.

 G.L.
Wall

900 Reinforcement

400

2. PAD FOUNDATION

These are isolated pairs or column of brick, masonry or reinforced

concrete often in the form of a square or rectangle pad of concrete for

supporting ground beans, and in turn supporting walls. It is very

economical to use pad foundation where the subsoil has poor bearing

capacity for some depth below the surface, rather than excavating

deep trenches and raising wall in strip foundations. It is also used

where isolated columns are specified, especially in framed buildings.

The spread of area of this type of foundation depends on the load on

the soil and the bearing capacity of the subsoil.

 A B C

2 A

FOUNDATION PLAN SHOWING EXCAVATION WORK FOR PAD

CONSTRUCTION
Pad foundation

Reinforcement

Reinforcement
column

SECTION THROUGH A PAD FOUNDATION

 Four members
of starter bar

Ground beam
G.L.

Mat Reinforcement
for pad foundation
building

3. RAFT FOUNDATION

In soft compressible subsoil, such as soft clay or peat subsoil. It is

necessary to form a raft foundation to spread over the whole base of

the building. Raft foundation consists of a raft of reinforce concrete

under the whole of the building design to transmit the load of the

building to the subsoil below the raft. Relative settlement between the

foundations of columns is avoided by the use of a raft foundation.

The two types of raft commonly used are the flat raft (solid slab raft)

foundation and wide toe raft (beam and slab raft) foundation.
(a) Flat Raft (solid slab raft) Foundation

This comprises of a reinforced concrete slab of uniform

thickness cast on a bred of blinding concrete and a deny proof

membrane, under the whole area of the building. This type of

foundation is used on loose subsoil with reasonable bearing

capacities for small buildings, such as houses. The slab

normally reinforced top and bottom.

Cavity wall

Floor finish

50 spread (cement
& sand)
G.L. 100 mass concrete
floor

150 reinforced
concrete raft

50 Blinding
Reinforcement Damp proofing
membrane

(b) Wide Toe Raft Beam and slab rift ) Foundation

 This is like a reinforced concrete floor with down stand beams

called toe. It is used when the ground has poor compressibility.

The reinforced concrete edge beam is designed to support the

outer skin of the brick work or columns. The strengthened

beam collect loads from the walls or columns and transmit

these loads to the slab cast integrally with the beam, and the

slab in turn spread the loads over the whole area of subsoil

below the building.

Cavity wall

Floor finish

Screen

Reinforced
G.L concrete
. raft
Blinding

Damp proof membrane

Reinforcement 100 hardcore
4. PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundations are used where the subsoil has poor and uncertain

bearing capacity and in poor drained area where the water table is

high and there is appreciable ground movement. Piles are usually

employed because in these types of subsoil, it might be necessary to

excavate beyond 2m to meet a stable stratum. And it is uneconomical

to consider normal excavation beyond about 2m below the ground

level. The pile column of concrete either cast insitu or precast driven

into the ground to transfer the loads through the poor bearing soil to a

more stable stratum. Boring is undertaken by a powered auger. The

pile foundations are normally employed in the construction of bridges

and oil platforms on seas.

Short Bored Piles - These are used for small buildings on shrinkage

clays where adjacent trees could appreciate volume change in the

subsoil. Short bored (short length) piles are cast in holes by hand or

machine auger. The piles support reinforced concrete ground beams

on which wall are raised.

 Building
Reinforced
Concrete beam

Poor grade
Piles subsoil

G.L. Sound bearing strata

Ground floor slab

G.L. Sand blinding

Hardcore
Reinforced
Depth up concrete beam
to 4m

Concrete pile
 Ground floor slab

G.L. Sand blinding

Hardcore
Reinforced
concrete beam
Depth determined
by resistance to Steel sleeve
driving
Hollow fibre
reinforced concrete
shell

Solid concrete shoe

280

FOUNDATION ON SLOPING SITES

Walls foundation on sloping sites are normally constructed at one level or

stepped. Where the slope is slight the foundation may be at one level with

floor raised above the highest ground level. Where there is a greater slope,

it is usual to cut and fill so that the wall at the highest point does not act as

a retaining wall and there is no need to raise the ground floor above the

highest point of the site. The process of “cut and fill” is normally practiced

when providing foundation for walls on sloping sites. This is the operation

of cutting into part of the higher part of the site and filling the remaining

lower part with the excavated material or with the imported materials (for
fill). It should be noted that cutting extends beyond the wall at the highest

point to provide a drained dry area behind it.

Where a building extend some distance up an appreciable slope, it is usual

to use stepped foundation to economize in excavation and foundation

walling.

G.L.

Stepped Foundation

Foundation at one level

Steeper slope
Shallow slope
Ground

Consolidated fill Consolidated fill

under solid floor under solid floor
 Reinforced Ground
concrete bearing slab
building slab

Compacted Existing G.L.

Selected soil hardcore
fill

Top soil removed

STEPPED FOUNDATION

METHODS OF REINFORCEMENT IN FOUNDATIONS

1. GROUND BEAMS

Floor construction with

precast R. C. Beams bearing
on upstand beams on raft.

Reinforcements

Section through
reinforced concrete
ground beam and slab R.C. Beams
raft with upstand Slab of raft
beams reinforced top
and bottom
 Raised timber or
concrete floor
formed on raft
G.L.
Reinforcements

R.C. Beams R.C. Slab reinforced

top and bottom

Reinforcements

Helical building
hand

Lifting hole

Press steel forms

Corner for R.C.

Main reinforcement
Stirrups to

Lifting hole

Chilled cast iron

shoe
 Links

Forks Section of a
body of pile
Cover
Main reinforcement

Cast iron shoe

Steel

Cage of reinforcement
Concrete consolidates as
the tube is withdrawn Finished reinforcement
concrete pile

End of tube

Cast iron shoe

 METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF VARIOUS FOUNDATIONS

1. STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Construction of strip foundation is carried out by first excavating the

ground to specified volume to remove soil to receive concrete. A

fairly dry weak concrete is the placed to specified depth inside the

foundation already containing a hardcore base (if necessary). This is

to act as a working base and to receive the oversite concrete. Where

a reinforcement or mesh are required, they are placed on mortar

blocks or concrete blocks (biscuit) on the blinding to give the cover for

concrete. A leveling instrument or a building plumb and short iron

pegs (off cuts) are then used to establish the tip level of the

concreting in the trench at intervals throughout the length of the

foundation trench. Concrete is then mixed and is poured into the

trench over the reinforcement until it reaches the established pegs.

As pouring is done a potter vibrator is used to vibrate the concrete to

remove the voids from the concrete. The concrete is then left to set

and harden and cured with water after one day of easting for at least

7 days.
2. PAD FOUNDATION

This is similar to the strip foundation construction, except that instead

of excavating in strips, deep hollow square or rectangular trenches

are dug. The provision of reinforcement for the base of the pad

interlock with the vertical reinforcement going up for the columns.

This is to ascertain a continuous interlocking support, strength and

stability between the pad and the concrete column. Where steel

stanchions (columns) would be placed on the pad foundation,

steel/iron bolts or steel plates are embedded in the foundation during

construction, where the stanchions or columns would be placed

(bolted or welded) on the pad foundations.

Concrete is then mixed, poured or placed, vibrated and cured as in

the strip method. In some cases formwork are sometimes used to

protect the sides and give shape to the pad.

3. RAFT FOUNDATION

The raft system involves the excavation of the whole base area of the

building and where ground beams are specified, is further excavated

below the raft slab foundation. Formwork is made to support the sides

of the foundation and insitu slab.

 The placing of reinforcement for the slab and beam interlock or

overlaps. The placing of concrete and curing is as in the strip

method.

4. PILE FOUNDATION

(a) Bored Piles

This method is an insitu concrete construction. It consists of drilling

or boring a hole by means of earth drills or mechanically operated

augers which withdraws soil from the hole for casting of pile in

position. Usually steel lining tubes are lowered or knocked in as the

soil is taken out, to support the sides of the board pile.

Reinforcement are placed, concrete is then placed and compacted in

stages. As the concrete pile is cast the lining tubes are gradually

withdrawn

The disadvantages of this method are that it is not possible to check if

the concrete is adequately compacted, and there may be no

adequate cover to the concrete reinforcements.

(b) Precast Concrete Piles

As the name implies, these are precast either round, polygonal or

square concrete, steel or timber piles which are driven into the

ground by means of a mechanically operated drop hammer attached

to a mobile piling at a calculated predetermined „set‟. The word „set‟ is

used to describe the distance that a pile is driven into the ground by

the force of the hammer.

To concrete the top of the precast piles to the reinforced concrete

foundation at the top, 300mm of the length of reinforcement of the

pile is exposed, to which the reinforcements of the foundation is

connected.

Precast driven piles are not in general use on sites in built up area

(unrestricted area) due to

i. Difficulties in moving them through narrow streets

ii. Nuisance caused by the raise of driving piles and vibration

caused by driving the piles may damage existing adjacent

buildings.
 WEEK 6

DAMP PROOFING

SUBSTRUCTURAL WORKS

RISING AND SEEPAGE OF GROUND AND UNDERGROUND WATER

If water is to rise of seep in a wall or floor, a constant supply must be

available at the base and side of the floor and wall. Water rise by an

upward capillary pull between the masonry pores. On building sites with

high water table and on slopping sites where water may run down to the

building, site concrete, floors and walls are likely to get damp by the

respective rising and seepage or moisture/water. The obvious indication of

rising damp and seepage is the dark staining above the skirting, bored on

the interior of a wall. This however, should be carefully checked to avoid

misconception of defective plumbing, leaking gutters/down pipes, and

defective chimney. Another indication of rising damp is the appearance of

white salty deposits on both faces of a wall called efflorescence. It is drawn

from the ground as the dampness rises, and they combine with any salt in

the masonry.

Rising and seepage into building is due to the lack of provision of damp

proofing materials, or may also be due to several possible construction

faults (i.e., in the cases where damp proofing materials are provided).

Some of these faults may include the following

Earth stacked Paving or drive

against wall finished above
d.p.c

d.p.c

Rendering Bridging though

over the d.p.c mortar painting

d.p.c

The arrows ( ) indicate rising and seepage of ground

and underground water

IMPORTANCE OF DAMP PROOFING IN SUBSTRUCTURAL

WORKS

Damp roofing is the principle of preventing moisture entering buildings and

causing dampness which might be as a result of water/moisture rising up

the wall and floor from the ground forced through the structure, or seeping

through the forces of walls.

One chief essential requirement in building construction is to construct a

structure which is habitable and dry to live in. A dry building is unsightly

and causes damages to some components of the structure affected.

Most structural works are intended to be dry habitable. Any moisture

movement upwards from the ground through the substructural works to the

superstructure hampers the functional requirements of the affected building

components, and this reduces the quality of construction. The intended

purpose/use of the structure may also be defeated. Concrete is to some

degree permeable to water and will absorb moisture from the ground. A

damp oversite concrete slab may cause deterioration and damage in

moisture sensitive floor finishes such as timber or P.V.C. A damp oversite

concrete also will be cold and draw appreciable heat from rooms causing

cold.

Damp proofing helps the prevention of moisture rising up the floor or

seeping through walls, causing efflorescence and damage to the walls and

floor finishes.

Generally, damp proofing helps to maintain the quality, strength, stability,

durability and resistance to moisture/water of structures. It also helps to

maintain an appreciable room temperature. And to provide protection to

final finishing materials to concrete floors. A damp proofing materials must

be incorporated in concrete floors.

PROCESSES OF DAMP PROOFING

The process of damp proofing involves the provision of a continuous layer

of horizontal damp proof coarse (d.p.c) at about 150mm above finished

ground level in walls whose foundation are below the ground. And the

provision of a damp proof membrane (d.p.m) for the entire area on top is

between or under the oversite concrete slab.

The d.p.c should be impenetrable and continuous for the whole length and

thickness of the wall and be at least 150mm above finished ground level.

This is to prevent or avoid the possibility of a build-up of materials against

the wall acting as a bridge for moisture seeping through the wall.

A d.p.m should be impenetrable to water and touch enough to withstand

possible damage during laying of screeds or floor finishes. Application of

d.p.m. on irregular surfaces tend to puncture the membrane, so the

application of this materials should be done on a bed of sand or ash of

12mm thickness. The d.p.m may be on top, sandiviched in or under the

concrete slab.

All d.p.c, in external walls should unite with d.p.m in, on, or under the

oversite concrete. This may be affected by either laying the membrane in

the concrete at the same level as the d.p.c in the wall or by uniting the

membrane and d.p.c, laid at different levels with a vertical d.p.c.

Cavity wall 50 screed

d.p.m
d.p.c
150 concrete oversite
50 blinding
d.p.c abd
d.p.m
Overlaps

Hardcore

Narrow trench fill foundation

d.p.c and p.p.m at same level

Cavity wall
Cavity wall d.p.m
100 concrete oversite
d.p.c
Bed of sand or ash

d.p.m

d.p.c abd
d.p.m
Overlaps
Hardcore
Concrete strip foundation

d.p.c and d.p.m at different level

FUNCTION OF A DAMP PROOF COURSE

Damp proof course is a layer of material capable of preventing the

penetration of moisture. It is laid on top of all walls at a distance of 150mm

above the finish ground level.

A d.p.c is an unbroken layer of impenetrable material on most foundation to

prevent the moisture absorbed from the soil rising and causing dampness

in the wall. Moisture penetration and rising dampness constitutes health

risks and cause discomfort to the inhabitants of the building.

Generally, d.p.c helps the preservation of wall finishes especially at the

base of the walls. d.p.c also provides protection against the dampness

arising from during rain. d.p.c reduces the tendency of the moisture to rise

up to the wall finishes, like rendering and painting at crack blister, peel,

flake, slow drying, etc.

TYPES OF DAMP PROOFING MATERIALS

1. Damp proof membrane materials

a. Hot, pitch or bitumen

b. Bitumen sheets/solutions/tar

c. Mastic asphalt

d. Polythene sheet
2. Damp Proof course

a. Flexible d.p.c materials

(i) Lead

(ii) Copper

(iii) Bitumen

(iv) Polythene sheet

b. Semi-Rigid d.p.c materials

(i) Slates

(ii) Bricks

BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF BASEMENT PROCEEDS IN

STAGES

1. Excavation begins at ground level and the sides are supported by

timbering.

2. This continues until the required dept is reached.

3. Foundation is cast and walls started. Timbering is removed

progressively and the space backfilled.

4. The wall reaches ground level all around the excavation.

5. The soil inside the walls can then be removed, if necessary.

BASEMENT EXCAVATION

The excavation for deep basements started at ground level, as the holes

becomes deeper a decision base to be made about the method to be

employed.

If ramp of earth is left in position, tipper tracks can use it to get into and out

of the hole. This depends on the length of the excavation, as it must be

able to accommodate a ramp of about 200 slope. Weather condition and

type of soil may also be considered as this may affect the use of the ramp

by loaded vehicles.

The ramp may be removed finally. If this is done by an excavator, with the

soil being removed by bucket and crane, the excavator will have to be

hoisted out on completion. If vehicles cannot drive out of the excavation,

the soil will have to be loaded into buckets, hoisted to the surface and

loaded on to trucks. The excavator is finally lifted out by crane. Where

excavation is not very deep, hand excavation may be used.

Various types of earth moving and excavation plant are available for use in

different circumstances, e.g. bulldozer shovel back actions and drag-line

grab crane excavators, loader and truck.

PRINCIPLE OF TANKING IN BASEMENT WORKS

Tanking is a system of forming a continuous waterproofing lining usually in

asphalt round the walls and floor of a basement as a barrier to rising and

penetrating dampness. The term tanking can also be used to describe a

continuous waterproofing lining to the walls and floors of substructures (e.g.

basement structures) to act as a tank to exclude water. This principle is

known as Basement taking.

The traditional material for tanking is mastic asphalt which is applied and

spread hot in three coats to a thickness of 20mm for vertical and 30mm for

horizontal work. Joints between each laying of asphalt in each coat should

be staggered at least 75mm for vertical and 150mm for horizontal work with

the joints in succeeding coats. Angles are reinforced with two coats of fillet

of asphalt.

Asphalt is usually applied to the outside face of structural walls and under

structural floors so that the walls and floors provide resistance against

water pressure on the asphalt, and the asphalt keep water away from the

structure.

Where the walls of the structure are on site boundaries and it is not

possible to excavate to provide adequate working space to apply asphalt

externally, a system of internal tanking may be used.

An internal lining is rarely used for new buildings because of the additional

floor and wall construction necessary resist water pressure on the asphalt.

Internal asphalt is sometimes used where a substructure to an existing

building is to be water proofed.

HARD CORE

This is an application of suitable material suck as broken bricks, stones and

tiles, clinker, gravel, quarry waste, which are required on the building site to

fill hollow oversite concrete work. On wet sites, it may be used to provide a

firm working surface and to prevent contamination of the lower part of the

wet concrete during compaction.

The particle materials should be hard and durable, not subject to decay or

breakdown by weather or chemical attack, and it should be easily placed

and well compacted. The hardcore should be spread until it is roughly level

and round until it forms a compact bed for the oversite concrete. The

hardcore bed is usually 100 to 300mm thick. It is spread to such thickness

as required to raise the finished surface of the oversite concrete.

Generally, the hardcore bed serves as a solid working base for building and

as a bed to receive oversite.

BLINDING

Is a process of providing a layer of dry concrete, coarse clinker or ash over

the hardcore before placing the oversite concrete. Before the concrete is

laid it is usual to blind the top surface of the hardcore. The purpose is to

prevent the wet concrete running down between the lumps of broken brick

or stone, as it would make easier for water to seep through the hardcore

and could be wasteful of concrete. To blind or seal, the top surface of the

hardcore a thin layer of very dry coarse concrete can be spread over it, or a

thin layer of coarse clinker or ash can be used. the blinding layer, or coat,

will be about 50mm thick, and on it the site concrete is spread and finished

with a true level top surface.

USE OF ANTI-TERMITE TREATMENT IN FOUNDATION WORKS

A problem in tropical climates is the possibility that timber maybe attacked

by termites. The common termite or white ant forms colonies in the ground

where a nest housing the queen is found. The termites can enter a building

through the ground looking for timber to consume. The junction of the wall

and floor is a particularly vulnerable point.

There are some precautions which can be taken to reduce the risk of

termite attack.
1. The area around the building should be inspected for termite nests,

which should b dug out and treated with insecticide.

2. During excavation work for the foundation and hardcore bed, the

exposed soil should be treated with insecticide, in an anticipation of

termite attack.

3. The ground floor concrete should be raised above the adjourning

ground level and should project beyond the outer wall face.
 WEEK 7

FLOORS

Floors are structural parts of a building. They are usually designed to be of

either a timber or concrete work. Generally, in building construction floors

are designed and constructed for the flowing primary purposes (function):

a) Provision of a uniform level surface: - Unless otherwise specified,

floors are constructed to provide a uniform level surface, this is done

primarily to sufficiently provide adequate support, comfort, stability

and strength to carry people, their furniture, equipment and materials.

b) Exclusion of Dampness from inside of the building (especially

ground floors): - Floors also function as to prevent the passage of

moisture rising up/surpring through foundations/walls and causing

dampness and discoyort inside the building, this is normally attained

by using a d.p.m.

c) Thermal Insulation: - Floors minimize the transfer of heat from the

building to the ground of the building. A floor also serves to conserve

or reduce heat as the case (situation) may require. In this case

insulations or special finishing materials are used.

d) Sound Insulator: - Floors also serve as a barrios to transmission of

airborne sound and reduce impact sound, (especially upper floors)

normally concrete is preferred to timber because timber readily

transmit sound than concrete where timber are used they are
 normally insulated with weight material (by filling the spaces between

the timber joists)

e) Fire Resistant: - in addition to the above functions, floors (especially

upper floor) are resistant, to fire to some considerable degree. They

provide resistance adequate for the escape of the occupants from the

building in times of fire outbreak.

f) Compatibility with the Surface Finish: - The purpose of a floor is

also to provide an adequate and acceptable surface finish to meet the

need of the user, with regards to appearance, comfort, cleanliness,

stability and safety.

GROUND FLOORS

There are primarily two types of ground floors solid ground floor and

raised timber ground floor.

A) SOLID GROUND FLOORS

There are normally constructed in-situ concrete. Solid concrete

ground floors have three principal components; hardcore, a damp

roof membrane and a layer of dense concrete. To construct these

types of floors, hardcore is compacted onto the reduced ground level

after excavation.

To prevent cement ground loss from the superimposed concrete

layer, or to protect a damp roof membrane from fracture, the hardcore

is blinded with a 25mm layer of sand.

The damp-proof membrane maybe positioned below the concrete

slab, upon the sand blinding polythene, sheet is the most popular

material, although bituminous sheet is acceptable. Alternatively, the

d.p.m. maybe sandwiched between the finishing their screed and the

structural concrete slab. In this particular case, cold or hot application

of bituminous solution in three layers with final layer sprinkled with

sand to bond to the screed overlay.

The concrete slab is of 100 – 150mm in thickness, composed of

cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregates in the ratio of 1:3:6 to

provide a minimum strength specification of 1hr/mm2 at 28 days with

coarse aggregate of 38mm. A mix of 1:2:4 is preferred when using

coarse aggregate of 19mm size. A tamping bar is used to compact

and level the concrete to the specified depth-provided by short iron

pegs with finishing provided by cement/sand (1:3) screed.

B) SUSPENDED (RAISED) TIMBER GROUND FLOORS

This system of providing ground floors in buildings is now virtually

obsolete due to the escalating cost of the materials and skilled labour

required for their installation. Some few centuries ago houses were

constructed with timber ground floors raised 300 or more above the

site concrete or earth. This was done to have the surface of the

ground floor sufficiently above the ground level to prevent them being

cold and damp during winter.

Construction of this type of floor is made up of selected timber

platforms of hardwood floor boards nailed across timber joists, and

the joists in wall plate bearing on ½B thick sleeper walls, built directly

off the site concrete 1.8 apart. Sleeper walls are generally built three

courses of brick high, and are also built honey-combed to allow fire

circulation of air below the floor, to prevent wood decay. Air bricks are

also provided along external wall also to aid the circulation of air.

Component Parts of the raised timber ground floor construction:

a. Honey-comb sleeper wall: - sleeper walls are ½B thick built directly

off the site concrete about 1.8-2.0m apart. These sleeper walls are

generally built at least three courses of brick high and sometimes as

high as upto 600mm. The walls are built honey-combed to allow free

air circulation below the timber floor members.

b. D. P. C.: - This is spread and embedded on top of the sleeper walls

to prevent any moisture rising through the site concrete and sleeper

walls to the timber floor.

c. Wall Plate: - This is a continuous length of softwood timber which is

embedded in mortar on the d.p.c. The wall plate is bedded so that its

top surface is level along its length and also level with the top of wall

plates on other sleeper walls. This timber member is usually 100 x

75mm and is laid on one 100 face so that there is 100 surface with on

which the timber joists bear. The function of a wall plate for timber

joists is two-fold: -

(i) It forms a firm level surface on which the timber joists can bear

and to which they can be nailed.

(ii) It spreads the point load from joists uniformly along the length

of the wall below.

d. Floor Joists: - These are rectangular section softwood timbers laid

with their long sectional axis vertical and laid parallel spaced from

400 to 600 apart.

Floor joists are from 38 to 50 thick and 75 to 125 deep timber boards

are laid across the joists and nailed to form a firm level floor surface.

e. Floor Boards: - For timber, floor boards are usually 16,1921 or 28

thick and from 100 to 180mm wide and up to 5.0m in length. The

edges of the board maybe cut square or plain edged, though this
 being the cheapest of cutting and fixing them, but boards tend to

shrink causing ugly cracks and the edges to open up. The usual way

of cutting the edges of floor boards is by providing a torque on one

edge and a groove on the opposite edge of each board, commonly

termed T and G. The boards are laid across the floor joists, cramped

together and nailed to the joists with two nails to each board bearing

on each joist.

f. Ventilation using air bricks: - In order to avoid deterioration of timber

under the floor board or suspended timber ground floor, there is need

to allow air circulation under the floor system. In order to achieve this

special air bricks must be provide at the external walls of the building

and adequately spaced. The purpose of these air bricks is to cause

air to circulate under the floor and thereby preventing stagnant air

which is likely to induce dry rot fugues to grow and causing word

decay.

In summary therefore, construction of the raised timber ground floor

can be achieved the assemblage of the above conform placed on a

concrete slab on a hardcore based.

 SUSPENDED (UPPER) FLOORS

There are two main types of upper floors, timber upper floors and

reinforced concrete upper floors. Though timber upper floor

construction is about half the cost of a similar reinforced concrete

floor, concrete floors are still preferred because of their better

resistance to fire and to sound transmission and supports heavier

loads.

1. TIMBER UPPER FLOORS

There is no much difference in construction between the timber upper

floor and suspended timber ground floor. The only noticeable

difference is the elimination of sleeper walls in the upper floors, which

consequently involved the use of layer timber section for the floor

joists.

i. Strutting between Joists: - Timber floor joists spanning more than

3.0m are strutted at mind-span or 15m spacing to resist buckling and

deformity. This is done to safeguard and prevent cracking of the

plastered ceiling work due to excessive shrinkage and movement of

the joist. The herringbone strut arrangement using 50 or 38mm

square softwood struts is most efficient, but solid strutting is often

used for easier and quicker installation. Solid strutting consists of

short lengths of timber of the same section as the joist which are
 nailed between the joists either in line or staggered. This is not

usually so effective as the herringbone system, because unless the

short solid lengths are cut very accurately to fit to the sides of the

joists they do not firmly strut between the joists. As with herringbone,

between the first and the last joists and adjacent walls folding wedges

are used to firmly locate the strutting.

ii. End Support for Floor Joists: - The floor is normally framed with

softwood timber joists, with maximum economical span of between

3.6 and 4.0.

The required depth of joists depends on the total load. For

stability, the ends of floor joists must have adequate support from

walls or beams. There are various methods of supporting the ends

of joists in order to sustain the imposed loadings.

a) The ends of the joists are treated with preservatives (to avoid

decay) and are built into the brick walls. This method requires

cutting and packing of trick work in order to bring the top of the

joist on the same plane, care must taken to prevent joist

protinding into the cavities of the cavity wall and providing a

bridge for moisture penetration. Alternatively timber floor joists

can be built into wall to bear on a wall plate of timber or metal,

which are along the length of the wall beneath the joists, this

assist in spreading the load from the floor along the length of
 the wall and also as a level bed on which the joists are placed

and nail in position. The wall is then raised between and above

the floor joists.

b) End support for the joists can also be attained by the use of

galvanized steel floor hangers, which are built into brick or

block courses so that they project and support the ends of the

joists. This is the best method of providing supports to joist

from external walls as it avoids building timber into walls.

As an alternative to hangers, timber floor joist maybe supported by

a timber wall plate carried on iron corbels built into walls, or brick

courses corbelled out from the wall. The disadvantage of these is

that they form a projection below the ceiling.

iii. Floor Boards: - As with timber ground floors, the boards usually

19 or 21 thick have T & G edges core cramped up and nailed

across the floor joists, with the heading joints staggered.

 (ii)
GALVANIZED
STEEL FLOOR
HANGERS

Hangers built into wall

to support joists.

(iii)
STEEL CORBELS BUILT
INTO SUPPORT WALL
PLATE

Wall plate
support joists

Corbels built into wall to

support wall plats/joists.

(IV) WALL PLATE SUPPORTED

OR TWO CORBELS OF BRICK
CORBEL WALL PLATE

Two-course brick corbel

brick wall plate
2. REINFORCED CONCRETE UPPER FLOORS

Reinforced concrete floors have a better resistance to damage by fire

and can safely support greater super imposed than timber floors of

similar depth.

(a) Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Floors: - As the name

implies a monolithic reinforced concrete floor is an unbroken

solid mass of concrete between 100 and 300 thick, cast in-situ

and reinforced with steel reinforcing bars.

Construction of monolithic reinforced concrete floor consists of

a temporary CONFERRING (consists of timber/steel platforms

erected at ceiling level supported on timber or steel beams and

posts) to support the concrete while it is still wet and plastic for

7 days. The top surface of the platform is then painted with

mould oil to prevent the wet concrete from adhering to the

platform, so that timber platforms can be removed easily. Small

tiles or blocks (biscuit) are then cast 15-25mm thick depending

on the specified concrete cover. These are placed at frequent

centres on the platform. These tiles (specer blocks or biscuits)

are tied to/and support the steel reinforcement, and ensures

that the mesh will have the specified cover for the concrete.

The concrete is the placed of cast on the centering to the

 required thickness, and it is compacted, vibrated and leveled off

care must be taken that vibration is not overdone so that most

of the cement is hot brought to the surface, thereby reducing

the strength of the mix. The concrete is then cured for 7 days

before the centering is removed.

1B wall
Biscuit
Concrete floor
cast in-situ
Distribution Concrete floor built in
bars Raised brick work
above floor cast
Main bars with
bent-up ends
Timber
formwork

½B
partition

Timber
Timber 1B wall
chartering
support

b) Precast Self-centering Floor System: - centering or formwork used

to support the monolithic reinforced concrete floors tend to obstruct

and delay building operations. So for emergency projects where time

is an important factor, self-centering concrete floors are used. This

type of floor is made of precasted concrete beams which are usually

manufactured in yards and are transported to the site for fixing. They

serve as floors when they are raised and placed in position with their

ends built into brick walls. Once in position they require is support

other than the bearing of their ends on walls or beams. There are a

wide range of precast self-centering floor systems:

i. Rectangular hollow cross-sectional beam floor units, closed

spaced.

ii. Inverted channel sections, closed spaced

iii. Solid precast ‘T’ section beams with hollow lightweight concrete

infilling blocks.

HOLLOW CONC. BEAN FLOOR

 WEEK 8

WALLS

Walls are vertical and continuous solid structures, usually constructed from

materials such as clay, stone, concrete, timber or metal.

Walls can be classified with respect to their functional requirements as

internal and external walls. They can also be defined as load bearing

(carrying imposed loads from roofs and floors in addition to their own

weight) and non-load bearing (eg portion), non-load bearing is with respect

to the structural requirements. There are variably two types of walls, solid

wall and framed wall. A solid wall (Masonry wall) is constructed either of

blocks of brick, burned clay, stone or concrete.

These are laid in mortar to overlap to form a bond (bonding) or as a

monolithic (eg concrete wall). A frame wall is constructed from a frame of

small sections of timber, concrete or metal joined together to provide

strength and rigidity, and between the members of the frame thin panels of

some material are then fixed to the frames to fulfill the functional

requirements of the particular wall.

THE FUNCTION OF A WALL IS

(1)To enclose and protect a building, and also serve as a means of (2)

dividing space within a building walls serve (3) as protection against wind

and rain, and to (4) support floor and roofs and to some extent to (5)

conserve heat within the building. Walls can (6) serve to protect the
building against fire, excessive heat, and to resist or minimize the

transmission and absorption of sound especial solid block walls. Framed

walls usually of less weight than solid block walls are normally used for

partitioning existing structures so as to minimize the total load of the

building. The use of framed walls is preferred where there is little

consideration for sound transmission. Note that no material for wall

concrete fulfils all the functional requirement of a wall with maximum

efficiency.

BRICKS

Bricks are small blocks manufactured from burnt clay that can be handled

with one hand, and its length is twice the width plus one mortar joint. Blocks

made from sand and lime and blocks made of concrete manufactured in

clay brick size are also called bricks.

The standard size is 215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm which with 10mm mortar

joint becomes 225mm x 112.5mm x 75mm.

102.5

65

STANDARD
BRICK
FORMAT SIZE
215
There are various types of bricks of the same standard format are classified

with respect to the material used, composition, extent of mixing and curing,

duration and amount of forming applied. Some of these of bricks are:

commons, facings, engineering bricks, semi-engineering bricks,

composition of clay, flattons, stocks, marts, Gautts, clay shale bricks,

calcium silicate bricks, flint-lime bricks, and hollow, perforated and special

bricks.

Some special applications and features work require bricks to be reduced

in size or reshaped. Specials are either cut from a whole brick, or purpose-

made (manufactured) by hand in hardwood moulds.

½ BAT OR SNAP
HEADER
Queen Closer

¼ Brick ½ Brick

KING CLOSER ¾ BAT

¾ BAT
¼ Brick
½ Brick
1 Brick

BEVELED CLOSER
Some examples of purpose-made (manufactured) special bricks

Plink Header
Plink stretcher

Dogleg brick
Angle brick
Squint Angle

Cant Double Cant

Birds month

Single bull nose

Half round Coping Saddleback coping

Double bull nose

bull nose mitre

Perforated brick Cellular pressed brick

 WEEK 9

BRICK BONDING

To build or construct a wall of brick or blocks, it is usual to lay the bricks in

some regular pattern. The brick courses or rows in a wall are arranged to

ensure that each brick overlaps or bear upon two or more bricks

immediately below it. The process of laying the bricks across each other

and binding them together is called bonding. The amount of overlap and

the part of the brick used determined the pattern or bond of brickwork.

Bonding of bricks can also be defined as the arrangement of bricks in

which no vertical joint of one course is exactly over the one in the next

course above or below it, and having the greatest possible amount of lap

which is usually atleast ¼ of the length of a brick.

The main purpose of bonding is provide maximum strength, lateral stability

and resistance to side thrust, and it distributes vertical and horizontal loads

over a large area of the wall. A secondary purpose of bonding is to provide

appearance (decoration)
Brick terms in bonding: terms in relation to brick bonding

Frog or indent Aris or Angle

Stretcher face

Header face

Tooting

Header face Perpends

Stretcher face
Quoin
Queen closer Bed joints

Course: - This is the name given to the row of bricks between two bed

joints, and the thickness is taken as one brick plus one mortar joint.

Quoin: - Is the external corner of a wall.

Perpends: - The vertical joints of the face of the wall. For good bond it is

necessary that these joint should be vertically above one another in

alternate courses.

Stretcher face: - This is front length and height elevation of a brick, ie 215

x 65mm face.

Header face: - the side width and height face of a brick, ie 102.5 x 65mm

face.

Lap: - The horizontal distance between the vertical joint in two successive

courses.

King closer: - these are bricks cut so that one end is half the width of the

brick. They are used in the construction of reveal to obtain rebated jamb in

openings.

Bats: - Pieces of bricks usually known according to their fraction of a whole

brick, eg ½ or ¾ bats.

Queen closers: - These are bricks made with the same length and

thickness as ordinary brick, but half the width placed usually next to the

quoin leader to obtain the required lap.

Pointing and Jointing: - Pointing is the application of a special mortar to

the horizontal and vertical mortar joint of a brick wall externally in order to

ensure that the brick joints are solidly filled with mortar to make them water

tight and secondly to give some amount of decoration to the external face
of the wall. Jointing is the method of filling brick joints in a brick wall during

the laying operations.

Keyed or curved
Flush recessed Protruding

Squared recessed Weathered or struck

TYPES OF BRICK BONDS

Stretcher bond

Header bond

English bond

Flemish bond

Garden wall bond

The choice of any brick bond is influence by the following factors:

- Prevailing environmental or site conditions

- Thickness of the wall

 - The purpose for the wall construction, i.e. Either strength or

decoration.

Stretcher Bond: - This type of bond is where bricks are laid with every

brick showing a stretcher face or long face on each side of the wall, hence

the thickness of the wall is to be 102.5mm.

Bricks show stretcher face

Header (Heading) Bond: - This arrangement shows the header face of

every brick, smith 215mm thickness. It is rarely in use, because it has no

attractive finish (too many joints).

Bricks showing header

faces
English Bond: - This arrangement shows the bricks in one course or layer

with their header faces and in the course below and above show their

stretcher faces.

A course of bricks
showing header faces

PART OF 1B THICK Course of bricks

WALL LAID IN showing stretcher faces
ENGLISH BOND

Flemish Bond: - the arrangement here involves bricks in every course or

layer showing alternating header and stretcher faces. This bond is more

attractive than the English bond, because the header face of many bricks is

dark, and they are separated in this bond as against the English where they

are continuous.
 Each course alternate
header and stretcher faces
show on the face of the wall
PART OF 1B THICK
WALL LAID IN
ENGLISH BOND

Garden Wall Bond: - this is suppose to have a fair finish face for both

faces of the wall. Garden wall bonds are therefore designed to reduce the

number of header faces to facilitate a fair face finish both sides in walls

where appearance is important. There is one course of header bricks to

every three courses of stretchers in English garden wall bond, and one

header to every three stretchers in each course in Flemish garden wall

bond.
 Three
English stretcher
harden faces
wall bond
Header the
face

Closer

Stretchers
Header

Flemish
garden
wall bond

Closer
 1 ½ BRICK THICK ENGLISH BOND
¾ Bat

Next upper course

Queen closer ¾ Bat

¾ Bat One course

Queen closer

Queen closer

SINGLE FLEMISH BOND

¾ Bat Next course

½ bats called ‘suop

headers’ used in every
other course

One course

¾ Bat
Queen closer
 1½ BRICK THICK DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND
¼ Bat
Next course

Queen closer
¼ Bat
Queen closer
One course

¾ Bat
¾ Bat
Queen closer

BLOCKS

Blocks for building are wall units larger in size than a brick. They are made

of concrete or clay.

(a) Concrete Blocks: - Are manufactured from Portland cement and

aggregates, as solid and hollow or cellular blocks. They are used

both internally and externally for non-load-bearing and load bearing

walls respectively. Concrete blocks suffer moisture movement which

cause cracking of plaster finish, vertical joints are provides in long

block walls of intervals of upto twice the height of the wall to resist the

cracking. There are three types of concrete blocks:

i. Dense aggregate concrete blocks: - Are made from a mix of 1 part

of Portland cement to 6 or 8 part of aggregate by volume. They are

very heavy but have less unshing strength than most bricks. They

are used for general building including below the ground, and for
 internal and external load-bearing walls. The standard dimensions of

these blocks are:

9”
390 to 450 long x 190 to 225 high x 215 to 225 thick.

6”
140 to 150 thick

4”
90 to 100 thick

ii. Lightweight aggregate concrete blocks (type A): - Are made of

Portland cement and any of the following lightweight aggregates.

Granulated or foamed blast furnace slag, expanded clay or shale, or

wall-burned furnace clinker. The blocks are used in building including

below ground, in internals walls and inner leaf of cavity-walls. The

furnace clinker blocks which are the cheapest are used extensively

for walls of houses. The foamed blast-furnace slag blocks (good

thermal insulators) are used for walls of large framed buildings

because of their lightness in weight.

Are made of the same materials as in type A. They are used mainly

non-load bearing partitions. They are manufactured as solid, hollow,

or cellular depending on the thickness of the block, the thin being

solid, and the thicker either hollow or cellular to reduce weight and

the drying shrinkage of the blocks.

 SOLID
BLOCKS

HOLLOW
CELLULAR
BLOCKS

Bonding

Concrete blocks are normally laid in stretcher bond, the various thickness

of blocks are made to suit most wall thickness requirement. Bonding is

done with mortar with roughly the density, strength and drying shrinkage as

the blocks, normally 1:1:6 cement/lime/sand by volume, or 1:2:9

cement/lime/sand by volume.

Rendering: - Is normally applied to a wall for the purpose of appearance or

to improve resistance to rain penetration or both. It is a wet mix of cement

and washed very fine sand 1:3 or 4 mix, spread on the face of the wall

toweled smooth or textured to dry and harden.

(b) Clay blocks: - Are made from selected bricks clay which are press

moulded and burnt. They are lightweight blocks, hard, dense and

hollow to reduce shrinkage during firing. They are made or

manufactured with grooves to provide a key for plaster. They suffer

 less moisture movement, are resistant to fire, and are mainly used for

non-load bearing partitions. Sizes are 290 long x 215 heights x 62.5,

75, 100 and 150 thick.

STONE MASONRY

Choice of stone for wall construction is generally limited to its availability in

the construction area. Great amount of natural stone deposits in some

parts of the country is obvious from its abundant use as external cladding in

these areas. Classes of building stone include: -

- Igneous rock, formed from volcanic deposits, e.g. granite, basalt.

- Sedimentary rock disintegrated and reformed by centuries of rock

wreathes e.g. sandstone, limestone.

- Metamorphic rock, disintegrated and reformed by pressurization or

heat, e.g. marble, slate.

Reconstituted or artificial stone of natural stone aggregates and cement

moulded into convenient size blocks of concrete are also available.

It is a substitute for natural stone and has the advantage of freedom from

defects.

Bonding - Stonework maybe coursed by dressing the stone to an

agreeable size of about 200mm or 300mm square. Alternatively, walls may

be constructed from stones as they arrive from the quarry. Awkward covers

are removed and the result is an uncoursed wall known as random rubble.
Snacked rubbed walling is a compromise, and is composed of squared

stone of irregular size with long vertical joints interrupted by small square

stones called ‘snacks’ of 50mm minimum dimension.

Stone cladding are also use as non-load bearing columns.

VARIATIONS IN MASONRY RUBBLE WALLING

(a) Un-coursed random rubble

200 or 300mm

(b) Coursed squared random rubble

Snacks
 (c) Squared random rubble with through snacks

CAVITY WALLS

Where adequate prevention of rain penetration and improved insulation are

required, conventional cavity walls with two separate skins is provided.

This contains a half-brick outer leaf and a 90 or 100mm lightweight load

bearing concrete block inner leaf, with a 50mm wide air space between the

two leaves. The height of such walls are limited, normally between 3.5 to

9m, this is because stability is reduced as result of the two skins and there

no bonding into the thickness of the wall. The stability of the two separate

skins can be enhanced with wall ties across the cavity in such a way that

the ends of the ties are bedded in the horizontal mortar joints of each skin.

Wall ties maybe produced from galvanized steel, stainless steel or plastic.

Spacing of wall ties is at 900mm maximum horizontally and 450mm

vertically staggered with a maximum of 300mm at door and window jambs,

vertically.

To give the wall enough strength it is usual to fill fine concrete at the base

of the cavity at foundation level.

As earlier stated, the purpose of this type of wall is to prevent rain

penetrating to the inner skin and to improve the insulation of the wall.

Therefore, the cavity should be clear of obstructions by solid material, there

should be no bridge between the two skins of the wall other than the wall

ties and base fill. Any obstruction is brick or mortar in cavity may allow
water/moisture to pass through to the inner skin and so defeat the objective

of the cavity. To prevent mortar or brick from falling inty the cavity. The

bricklayer usually suspends a battern of wood, bond with sacking, in the

cavity as the wall is built. This battern is raised as the brickwork is built,

and is withdrawn and cleaned from time to time.

WALL TIES

Drip

GALVANIZED STEEL BUTTERY PLASTIC

GALVANIZED STEEL
GALVANIZED OR STAINLESS VERTICAL TWIST
STEEL DOUBLE DRAINAGE

PRESSED STAINLESS STEEL

 Cavity wall, brick outer leaf

50 cavity Cavity wall, light weight

brick inner leaf

Wall ties
Non load bearing tight
weight concrete block
partition 1 bonded to
external wall with metal
wall ties

d.p.c.

G.L.
Screed

dpm

Hard core Over site concrete

Foundation
 WEEK 10

PARTITION WALLING

Internal walls usually called partitions principally serve to divide the gross

floor area of a building into compartments or rooms. A secondary purpose

is to transmit floor and/or roof loads to a suitable foundation.

Simply put the functions of partition walling is (1) to divide space within

building, (2) sometimes to carry and transmit loads to the ground (3) it can

also serve as a barrier for sound transmission and (4) for privacy.

The constructional forms (types) of partitions are:

(1) Concrete block

(2) Clay block

(3) Timber frame or stud

(4) Demountable frame

Concrete block partitions

Are normally used for both load-bearing and non-load bearing partition

walling, the minimum thickness of load-bearing partition block work for

single and two-storey housing is 90mm, while for three storey is 140mm.

Stability is achieved at the base by independent strip foundation or a

thickened area of reinforced ground floor slab.

Where the wall occurs in an upper storey, base support is achieved by a

beam. Stability at the ends of the block wall is by creating pockets or

recesses in the existing wall as it is built alternative course are then bonded
into the inner leaf. Metal ties can also be used at the T-Junction of

subsequent courses of the existing wall end the new partition. Non-load-

bearing block partitions are less strictly controlled and maybe of minimum

thickness of 60mm. Block for this purpose should not require a foundation

in excess of the ground floor concrete. Walls are bonded or tied as in the

case of load-bearing partition walls. Openings in load bearing or dense

concrete block partitions will require a lintel at the door/window head.

External wall

Alternatively using
expanded metal ties in
every joint

Partition

Alternate courses built

into inner leaf or
pockets of existing well
 1ST COURSE

2ND COURSE

3RD COURSE

TIMBER FRAME OR STUD PARTITION:

These are a lightweight wall system, generally non-load bearing. They are

constructed directly from the floor and will require no special structural

support, the frame construction contains a vertical studding at 400 to

600mm spacing with noggins at approximately 1m spacing to restrain

movement. Noggins are staggered to simplify nailing through the stud, and

door openings are provided with thicker studs to form jambs or posts. The
framework is clad with timber boarding or sometimes sheet metal.

Plasterboard of 9.5mm thickness is the most popular, offering economy

with choice of painting, plaster or paper hanging for finish treatment, sound

or thermal insulation maybe improved by filling the framework gabs with

insulation bats.

100 x 50 head of
partition 100 x 50 stud
between 400 to
600 spacing

100 x 50 Noggins Folding wedges

(approx for spacing
to avoid movement) 100 x 50 sill
or soleplate

Floor Board

Floor joist

100 x 75 head
room and posts
100 x 50 stud

100 x 75 Door post

Door dinning

Door 9.5mm plaster board

Door Stop

Insulation
DEMOUNTABLE FRAME PARTITION

Demountable frames are a non-load bearing scheme suitable for use in

office and commercial buildings. They suit this type of building, as change

sin office layout or changes in occupancy can easily be achieved without

structural disruption. This system is based on a framework of lightweight

galvanized steel channel fixed to wall, ceiling and floor with plugs and

screws. Wallboard of plaster, chipboard or plywood is secured y self-

lapping screws at approximately 1m vertical spacing to the channels and

intermediate studs spaced every 600mm. Joints between boards are

closed with a steel cover strip secured every 250mm and a plastic capping

trim.

Channel set back for Galvanized steel

timber door post vertical channel @
600mm spacing
Self tapping screws
at 1m spacing
Wall board

Cover strip and

plastic trim
50m will sill (and
head)
TIMBER WALLS

Construction of a timber framed wall is a rapid, clean, dry operation often

accomplished by the use of simple hand or power operated tools. When

sensibly constructed it has adequate stability and strength to support floors

and roofs of small building. And when covered with wall finishes it has

sufficient resistance to damage by fire, good thermal insulating properties

and reasonable durability.

Timber framed walls consist of small section timbers fixed vertically to suit

the loads to be supported and materials to be used as weathering and

facing, fixed to a bottom sole plate (secured by bolts embedded in

foundations), and a top member head plate to form the traditional timber

stud frame.

The simple timber stud wall with the vertical suds nailed to the sole and

head plates are provided with diagonal timber braces built into the frame to

provide sufficient rigidity.

Sheathing of boards or plywood panels are used to cover clad these

frames. They are properly secured to the studs, sometimes with insulation

boards fixed between studs.

Sheathing of boards or plywood are sometimes used as tracings, because

the wall is dry it adviceable to use systems of dry finishes and livings, such

as plasterboard and boards. To provide sufficient thermal insulation and

prevent moisture it is necessary to fix an insulating material and vapour

barrier between the studs with vapour barrier fixed between the used of the

building and the insulation.

OPENING IN WALLS

Openings in internal and external walls are for mainly the provision of

windows and doors; these are usually required for access, privacy,

ventilation, outside view etc.

Head of opening

Jamb of Jamb
opening
Soffit

Sill of window or
threshold of door
Reveal
opening

Jambs: - Is the term used for the full height of opening either side of the

window of the brickwork.

Reveal: - Describes the thickness of the wall revealed by cutting the

opening and the reveal is the surface of brick work as long as the height of

the opening.

Sill: - Is the lower part of the opening for windows.

Threshold: - Lower part of opening for doors.

Soffit: - In the bottom part of head or top of opening.

Jambs of opening for windows and doors in solid and cavity brick and block

wall are mostly finished with plain or square jambs. Where the window and

door frames are made of soft wood, to hide as much of the window frame

as possible as a partial, protection against rain or appearance sake the

jambs of openings are REBATED.

Solid wall

Rebate or recess
Inner reveal
Outer reveal

Sill of window or
threshold of door
opening
External face
of wall
Jambs of opening in cavity walls must be well closed to prevent cold air

blowing into it and so reducing the insulating properties of the wall, and any

material used to close the cavity must be non-absorbent to prevent

movement from the outer to the inner skins. There are two ways of closing

the cavity of jambs of openings:

a. By solidly closing the cavity with brick or block and building in a

continuous d.p.c., or

b. By building in the timber or metal door or window frame so that it

closes the cavity.

Head of Openings: - The brickwork or block work over the head of

openings (soffit) has to be supported either by a flat lintel or an arch.

Lintel: - Is any single solid length of concrete, steel, timber or stone built in

over an opening to support the wall above it.

Bearing
ends

Depth

Lintel

Window or door opening

The ends of the lintel are built into the brick or block work over the jambs so

as to transmit the weight carried by the lintel to the jambs. The area on

which the end of lintel bears is termed its bearing ends. The wider the

opening the more load the lintel has to support and the greater its bearing

at ends must be so as to transmit the load it carries to an area capable of

supporting it.

Casting lintels: - Lintels which are most cases rectangular in section,

could be ‘precast’ (cast inside a mould and hardened before it is built into

the wall) or cast insitu or situ-cast (cast in position inside a timber mould

fixed over the opening in walls).

A modification of the rectangular section lintel, known as a BOOT LINTEL,

is used to reduce the depath of the lintel exposed externally and to improve

appearance.

A boot lintel has its toe part usually 65 deep showing externally. A boot

lintel can be used over openings in a cavity wall only where the wall has an

internal insulating linings this is to resist the lintel from acting as a cold

bridge.
 R.C boot lintel
Brick cut to
Toe behind ¼B thick
brickwork Boot
face Boot lintel
Weathering
lintel
65 65

Toe of boot Insulation

lintel
Throat

Drip

Lintel in Cavity Wall: - It is important to carry the thermal insulation cavity

fill or timing applied to the inner skin down to the head of the opening so

that whole wall is insulated. This is to ensure that the lintel does not act as

a cold bridge due to it’s poor insulating properties and could invite

condensation on its inner face. There are also galvanized steel lintels

designed to support both the outer skin and a course of lightweight

concrete blocks over the lie of openings.

 Light weight
Cavity block inner skin
Brick
rater leaf
Brick Dense conc.
outer leaf Block inner
Insulation
board fixed
carried down to Conc. Lintel
lead of opening
Galvanized steel
lintel built into
R.C. Lintel
jambs to support
bricks and block
50
skins of cavity
235 wall
229
Light section
galvanized steel
lintel Heavy section
galvanized steel

Brick Lintels: - Maybe formed as bricks laid in mortar horizontally over

openings. It gives poor support and usually need additional support. There

are various methods of strengthening and giving support to brick lintels.

For openings upto 900mm wide, it is satisfactory to cut the brick at either

end of the lintel on the splay so as to form a ‘skew back’. For openings

more than 900 it is supported by a wrought iron bearing bar, with end built

into jambs and on which brick lintel bears.

Also when using fine grained bricks (Marls or Gaults) for lintel a hole could

drilled in each brick of the lintel. A mild steel rod is threaded through the

holes and the ends built into the brickwork on either side of the lintel.
 Wall ties bedded between bricks and cast into an insitu lintel behind it could

also be used as support in recent years a galvanized steel support for brick

lintels has been used, mainly for internal walls.

Brick lintel

Concrete
lintel

Skewback Brick lintel with 50 x 6 iron

skewback at jambs bearing with
ends built into
Concrete lintel cost behind
jambs
brick lintel to that the ties
are cost into it Internal
brick or
block wall
Wall tie
or partition

Galvanized
Brick lintel built with the lintel built
ties bedded between them. into jambs

Lintel conc.
with timber
100mm wide lintel
trimming

Brick Arches: - Are structures composed of serve aints of brick or stone,

used as alternative, to a lintel to support the load over an opening. Arch

shapes may relate to many attractive geometrical forms, the most common

being the semicircular.

 Crown
Haunch
Extrados

Abatement Intrados

Haunch
Springing point

Intrados and Extrados: - The inside and outside lines of curve of an arch.

- Soffit – Is the inside curve surface under the arch.

- Crown – the middle third of the arch.

- Haunches – two lower thirds of the arch.

- Abutment-where the plain brickwork meet the extrados of the arch.

- Springing line – the horizontal mortar joint or line from which the

arch springs.

- Voussoir – word used to describe each brick (or stone) used to

form an arch.
 WEEK 11

STAIRS/STAIRCASE

A stair is the conventional means of access between floors in

buildings. Staircases provide a safe, easy, comfortable and

serviceable means access from one level (floor) to another in a

building. The width of a stairway is normally between 600 – 900mm

TYPES OF STAIRCASES

(a) Straight Flight (Collage) Staircase: - A straight flight stair

rises from one floor to another in one straight direction within or

without an intermediate landing.

Landing

First floor

Landing

Second floor
Flight

(b) Quarter Turn Staircase: - A quarter turn stair rises to a

landing between floors, turns through 900 then rises to the floor

above.

1
 ¼ turn ¼ turn

(c) Half Turn Staircase: - A half turn stair rises to a landing

between floors, turn through 1800, then rises parallel to the

lower plight, to the floor above. A half turn stair is also referred

to as a ‘dog leg’ stair.

½ Landing ½ Landing

2
(d) Geometrical Staircase: - Consists of two types; the spiral

(helical) and the elliptical stairs. They are usually constructed

write treads tapered on plain. The spiral or helical stair is

economical, it take up little floor area, but difficult to use and

impossible for moving furniture and equipment.

The elliptical stair is extravagant in the use of space and can

provide an elegant feature for the grand building.

Hard rail

Dancing step

EXAMPLES

Spiral (helical)
stair

Elliptical stairs

3
* Material for Stairs

Stairs maybe constructed of timber, stone, enforced concrete

and steel.

* Terms of Stair Construction

12m min.
headroom Newel post

1.5m min Hand rail

clearance

900mm
minimum
Rise (Max.
220mm)
Total rise or
rise of flight
Pitch line

Max. 420
840mm – 1.0m

Going (min.220mm

Total Going or
Going of flight Maximum gab between
galvanizers

Steps: - Are a series of short of a horizontal face called tread and a

short height vertical face called riser, placed together at 900 or

constructed to form a structure in series where people can use to

ascend or descend the staircase by placing their feet on the treads

with the vertical risers providing the slope.

4
Flight: - An uninterrupted series of equal steps between floors or

between floor and landing or between landing and landing. The usual

of unobstructed width of a flight is from 800 for houses to 1200 for

hospitals/school 600 is acceptable if access is to be one room only

(normally bedrooms).

Tread and Riser: - As described above, the horizontal surface of a

step is described as the tread and the vertical or how vertical face as

the riser. Treads in enclosed steps usually project beyond the face of

the riser as a nosing to provide as wide a surface of tread as

practicable, and protect the tread against wear.

Rise and Going: - Rise is the distance measured vertically from the

surface of one tread to the surface of the next, or the distance from

the bottom to the top of a flight (total rise or rise of flight).

Going is the distance measured horizontally, from the face of one

riser to the face of the next riser, or the distance from the face of the

bottom riser to the face of the top riser of a flight (total going or going

of flight) are of sufficient width to contain and support the treads and

risers of a flight of steps. Usually the ends of the treads and risers are

glued and wedged into shallow grooves cut in closed strings. The

grooves are cut 12mm deep into string and tapering slightly in width

to accommodate treads, risers and the wedges which are driven in

below them.

5
 Staircases are usually enclosed in a stair well, formed sometimes by

an external wall(s) and partitions, to which the flights and landings are

fixed. The string of a flight of steps fixed against a wall or partition is

called wall string and the other string the outer string.

Half space landing

Newel post 100 x 100

Hand rail 75 x 50 Skirting

Floor boards
Balusters 25 or 19

100 x 50 landing
33 x 44 thick wall strings
joists built into
Section of 32 walls
tread and 19
risers
12m deep housing 175 x 75 trimmer
in 250 x 38 string support landing joist
for tread, risers and newel post bolted
and wedges to it.

Foot of newel post

bolted to floor joist.
Tread and risers
loused 12mm in close
outer string.

Floor boards
Foot of newel post Foot of outer string
bolted to joist or raised tonored and pinned to
timber ground floor. newel post.

6
The provision of strings can be done in ways; close or closed strings

(as above) and open or cut string.

Close or Closed Strings is the method whereby the string encloses

the treads and risers it supports. It looks happy and does not show

the profile of the treads and risers it encloses.

Open or cut string improves the appearance of a staircase; the outer

strings are cut to the profile of treads and risers.

25 square balusters
dovetail house in tread

Painted rising

Screws

Cut outer string

38 x 38 brachct screwed to
tread and string

To strengthen the right-angled joints beneath, between treads, risers

and string, angle blocks are used. Angle Blocks of triangular section

of softwood 50square timber and120mm long each, are glued in the

internal angles between the underside of the treads and riser, after

7
the have been together and glued and wedged into their housing in

the string.

Tread
Risen

Angle
block riser

Riser Tread
Angle between
50square, 120 square

* Pitch:- This is the angle of inclination of the stair from the

horizontal, usually between 1500 to 4200.

* Head Room and Clearance: - For people, goods, and furniture

is normally between 1.5m to 2.0m, measured vertically between

the lias of nosing or pitch line of the stair and the underside of

the stair, landing and floors above the stair.

* Summary of controls affective stair construction

- Equal rise for every step or landing.

- Equal going for every parallel tread.

- Maximum pitch angle to the horizontal is 420.

- Going of a tread should be atleast 220mm (Going, G  220mm).

- Rise of a tread should be atleast 75mm and no greater than

220mm (Rise, R = 75 to 220mm).

8
- Headroom measured vertically above the pitch line is atleast

2.0m.

- The sum of twice the rise plus the going is equal to or between

550mm and 700mm (2R + G = 550 to 700mm).

- Unobstructed width of stair, excluding the string, is atleast

800mm. 600mm is acceptable if access is to be one room only,

provided it is not a living room, Kitchen, bathroom or water

closet.

- There shall not be less than two (2) and not more than sixteen

(16) risers in a flight.

- Handrails are not required for the bottom two steps, thereafter

are provided at a height between 840mm and 1.0m above the

pitch line, and atleast 900mm around the landing.

- Balusters are spaced at 100mm to prevent a 100mm diameter

sphere passing through.

TIMBER STAIRCASE

Timber staircase is one in which a stair with treads and risers are

constructed from timber boards and put together in the same way as

a box or case. The members of a timber staircase flight are mainly

strings or stringers tread and risers. Timber members are normally

cut of the following sizes: treads 32 or 38, risers 19 or 25, strings 38

or 44. Because the members of the flight are put together like a box,

9
thin boards can be used and yet be strong enough to carry the loads

normal to stairs.

The usual method of joining risers to treads is to cut tongues on the

edges of the risers and fit them to grooves cut in the treads. Treads

are secured to the risers with screws, so as to prevent tongue coming

out of the groove by the action of peoples’ weight on the tread.

Nosing on treads usually projects out at about 32mm, or the

thickness of tread, from the face of the riser below. It rounded for

appearance purpose.

Strings (Stringers) cut from 38 or 44 thick

Landings: - A half and quarter space (turn) landing is constructed

with a sawn softwood trimmer which supports sawn softwood landing

joists or bearer, floor boards and newels or newel pests. Newel posts

cut from 100 x 100 timber and are notched and bolted to the trimmer,

serve to support handrails and provide a means of fixing the ends of

outer strings.

Balustrade: - The traditional balustrade consists of newel posts,

handrail and timber balusters the arrangement of these three

components is termed open balustrade. When the space between the

handrail and a close string is enclosed with timber panels, plywood,

hardboard, glass or any sheet material fixed to the light framework,

the balustrade is then termed close (or enclosed) balustrade.

10
Handrails: – Cut from 75 x 50 timber are shaped and moulded, have

their ends tenoned to mortises in the newels. For domestic buildings

the minimum height of handrails above the line of nosing is 840mm

vertically, and for other stairs 900mm.

Balusters: - May be 25 or 19 square or moulded. They are either

tenoned or housed in the underside of the handrail and tenoned into

the top of closed string or set into housing in the treads of flights with

cut strings.

The triangular space between the underside of the lower flight of a

stair and the floor is called the spandrel. It maybe left open or filled

with timber framing as spandrel panel.

To provide support under the centre of treads and also for fixing

plaster boards a sawn softwood carriage below flight of a staircase.

The fir (softwood) carriage is fixed under the centre of a staircase

with brackets nailed each side of it and under the stair to reduce

creaking.

Winder: - is the name given to tapered treads that wind round quarter

or half turn stairs in place of landings to reduce the number of steps

required in the rest of the stair and to economies in space. The

winders are supported on bearers housed in the newel post and the

well string built up from two boards to house treads and risers.

Winders are not recommended for the young and elderly and not for

rise and means of escape.

11
 Open balustrade 75 x 50
hand rail 25sq. balusters
100 X 100 newels

Newels drop Newels

Fix carriage
Apron
100 x 90
Newels joists

Risers 25

175 x 75
Treads 32 trimmers
Spandrel
panel

Fool of Newel post bolted to floor joists

Carriage
Trimmer Joist

Newels
Open well
First floor
landing

PLAN

12
 Newel 100 x 100 Handrail 75 x 50

Stile of paneled
balustrade 100 x 32
Top-rail of paneled
balustrades 100 x 32
Three ply panel set in
grooves in rails and
stile of paneling

Bottom rail 100 x 32

Capping to string
75 x 18
Close outer string
250 x 50

Newel post
String

Spandrel
Bullrose bottom step
(quarter circle turn

Newel post String

Spandrel

Rounded bottom step

(half circle turn)

13
 Top of carriage fixed to
trimmer or landing joists
175 x 75 rough brackets
nailed to carriage to
support centre of width
of treads.
100 x 75 carriages fix

Bottom of carriage
fixed to 100 x 10 plates
miled to floors

Open Riser Wood Stair: - Open riser a ladder stair consists of

strings with treads and no risers so that there is a space between the

treads, the strings maybe either close or cut to outline the treads. The

treads cut from 38 or 44 thick timbers are housed in closed string,

secure in position with glued wood dowels. 10 or 13 diameter steel tie

rods, one to every fourth tread are bolted under the treads through

the string to strengthen fixed tread to the strings against shrinkage

and twisting. The strings are fixed with bolts to sides of strings and to

the trimmers. Where deeper strings are cut to provide a seating and

fixing for tread, the tread are screwed to the cut top edge of the

strings. Open riser wood stair are constructed as straight flight stairs,

and no newel posts for handrail inzing. Handrail and balustrade are

fixed to the sides of the strings.

14
 Close string

Tread
Close string, free housed 13
stranding or screwed deep in
to plugs in wall as a Trimmer string and
wall string glued
String bolted to trimmer 13 diameter
with angle plate steel tie rod
Tie rod bolted string

Waist
Outer string
Metal standard bolted
to side of string
Cut string

Handrail bolted to
standards

Galvanized steel plate

bolted to string and to Treads bear on and
the solid ground floor are secured to cut
string with screws.

CONCRETE STAIRS

Generally reinforced concrete stair has better resistance to damage

by fire than timber staircase. The width, rise, going and headroom

and the arrangement of the flights of steps as straight flight, quarter

turn, half turn and geometrical stairs is the same as for timber stairs

and concrete stairs. The usual form is as a half turn (dog leg) stair. A

simple reinforced concrete stair has a similar structural behavior to a

simply supported floor slab.

Formwork: - The underside contains a 25mm inclined plywood sheet

supported on joists and struts. Steps are formed by securing boards

15
to the adjacent walls and suspending cleats and riser boards at the

required spacing. Where walls do not occur, an open string maybe

formed by using edge formwork cut to the stair profile. Reinforcement

spacers should be used to provide at least 20mm concrete cover.

Reinforcement of a concrete stair depends on the system of

construction adopted and provisions. Usually the main reinforcement

of the landing is both ways across the bottom of the slab,

150 x 38 board
secured to wall

38 x 50 riser board
75 x 50 cleats
100 x 50
transom

100 x 75 or steel
props

Struts and braces

Adjacent wall
25mm plywood
Bracketing and
cleats to 100 x 50
joists Folding wedges

16
 Riser board
Plywood decking

Concrete
Joists

Edge formwork

and the main reinforcement of the flights is one way down the flights.

Bar extends out of the slab to provide reinforcement continuity.

Concrete should be very of compressive strength 25 – 30n/mm2

conforming to a mix ratio of 1:1½:3. The effective depth of the

inclined slab that forms the flights is at the narrow waist formed on

section by the junction of tread and riser and the soffit of the flight. It

is this thickness that has constructional strength and the steps play

no part in supporting loads. The minimum of 20 cover for

reinforcement is to protect the bars or steel red against five.

17
 Metal balustrade
st
1 floor landing 50 x 6 convex rail
40 x 5 rails
SECTION A.A
12mm rods @ 150
C/C across width
20 sq.
12mm rods @ 150 C and length of
standards
landing

12mm across flight

one to each tread Landing bears
½B in wall
Concrete
12mm rods @
cover
150e/c
Slid grd. floor
Half space
landing built
into stair wall.

12mm rods @ 150

C/C across lav of
landing

12mm rods @ 150 along the

length of flight, and one
across each tread.

Precast Reinforced Concrete Stairs: - Stairs cast insitu are

considerably more difficult to create than columns, beams and floors.

The irregular shape and inclined soffit create difficulties which

consume considerable formwork production time. Precast stairs

compatible with precast floor systems, particularly as lifting

equipment is on site and as the need for formwork would break the

construction routine by requiring carpenters at intermittent stages.

Where precast stairs are used with insitu concrete floors a recess is

18
left in both top and bottom floor slabs to accommodate a step left in

the stair.

Recess

Recess

Precast Concrete Steps (Recess): - These are generally used as

an entrance feature with direct bearing on the ground-support is at

either end and reinforcement minimal. This type of steps are

normally constructed of short flights for entrance where the height of

an entrance door is considerably higher than the ground level.

½B wall

Optional open string

250 x 150mm precast

concrete steps

Open rise alterative

using purpose made
steps or paring slabs

225 x 150mm
concrete steps

19
Spandrel Cantilever Steps: - These are steps built into a wall at

one end only and receive no outer string support. As only one end is

supported, a minimum of 225mm or one brick thick wall hold is

necessary. Temporary support during construction is required at the

free end, at least two 16mm diameter steel reinforcing rods are

provided close to the upper surface to resist the bending stresses

imposed by the cantilever situation. An alternative application uses

precast tapered treads centred on a steel tube to create an open riser

spiral stair, with two 16mm diameter steel balusters on every tread to

support a tubular steel handrail.

225mm wall hold 16mm steel rods

1granite aggregate
concrete 1:1½:3
900mm

CANTILEVER STEP SECTION

Steel axis tube

15mm mild steel
rod baluster

Precast, R. C. tread

Mild sleeve
around baluster

OPEN RISE SPIRAL STAIR

20
 Week 12

ROOFS

The roof structure serve principally to prevent weather penetration and as a

barrier against heat loss. The roof structure is broadly classified into two

groups, flat roofs and pitch roofs. Roof structures are classed according to

the interrelationship of components which make up their framework as

follows: Single roofs, double roofs, triple roofs, trussed rafters.

Materials employed or used for the construction of roofs are basically timer,

concrete, and steel. Most pitch roofs are normally constructed of timer or

steel, possibility of flat roofs in timber and steel still exist. Consequently

most roof structure in concrete are constructed as flat roofs.

The figure below shows a combination of roof formations. This unlikely

arrangement indicates constructional forms, components and allied

terminology which must be noted.

Common rafter Ridge board

Cripple rafter Valley rafter
Purlin
Ridge
Verge Hip rafter
Crown rafter
Gable Hipped end
end

Lean-
to roof Flat Wall plate
roof

Jack rafter
Hipped end is where the roof slope is continued around the end of a

building, whereas the wall is carried up to the underside of the roof at a

gable and hip rafters frame the external angles at the interaction of roof

slopes, while valley rafters are used at internal angles. The shortened

rafters running from hip rafters to plate and from ridge to valley rafters are

termed jack rafters, while full-length rafters are often called common

rafters.

The bottom portion of the roof overhanging the wall is known as the eaves.

Where the roof covering overhangs the gable end, it is termed the verge

purlins are horizontal roof members which give intermediate support to

rafters.

Rafters are splay cut or beveled and nailed to the ridge board at the upper

end and bird mouthed and nailed to the wall plate at the lower end.

Roof slope is usually in degrees, whereas the pitch is the ratio of rise to

span. The rise is the vertical distance between the ridge and the wall plate,

while the span is the clear distance between walls. In a half pitch or

‘square pitched’ roof, the span is twice the rise, Eg. 3.5m rise with a 7m

span.

SINGLE ROOFS

Single roofs are produced in a variety of forms, all having the common

property of two-dimensional support, except at ridge board and wall plate

levels. These roofs are simple in design and include; lean-to roofs, couple

roots, close couple roofs and collar roofs.

Lean-to roof: - This is a simple form of roof with support at one side on a

main structural wall and at the other side on an independent wall. This is

where the wall is carried up to a higher level than the other and the rafters

bridge the space between. It is suitable for outbuildings and domestic

garages with a span not exceeding 2.5m. The upper ends of rafters are

supported by a ridge board plugged to the wall or a plate resting on embed

brackets

Couple roof: - Contains pairs of opposing rafters supported by wall plates

and with a central ridging from ridge board. In absence of a tie they are

weak, the rafters exert an outward thrust to the walls, and this type of roof

is therefore restricted to a span of about 3.5m. This limits their application

to small garages, sheds and similar single-storey building.

Close couple roof: - In close couple form the span potential is greater with

introduction of ceiling ties. This takes care of any deflation up to a span of

4.5m, from where an intermediate support to the rafters will be necessary.

Collar roof: - The collar roof is a variation of close-couple with the ceiling

tie raised. This roof form economies in brickwork by utilizing part of the

roof space for accommodation. Collars are joined to rafters with dovetail

halved joint to give increased-strength.

 Common rafter 50 x 100

LEAN-TO Wall
Plates 100 x 1/5

Span  2.5m

Ridge Board 38 x 175

Common rafter 50 x 100

COUPLE
Rose

Ridge Board 38 x 225

Common rafter 50 x 125

CLOSE COUPLE Collar 50 x 125

 Ridge board 50 x 125

Common rafter 50 x 125

Do retailed halved joint

Collar 50 x 125
COLLAR

1
/3 Rise

Double roofs: - Spans beyond 4.5m may also be achieved by increasing

the sectional area of the rafters and ties. At little over 5m the necessary

size of timber becomes uneconomical in comparison to introducing

additional members within the roof space. This is the use of a third

dimensional unit known as a purlin which runs parallel to the wall plate and

ridgeboard. The purlin supported by struts, collars and hangers at every 4th

rafter, provides support to the rafters.

Ridge board 38 x 175

50 x 100 com. Rafter @400 e/c
Purlin 50 x 150

100 x 50 Hanger Binder 50 x 100

Structural
partition
Triple roofs: - The principal components are prefabricated or site-

assembled trusses spaced at 1.8m to support purlins and ridgeboard.

Varying designs offer an uninterrupted span potential of between 5m and

11m. Assembly is by simple bolted connection with toothed plates.

Ridge Board

Cover plate
Purlin
Rafter

Binder
Stout

Wall plate Ceiling tie

Trussed rafters: - These are a series of triangular trusses which have

gradually superseded the use of bolted trusses in domestic roofing. They

have the advantage of quality-controlled factory prefabrication with quick

and simple site installation. Members are secured with galvanized steel

nail plates. Precise span limits are difficult to define; to they depend on roof

pitch, loading and arrangement of internal bracing. Most manufacturers

offer a standard range of trusses of 12m span with pitch variations between

150 and 350. Purpose made designs are possible for larger spans and
steeper pitches. Some basic, popular truss patterns are shown below,

these are for modest span/loading requirements with symmetrical centre-

line location of bracing relative to the spans.

STANDARD TRUSSED RAFTERS

FINK OR KINGPOST
SYMMETRICAL

FAN
MONOPITCH

ASYMMETRICAL ATTIC DORMER

 WEEK 13

FLAT ROOFS

Flat roofs in timber:

Construction of these types of roofs is similar to that of a timber upper floor.

Timber flat roof generally consist of softwood timber joist 38 to 50 thick and

75 to 225 deep placed on edge 400 to 600 apart with ends built into, onto

or against brick walls and partitions. The joists are strutted using solid or

herringbone strutting methods. End support for joists is achieved by

building their ends into the inner skin of the wall, or supported on metal

hangers, metal wall plate or corbels, same as in upper floor construction.

To attain the required slight slope or fall for rainwater outlet in timber flat

roof construction, timber firing pieces or tapering timber pieces are used. It

consists of either tapered lengths of fir (softwood) nailed to the top of each

joists or varying depth length of fir nailed across the joists.

Tapered firing pieces

nailed to top of joists

Varying height firing

pieces nailed across joists.
To board timber flat roofs, roofs boards usually 19mm thick with rough

surface from saw cat are employed. They are usually cut square (plain

edges), and are tongued and grooved for good quality work. The roof joists

generally bridge the shortest span and the boarding is nailed at right angles

to them, although the boarding or its grain should preferably follow the fall

to avoid warping boards retarding flow of water. Each board should be

nailed with two nails to each joist with the nail heads well punched down

below the surface of the boarding. As these boards may shrink and twist

out of level as they dry, chipboard maybe used so as to maintain a level

roof deck. Since a timber flat roof provides poor insulation against loss or

gain of heat, some materials may be built into or onto the roof to improve its

insulation against transfer of heat. Insulating materials are manufactured in

the form of Boards (glass or mineral fibre, PVC, polystyrene foam), slabs

(wood roof), Quilts (glass or mineral fibre), dry fill (expanded polystyrene,

glass or granules of lightweight mineral). When there materials are used

with timber roofs, the boards and slabs are fixed on joists under the

boarding quilted materials are laid between or over the joists and dry fill

between the joists.

Reinforced Concrete Roofs

Construction of these type of roofs is also similar to that of r.c. upper floors,

only that the loads on roofs are less than those of floors and thickness of a

concrete roof will usually be less than that of a floor of similar span. The
constructional concrete topping of concrete roof is normally finished off

level. The slight slope or fall is achieved with a severed of cement and

sand, and with the top surface of the screed finished to the fall required.

The least thickness of the screed being from 20 to 25, concrete roof slabs

are often reinforced with steel bars in both directions, with the larger bars

following the span, which is least width between the external wall or

external walls and internal load bearing walls same way as r.c floors.

To attain thermal insulation, a good thermal insulation material should be

incorporated in the construction of the roof or a lightweight concrete slab

construction be used. This could be done by using lightweight aggregate

for the screed instead of sand. The lightweight aggregate in common use

are foamed slag, fumice and vermiculite. These three minerals are all

porous, and it is the air trapped in the minute pores of the materials which

makes then lightweight and good thermal insulators. These insulation

boards are most conveniently placed on top of the concrete roof, under the

roof covering.

FLAT ROOF COVERING

There are basically three kinds of material used as coverings for flat roofs,

mastic asphalt, built-up bitumen felt, and non-ferrous sheet metals (lead,

copper zinc, and aluminum).

Mastic Asphalt
 Asphalt is a mixture of soft material with low melting point, occurring

naturally and has properties for preventing water penetration. Natural rock

asphalt is hard and chocolate brown in colour. Solid blocks of

manufactured asphalt are heated on site and spread hot over the surface of

the roof in two layers to a finishing thickness of 20 with joists staggered at

least 150mm at laps. As it cools the asphalt forms a continuous, hard water

proof surface. An insulation membrane such as glass fibre may be placed

above the concrete deck and below the asphalt.

Asphalt skirting at upstands should be 13mm thick in two coats to a

minimum height of 150mm above finished level of the asphalt it flat. The

top edge of the skirting should be tucked into the parapet and pointed in

cement mortar. If there is no parapet wall, the roof overhangs the external

walls and the asphalt drains to a gutter.

Coping

Top of
asphalt
DPC skirting
turned into
Parapet groove on
DPC Internal
brick work
angle fillet
Internal
50 asphalt skirting angle fillet

SKIRTING
DETAILS
Insulation
Sheathing felt
Reinforced concrete
Screed
Asphalt in two layers to 20mm thickness
 Asphalt finished Asphalt dressed
over lead strip over half-round
nailed roof wood roll Strip of lead sheet
welted and nailed to
Asphalt apron
boards.
Asphalt in two coats
finished to 20mm Asphalt
Fascia thickness
Felt

Boards
Soffit

Cavity Joist
wall
Insulation
Rough Joist
Firing
boards piece
Sheathing felt Fascia
Hall round
gutter

Built-Up Bitumen Felt Roofing

This roof covering is built-up in three layers of bitumen roof felt. Based

materials such as fibre, asbestos and glass fibre are felted and

impregnated with bitumen for bitumen roofing. The asbestos and glass

fibre based felts have good stability resistance to fire and rot, and used for

good quality roofing work. The cheaper fibre based felts have low

dimensional stability and are used for low cost roofing work. The felt is laid

across the roof with 50 side lap and 75 end lap between sheets, and with a

shallow fall for rainwater runoff.

On timber board or chipboard roof surface with insulation under the boards,

the first under layer of felt is nailed across and along the laps of sheets.
The second under layer is then bonded to the first in hot bitumen spread by

brush or mop, and similar for the top or third layer to the second layer. The

three layers may all be glass fibre base, or all asbestos fibre base, or

alternated.

On concrete screed finish which may absorb rainwater it is likely for water

to be trapped in the screed under the roofing felt covering, which causes

blisters from the effect of sun. to avoid this, a venting layer of felt on wet

screed roof is used. This perforated layer of felt is laid dry on the screed

and the three layers of felt are then bonded to it. The venting layer allows

water vapour to be released through vapour pressure releases at

abutments and vergers of the roof.

In parapet walls and abutments, the felt is turned up 150 against the

parapet and abutting walls, over an angle fillet, and either a dpc is turned

down over the upstand of the felt roofing or a separate flashing stressed

over the upstand to visit rainwater penetration.

Along eaves and verges, the bitumen felt roofing maybe dressed over

gutters with a welt or a separate non-ferrous drip may be used.

 Angle fillet
Coping Three layers of
roofing felt
DPC
Bitumen felt DPC

Firing pieces
Joist
Timber boards on insulation board
3 layers of roofing
felt on boards
Built-up
Gutter
min felt roofing
150

Gutter

Fascia

WALL GUTTER

Joist
Wood fillet
Verge board
Gavity VERGE DETAIL 2 coat angle
Sheathing felt fillet

Concrete Screed
Plasterboard CONCRETE ROOF SLAB
built-up felt Metal
roofing Welted apron drip
Fascia Batten

Railing
Gutter on bracket strip
Fascia
METAL DRIP TO VERGE
 WELTED APRON TO EAVES

Sheet Metal Roof Coverings

Sheet metal roof coverings have good protection against wind and rain.

They are light and durable. Four metals in sheet form are used; head,

copper, zinc and aluminum. Their properties are as follows:

Lead: - is ductile, flexible and a very heavy metal, used in thick sheets as

roof covering. It is malleable and can be easily bent and beaten into

shapes without damage. Lead is resistant to corrosion, when exposed to

the atmosphere a film of carbonate of lead oxide forms on the surface of

the sheets and prevent further corrosion. It is non-absorbent and has a

long life span.

Copper: - Is a heavy metal with good mechanical strength, it is malleable

and can be used in thin sheet as roof covering. It can be beaten and bent

into shapes. On exposure to atmosphere a thin coat of copper oxide forms

on the sheets which prevents further oxidation of copper below it, which

makes it resistant to most normal weathering agents (corrosion). It is also

non-absorbent and has a long life span as lead.

Zinc: - This is a lighter metal with good strength, it is not so malleable as

lead and copper. It can be bent in sheet form, but it tend to become brittle

and break. On exposure to atmosphere a film of zinc oxide forms on the

surface of the sheets, and this gradually corrodes the zinc to reduce it’s life
span to between 20 to 40 years. Zinc is also liable to damage in heavily

polluted industrial atmosphere. Zinc is normally used for its less cost.

Aluminum: - One of the lightest metals with average mechanical strength

and is malleable. It is resistant to all weathering agents (corrosion). On

exposure to the atmosphere a film of aluminum oxide forms and prevents

further corrosion. Aluminum as roof coverings has useful life span between

zinc and lead.

Sizes and jointing of sheets

Sizes of metal sheets used for roof covering is determined by the sizes of

sheets manufactured are the need to allow for contraction and expansion of

the sheet. Commonly manufactured sizes are:- lead: rolls 2.4 wide x 12.0

long x thickness in menof 1.8, 2.24, 2.5,3.15 or 3.55.

Copper: Sheets 1.2 x 600 x 0.6m and 1.8 x 900 x 0.6mm

Zinc: Sheets 2.4 x 900 x 1 or 0.8mm

Aluminum: Sheets 1.8 x 600 x 0.7mm, 1.8 x 900 x 0.7mm, 1.8 x 1.2 x

0.7mm.

Some types of joint have been developed which successfully joint sheets,

keep out water and allow the sheets to expand and contract without

tearing. The joint along or longitudinal to the fall are usually in the form of a

roll. Rounded timber battens some 50 square are waited to the roof and

edges of the sheets are either overlapped or covered at these timber rolls.

The joints across or transverse to the fall of the roof are formed as a small
step called a drip. The purpose of the drip is to accelerate the flow of

rainwater running down the shallow slope of the roof. Where there is a

parapet wall around the roof or where the roof is built-up against a wall,

sheets are turned up against the wall about 150 as an upstand. The tops of

these upstands are not fixed to allow for expansion without restraint. To

cover the gab between the upstand and the wall, strips of sheet are tucked

into a horizontal brick joint, wedged in place and dressed down over the

upstand as an apron flashing. Clips are then used to secure the apron to

the upstand to prevent wind from blowing the apron away.

Lead Sheeting: - to allow the metal to contract without tearing away from

the fixing and to prevent the sheet from creeping down the roof, no sheet of

lead should be larger than 1.6m2. A lead flat joints across the fall of the roof

are made in the form of drips or step down, and to reduce excessive

increases in the thickness of the roof due to these drips they are spaced up

to between 2.30 to 2.50m apart and rolls (joint longitudinal to fall) up to

between 675 to 800m apart determined by the width of sheets.

PITCHED ROOF COVERING MATERIALS

Pitched roof covering materials are usually placed and fixed to the already

constructed pitched roof framework of timber or steel. The type of pitched

roof covering material sometimes determines the minimum amount of slope

they are to be laid.

 Plain or double lap tiles: - Are made in a wide range of colours, either in

clay or concrete. They are 265 x 165 x 12mm in size, under-eaves and

top-course tiles are each 190mm long and tile-and-a-half tiles for use at

verges are 250mm wide. They are slightly cambered and sometimes cross

cambered in their lengths, so that the tails bed lightly, and to prevent entry

of water by capillary action and to ventilate the underside of the tiles to

enhance drying out after rain respectively. Each tile ha ribs for hanging

over battens and two holes for nails near its head. They are nailed with

38mm nails of aluminum, copper, in zinc at every 4th course and at eaves,

top courses and verges. Untearable sarking felt is provided under the tiling

battens to prevent driving rain from penetrating the roof plain tiles are

constructed with minimum slope of 400.

Gauge 38 x 19 battens Rafter

Lap

Margin Rafter

Plain tiles Quilt or loose insulation

Under caves tiles

Underlay carried into gutter
100 age gutter

25 fascia
The lap is the amount by which the tails of tiles in one course overlap the

heads of tiles in the next course but one below, and should not be less the

65mm. Gauge is the distance between centres of battens, calculated by the

formula: gauge = length of tiles minus lap  2, hence the gauge of plain

tiles to a 65mm lap = (265 – 65)  2 = 100mm. The margin is the exposed

area of each tile on the roof and the length of the margin is the same as the

gauge.

38 x 19
battens
Tiler-and-a-
half tile Half round
ridge tile
38 x 19
batten Cement mortar
Felt bedding
underlay

Ridge
Cement mortar board
Rafters

Main tile under cloak

A typical verge detail above illustrate using tile-and-a-half tile to maintain

the bond bedded on and pointed in cement mortar on an under cloak of

plain tiles. The tiles overhang the wall by 50 to 75mm to give protection

against weather. Half-round tiles bedded in cement mortar are commonly

used to cover ridges. Hips maybe covered in a variety of ways similar to

those used at ridges, this includes: Half round hip, bonnet hip and angular
hip tiles. Examples of valley coverings include; purpose made valley, swept

valley and laced valley.

Purpose-made
valley tiles

Plain Tiles
Hip iron screwed to PURPOSE-MADE
hop rafter VALLEY
Tile-and-a-
half tiles
ANGULAR HIP
HALF ROUND HIP Valley SWEPT VALLEY
rafter Tile cut to
225 x 25 required swept
valley board
BONNET HIPS
Mortar

LACED VALLEY

Single-lap tiles: - In single lap tiling each tile overlaps the edges or head

of the tile in the course below and there is also side lap. The overlap

prevents water entering the roof between adjacent tiles, and in

emsequence the tiles can be laid with single and lap. Thus there is only

one thickness of tile on the greater part of the roof with two thicknesses as

the ends and sides of each tile. Dimensions for these type of tiles are

usually fixed by the design of the tile. Some common types of single, lap

tiles are: Italian tiles, Spanish tiles, double ronan tiles, and pantiles. There

are also many forms of interlocking tiles manufactured in concrete. The

principal advantages single-lap tiles over plain tiles is that they give a

lighter roof covering and permit a flatter slope of roofs. They however more
difficult to replace, and not so adaptable to complicated designs. They are

constructed with a minimum slope of 300.

25 x 75 battens Over tiles

Under tiles

Rafters
Boards

SECTIONM THROUGH ITALIAN TILES

50 x 75 battens
Over tiles Under tiles

Rafters

Boards
SPANISH TILES

38 side lap

DOUBLE ROMAN TILES

Half round ridge tile

420 x 330mm pantiles

Lap
25 x 50 batten felt
underlay
Batten course bedded
and pointed
WEEK 14

SLATES

Although slates have been superseded by clay or concrete tiles and other

forms of roofing materials, they are still used in slate-producing districts.

Their sizes vary form 255 x 150mm to 610 x 355mm. Each slate is secured

by two nails, at the head or centre of the slate, and the nails maybe yellow

metal, copper, aluminum alloy, or zinc and the vary in length from 32 to

63mm according to the weight of slate. It is customary to centre nail all but

the smallest slates as there is a tendency for the larger head-nailed slates

to lift in high winds. The main advantage claimed for head-nailed slates is

that there are two thicknesses of slate covering the nails, but this involves

the use of a larger number of slates and they are not so easily repaired.

Nails should not be less than 30mm from the edges and 25mm from the

heads of slates.
 2.50mm lead

200
38 x 19 batten Felt OPEN METAL
Nails underlay VALLEY
19 Boarding
State-and-a- 2.50mm lead
Gauge Boarding Valley rafter 50 x 275
half slate covering to
ridge rill
Verge 50 diameter
Lap wood rill LEAD COVERED
RIDGE
Margin 50 wide lead ticks
Ridge @ 750 centres
Eaves Side lap board
Angle ridge tile
CENTRE NAILING SLATING Felt
Lap Gauge Rafter bedded in mortar
underlay
Slates Margin
Felt
Half-round underlay
gutter
ANGLE RIDGE TILE
Insulation

25 fascia
EAVES DETAILS
19 soffit
boarding
Slates

Asbestos Cement Slates: - are manufactured in sizes the width of which

is half their length. They are laid with a 75mm lap with a minimum slope of

350. Asbestos cement slates are centre nailed with two copper wire nails to

each slates, and the tails are prevented from lifting by a copper rivet

passing the tail and between the edges of the two slates of the course

below. The slates are so light that the rafters can be spaced up to 750mm

apart. Two under courses are required at caves; slate of slate-and-a-half

width are used at verges; asbestos cement ridge and hip coverings are
 available in addition to clay and cement fittings, and open metal valleys are

preferable.

Lead cup washer

Asbestos washer 100 x 6 galvanized

Driving screw
8 diameter Asbestos washer
galvanized hock Lead cup washer
bolt

Timber purlin
HOCK BOLT FIXING ASBESTOS CEMENT
SHEETING TO WOOD
Asbestos Cement Sheet
PURLINS

Glass fibre insulation 25

thick
Packing piece Asbestos Cement living Sheets to 75 head lap

FIXING ASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETING TO STEEL PURLINS

2 piece ridge
capping
Asbestos Cement Sheets

Steel purlins

ASBESTOS CEMENT RIDGE CAPPING

SHEET COVERINGS TO PITCHED ROOFS

Sheet coverings are available in different materials are particularly well

suited for garages, stores, agricultural and industrial buildings. One of

these common material is asbestos cement which has a natural grey

colour. sheets are normally corrugated about 50mm deep in various

lengths up to 4.60m. They are laid with an end lap of 150mm and the side

lap varies with the design. Asbestos cement sheets are fixed to wood

purlins with galvanized drive screws or to steel-angel purlins with hook

bolts. The bolts or hooks should be placed on top of corrugations and lead

cup washers to form a watertight joint. Special fittings are made for use at

ridges, hips, corners and eaves. The sheeting is unattractive and although

it is incombustible and light in weight, the surface softens with wreathing

and becomes brittle with age and hardly attain a life span of 30 years.

To counter this brittleness other materials have been produced, such as

incorporating a core of corrugated steel covered with layers of asbestos

and bitumen. This combines the strength of steel with the corrosion-

resisting properties of asbestos.

Corrugated galvanized steel is inclined to be fairly short-lived, nosy, subject

to condensation and rusting at bolt-holes, and is not well suited for most

purposes. Aluminum sheets are also useful for roofing purposes. They are

corrosion resistant, of light weight and have good appearance, their

reflective value has some thermal insulation properties. The minimum

recommended slope is 150 and the sheets are fixed in a similar manner to

other corrugated sheet materials.

The edges of sheets longitudinal to the fall are lapped over a timber which

is cut from lengths of timber 50squares to form a wood roll. Two edges of

the batten are rounded and two sides slightly splayed so that the soft metal

can be dressed over it and the waist so formed allows the sheet to be

clenched over the roll, without damage.

To provide a smooth surface for sheet lead to contract and expand, an

underlay of bitumen impregnated felt or water proof building paper is first

laid across the whole roof boarding before the rolls are nailed. The edges

of adjacent sheets are dressed over the wood roll in turn. The edge of the

sheet is first dressed over as underlay or under-cloak and is nailed with

copper nails to the side of the roll.

The edge of the sheet is then dressed over as overlap or over-cloak with a

40mm opposite splash lap, without nailing to allow for contraction. Drips 50

deep are formed in the boarded roof by nailing a 50 x 25 fir batten with an

anti-capillary groove and a rebate (into which the underlap is dressed and

nailed) between the roof boards of the higher and lower bays. The groove

ensures that no water rises between the sheets by capillary action. At

abutments the lead sheet is turned up the wall face 150 as an upstand and

150 apron flashing passes over the top of the upstand to form a watertight

joint. The top edge of the cover flashing is tucked and wedged into a brick
joint and lead tack or clip prevent the edge of flashing from curling.

Rainwater discharges into a parallel 300 deep lead gutter, constructed to

slope or fall towards one or more rainwater outlet of pipe or pipes. These

can be fixed outside or inside the building. When the rainwater pipe runs

inside the building, it is usual to form a cesspool or eatchifit at the and of

the gutter to act as a reservoir against flooding during hearing storm.

 Sheet lead dressed
Bossed end of roll over roll as overlap

Felt Sheet lead dressed Sheet lead

as overlap dressed as
Underlap
overlap
Felt 50 drip at drip
Felt

50 x 50
woodroll
Sheet lead dressed Roof Batten
as underlap Boarding boards with anti
Felt under capillary
Edge rounded groove
50 lead
Lead tacks
50 Sides wasted
Apron
Cement/sand
fillet Fall
40 wide lead
tacks at 750
Lead wedge to Felt
c/c Upstands
apron at 450 dc. Boards
Insulating
Lead apron 50 drip

Joist
Upstands

Sheet lead
Roll

Felt
Boards

Insulating boards
 Apron
Sheet lead on felt underlay
Roll
Fall
Bossed end
Wall out
Lead dressed away to show
over fascia Roll cesspool
into gutter Sheet lead Firing piece

Fall round Brick

Upstands Joist
gutter wall
Lead pipe
Fascia Cesspool
board

COPPER SHEETING: - Copper sheeting in a few years becomes covered

with a light green compound of copper called patina, this gives the sheets

pleasing colour and texture. The patina is black in heavily polluted areas.

There are two sort of joints used for rolls in copper sheeting; the batten roll

and the conical roll. (a) Batten rolls are splay sided timber batten fixed to

the roof at 750 centres with brass screws, the heads of which are counter

sunk into the batten. The edges of the sheet are turned up each side of the

batten and a separate strip of copper sheet is then welted to the roof

sheets as a capping. The sheets are secured by means of 50 wide strips of

copper cleats fixed under the rolls at 450 apart and folded in with the

sheets and capping. (b) Alternatively the edges of the sheets can be folded

together in the form of a double welt over a conical section roll at 750

centres. Less sheet is required to form the conical roll the batten roll joint.
Since drips formed in roof covers are spared up to 3.0 apart and copper

sheets are either 1.2 or 1.8 long a double lock welt’ joint transverse to the

fall has to be used, and because the joint is across the fall it is called a

double lock cross welt.

The double lock cross welt is folded up with the sheet at rolls and they are

staggered to avoid welting too many thickness of copper sheets. Drips are

the formed in the timber roof with a 63 or 70 step down using a batten, and

the edges of the sheets are welted. Where the roof is surrounded by a

parapet wall the provision and arrangement of upstand, apron and box

gutter is exactly the same way as that formed for a lead covered roof, with

cesspool for flood collection before discharging through pipes. Where there

is no parapet wall around the roof and attractive eaves gutter is provided.

Edges or verges of the roof down to the fall are usually finished with a roll

copper chips.

Apron
Apron
Upstand Saddle piece

Copper
Sheets Saddle welted to
capping capping
welt Copper
sheets welted
over roll
Batten
roll

50 wide cleat
at 450c/c 0.6mm
Felt
copper sheet 63 x 50 conical
Underlay Copper
wood roll
Underlay Cleats sheet
Underlay
 Double lock
cross welt Upstand ent to
Conical roll
folding in at roll shape of roll
and welted Copper sheet
Fall
Welt Board
Fall Batten

Firing piece
16
Double lock
cross welt
End of roll is Cappeing
splayed and Copper sheet
Welt
upstand trimed and Batten roll Apron welted to
belted to shape Copper sheet dressed
Down sheet over batten and
dressed Felt down fascia
into gutter

Fall round
gutter Boards
Fascia
Joist
40 wide clips
Fascia
nailed to fascia
at 450 c/c
Soffit board Batten roll
Eaves

Zinc sheeting: - Joints between sheets are designed to avoid much folding

of the stiff metal. The joints along the fall are formed over a wood batten.

The sheets are bent up on either side of the batten and are secured by

means of 40 wide sheet zinc clips nailed under the batten at 750 centres,

and the clips are turned up and clipped over the edge of the sheets. The

batten, bent-up and clips are then covered with a 1.35 length of zinc

copping secured by means of a holding down clip which is folded act of a

strip of a zinc sheet. The holding down clip is nailed to the batten over the

end of the capping, the end of the next length of capping is inserted into the

fold in the holding down clip and then placed on the batten and in turn
secured with a holding down clip. The battens are usually at 850 centres.

Where there is no parapet wall around the roof the sheets are turned up

against it 150 as an upstand and covered with an apron flashing tucked into

a joint in the brick wall. The roof then drains to a zinc lined box gutter. If

there is no parapet wall the sheets drain directly onto an eaves gutter.
 Holding down clip nailed
batten over the end of
Lower edges cappng with the next length
40 wude clip of capping Zinc of capping tucked to fold.
nailed under feinted to grip capping
rols at 750c/c sheets Capping

Nail Zinc sheet Upstand

Underlay
Batten
roll Zinc sheet
Batten
Boards
Clip turned Felt
over upstand underlay End of capping
of sheet folded and
Batten flattened at
Capping upstand
End of capping roll Zinc Aprove
splayed and Capping
flattened and Walted drip
dressed over Felt Edge
drip.
Boards beaded
Batten
Batten Roll
roll Firring piece Upstand
Zinc sheet
End of roll splayed
BEADED and flattened and
DRIP dressed over Batten roll
drip. Zinc sheet
Boards
Half round Clips at 750 c/c
gutter Fascia Beaded
Drip
Aluminum sheeting: - The thickness strength and malleability of

aluminum sheet is comparable to that of copper sheet and it is jointed and

fixed to the roof in the same way as copper sheet wife either batten or

conical roll joints along the fall and double lock cross welts and drips across

the fall, the details of these joints shown for copper sheeting apply equally

for aluminum sheeting.

SHEET METAL COVERING TO CONCRETE ROOFS

Bitumen felt and asphalt have been used as covering to concrete flat roofs

simply because of their cheap cost and the ease of laying them. But they

have only a lifespan of 20 years. One of the sheet metals in sometimes

used instead. The sheet metal is jointed and fixed to a concrete tool in the

same way as on a timber roof. The wood rolls are secured to the concrete

by screwing them to splayed timber battens set into the screed on the

concrete or by securing them with bolts set in sand and cement holes

punched in the screed. Drips should be formed in the surfaces of the roof

as in timber roof, and details of jointing and dressing of the sheets is the

same as those shown for timber roofs.

 WEEK 15

SUSPENDED CIELINGS SYSTEM

A suspended ceiling is employed in may modern buildings to provide

a smooth level ceiling without regard to the structural form of the

building.

The ceiling can be use together with the cavity between it and the

structure, for various purposes.

1. Service pipes for water, electricity and drainage can be concealed,

although they are still on the surface and therefore accessible.

2. Air-conditioning can be accommodated in the space.

3. The space itself can be used as a means if circulation of air

(plenum).

4. The ceiling can be use to accommodate light fittings. These can

be flush with the ceiling with all but the diffuser concealed.

5. the ceiling material can be selected so as to provide sound

absorption where this is required by conditions in the room.

Two types of suspension are used:

Exposed tee: the bottom flange of the tee supporting the tiles is

visible and tiles rest on it

Concealed tee: the tiles are grooved (kerfed) to fit over the , thus

concealing it.

The remainder of the suspension consist of main rails, at about

1200mm centres, supported by hangers which are fixed to the

1
construction. The tees are fixed to the main rails at the tile spacing,

usually 300 or 600 mm, with noggin pieces between the tees at a

similar spacing.

A cathedral ceiling is any tall ceiling area similar to those in a church.

A dropped ceiling is one in which the finished surface is constructed anywhere

from a few inches to several feet below the structure above it. This may be done

for aesthetic purposes, such as achieving a desirable ceiling height; or practical

purposes such as providing a space for HVAC or piping. An inverse of this would

be a raised floor.

A concave or barrel shaped ceiling is curved or rounded, usually for visual or

acoustical value, while a coffered ceiling is divided into a grid of recessed square

or octagonal panels, also called a lacunar ceiling.

A cove ceiling uses a curved plaster transition between wall and ceiling; it is

named for cove molding, a molding with a concave curve.

2
Ceilings have frequently been decorated with fresco painting, mosaic tiles and

other surface treatments. While hard to execute (at least in situ) a decorated

ceiling has the advantage that it is largely protected from damage by fingers and

dust. In the past, however, this was more than compensated for by the damage

from smoke from candles or a fireplace. Many historic buildings have celebrated

ceilings, perhaps the most famous is the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.

The ceiling of Wells Cathedral, England.

Stretched ceiling