SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

NATIONAL TRANSMISSION AND DESPATCH

COMPANY (NTDC) PAKISTAN

B.Sc. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY

Abdullah Bashir

2017-GCUF-87443

8427

Training Period

22-10-2021 to 22-01-22

DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL ENGIEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

GOVT. COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISLABAD

SAHIWAL CAMPUS

2022
SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
NATIONAL TRANSMISSION AND DESPATCH

COMPANY (NTDC) PAKISTAN

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF

B.Sc. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO

THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
GOVT. COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISLABAD, SAHIWAL CAMPUS
SAHIWAL
SUBMITTED BY
Name of Student Roll No.
Abdullah Bashir 8427

Training Period
22 10-2021 to 22-01-2022

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISLABAD

SAHIWAL CAMPUS
COMPANY CERTIFICATE
 CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have completed the twelve weeks Training in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of BSc ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY .I did my
training in National Transmission and Dispatch Company (NTDC) 500kv/220kv Grid Station
Yousafwala Sahiwal from 22-10-2021 to 22-01-2022

The matter presented in this Report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree
elsewhere.

Signature of Student
Abdullah Bashir (8427)

Examined by:
Engr. Muazzam Rehman
Engr.Muhammad Adeel Aslam

INCHARGE/HOD
Electrical Engineering Department
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, Specially, I will like to thank of Allah who blessed us with the ability and wisdom to
complete this project especially thanks to the NTDC 500 KV Grid Station Yousafwala. Who
provided us an opportunity to enhancing our professional experience Workers, they have cooperated
with us.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report. A specially gratitude I give to our final year training supervisor, Mr. Zeeshan
Arshad, whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped me to coordinate
my project especially in writing this report.

Finally I want to thanks my head of department, Brig, Mehboob Ahmad and my respected teacher’s
Engr. Muazzam Rehman (Supervisor) all the faculty members for giving me knowledge and
information about industry and stay with me and help me out during the internship period.

Signature of Student
Abdullah Bashir (8427)

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgement i

List of Tables v

List of Figures vi

List of Abbreviations viii

ii
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction of Company .................................................................................................1

NTDC........................................................................................................................................1

Main Function ...........................................................................................................................1

Transmission Networks ............................................................................................................1

View Potential Consumers.................................................................................................1

500kv Grid Stations ...........................................................................................................2

List of 500 KV Grid Stations ....................................................................................................2

Grid Station Yousafwala Sahiwal ......................................................................................2

Chapter 2 - Training Work..................................................................................................................3

Single line diagram of 500kv/220kv grid station of Yousafwala Sahiwal ...............................3

Symbols of Switchgear .............................................................................................................4

Description of switchgears of Grid Station...............................................................................4

Surge Arrester ....................................................................................................................4

Difference between lighting arrester and surge arrester ...........................................................5

Capacitor couple voltage transformer (CVT) or capacitor voltage transformer(CCVT)..........5

Construction ..............................................................................................................................6

Wave Trap.................................................................................................................................7

Why CVT in combination with wave traps? .....................................................................7

Earth Switch ..............................................................................................................................8

Isolator or Line Disconnect switch ...........................................................................................8

Parts of Isolator ..................................................................................................................8

Circuit Breaker ........................................................................................................................9

SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker ................................................................................................10

SF6 Gas (Sulfur hexafluoride) .......................................................................................10

iii
 Shunt Reactor ........................................................................................................................11

Main Differences ...........................................................................................................11

Current Transformer .............................................................................................................11

Potential Transformer ...........................................................................................................13

Comparison Chart .................................................................................................................13

Auto Transformer .................................................................................................................14

Basic transformer parts ..................................................................................................14

Main parts of power transformer ...................................................................................14

Portable Earthing ..................................................................................................................15

Chapter 3 - Skill Attained .................................................................................................................17

Testing of Transformer ...........................................................................................................17

Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer ............................................17

Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement..............................................................19

Current Voltage Method of Measurement of Winding Resistance..................................20

Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test ..............................................................................22

Dissipation/Power Factor Measurement (Tan Delta) ......................................................26

Dielectric strength of transformer oil...............................................................................29

Contact Resistance Test ...................................................................................................32

Earth resistance test .........................................................................................................34

Neutral ....................................................................................................................................37

Earth or Ground ......................................................................................................................38

So in Conclusion (On The Difference Between Neutral and Ground/Earth) ..................38

How Grounding Is Different Than Earthlings? ......................................................................38

Why T/F Neutral Is Separately Grounded ..............................................................................39

Importance of neutral .......................................................................................................39

Chapter 4 - Feed Back and Recommendation ..................................................................................40

iv
 Feedback .................................................................................................................................40

Recommendation ....................................................................................................................40

REFERENCE....................................................................................................................................41

v
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Discos Distribution Network ..............................................................................................1

Table 1-2 500kv Grid Stations ............................................................................................................2
Table 2-1 Six lines 500kv are coming in 500kv/220kv G/S Yousafwala Sahiwal .............................3
Table 3-1 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Blue Phase) ......................................18
Table 3-2 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Yellow Phase) ..................................18
Table 3-3 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Red Phase) .......................................18
Table 3-4 Winding Resistance test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Red Phase) .......................21
Table 3-5 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Blue Phase) ...............................25
Table 3-6 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Yellow Phase) ..........................25
Table 3-7 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Red Phase) ................................26
Table 3-8 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Blue Phase) .........................28
Table 3-9 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Yellow Phase) .....................28
Table 3-10 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Red Phase) ........................28

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1Single line diagram of 500kv/220kv grid station of Yousafwala Sahiwal ........................3
Figure 2-2 Surge Arrester ...................................................................................................................5
Figure 2-3 Ccvt At Sahiwal Grid Station............................................................................................5
Figure 2-4 The circuit diagram for a simple capacitor voltage transformer .......................................6
Figure 2-5 Capacitive voltage transformer’s principal construction ..................................................6
Figure 2-6 Nameplate of CVT at Sahiwal G/S SWL..........................................................................6
Figure 2-7 Wave trap pic at Sahiwal G/S SWL ..................................................................................7
Figure 2-8 Earth Switch ......................................................................................................................8
Figure 2-9 Isolator at Sahiwal G/S SWL ............................................................................................9
Figure 2-10 SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker at Sahiwal G/S SWL .............................................................10
Figure 2-11 Shunt Reactor at Sahiwal G/S SWL .............................................................................11
Figure 2-12 Current Transformer Diagram.......................................................................................12
Figure 2-13 Current Transformer .....................................................................................................12
Figure 2-14 Potential Transformer ...................................................................................................13
Figure 2-15 Auto Transformer ..........................................................................................................15
Figure 2-16 Grounding Portable Device ...........................................................................................15
Figure 3-1 Diagram of Three Winding Transformer ........................................................................19
Figure 3-2 Current Voltage Method of Star Winding Measurement ................................................20
Figure 3-3 Current Voltage Method of Delta Winding Measurement ..............................................21
Figure 3-4 Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test..............................................................................22
Figure 3-5 Transformer ratio test diagram, using a Single phase TTR test set. Photo: Megger.......22
Figure 3-6 Three-phase Transformer Turns Rati (TTR) Connection diagram .................................23
Figure 3-7 Hand-cranked TTR – Transformer Turns Ratio Test Set ...............................................23
Figure 3-8 Dissipation/Power Factor Measurement (Tan Delta)......................................................26
Figure 3-9 The breakdown voltage test for insulating oil .................................................................29
Figure 3-10 Detail Show of Electrodes.............................................................................................30
Figure 3-11 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement.......................................................................32
Figure 3-12 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement.......................................................................33
Figure 3-13 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement.......................................................................33
Figure 3-14 Earth resistance testing..................................................................................................35
vii
Figure 3-15 Fall of potential method OR three terminal test method ...............................................36
Figure 3-16 Two-point test method or Dead Earth method ..............................................................36
Figure 3-17 Clamp on test method ...................................................................................................37
Figure 3-18 Clamp on test method ...................................................................................................37
Figure 3-19 Difference Between Neutral, Ground and Earth ...........................................................39

viii
 ABRIVATIONS
NTDC NATIONAL TRANSMISSION AND DESPATCH COMPANY
LESCO LAHORE ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
KESC KARACHI ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
FESCO SAHIWAL ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
MEPCO MULTAN ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
IESCO ISLAMABAD ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
GEPCO GUJRANWALA ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
HESCO HAYDRABAD ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
QESCO QUETTA ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
PESCO PESHAWAR ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
G/S GRID STATION
CCVT CAPACITOR COUPLE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
CVT CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
C/B CIRCUIT BREAKER
CT CURRENT TRANSFORMER
PT POTANTIAL TRANSFORMER
LDS LINE DISCONNECT SWITCH
SF6 SULPUR HEXAFLOURIDE
TTR TRANSFORMER TURN RATIO
C&DF CAPACITANCE AND DESIPATION FACTOR
HV HIGH VOLTAGE
LV LOW VOLTAGE
DES DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

ix
Chapter 1 - Introduction of Company
NTDC

National Transmission & Dispatch Company (NTDC) was incorporated on 6th November, 1998 and
commenced commercial operation on 24th December, 1998. It was organized to take over all the
properties, rights and assets obligations and liabilities of 220 KV and 500KV Grid Stations and
Transmission Lines/Network owned by Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA). NTDC operates and maintains fourteen 500 KV and thirty-eight 220 KV Grid Stations,
5110.48 km of 500 KV transmission line and 9686.32 km of 220 KV transmission line in Pakistan.

Main Function

i. System Operator: For secure, safe and reliable operation, control and dispatch of generation
facilities.
ii. Transmission Network Operator: For Operation & Maintenance, Planning, Design and
expansion of the 500 kV and 220 kV transmission network.
iii. Contract Registrar and Power Exchange Administrator (CRPEA): As CRPEA, to record and
monitor contracts relating to bilateral trading system.

Transmission Networks

View Potential Consumers

National Transmission & Dispatch Company (NTDC) operates and maintains nine 220 KV Grid
Stations and twenty-three 220 Grid Stations KV transmission line in Pakistan.

LESCO http://lesco.gov.pk
KESC http://www.kesc.com.pk
FESCO http://www.fesco.com.pk
MEPCO http://www.mepco.com.pk
IESCO http://www.iesco.com.pk
GEPCO http://www.gepco.com.pk
HESCO http://www.hesco.gov.pk
QESCO http://www.qesco.com.pk
PESCO http://pesco.gov.pk
TESCO http://tesco.gov.pk

Table 1-1 Discos Distribution Network

1
500kv Grid Stations

NTDC operates and maintains fourteen 500 KV and thirty-eight 220 KV Grid Stations, 5077 km of
500 KV transmission line and 7359 km of 220 KV transmission line in Pakistan.

Name of the region 500 KV 220 KV Total

Islamabad 2 7 9
Lahore 3 16 19
Multan 4 5 9
Hyderabad 4 9 13
G. Total 14 38 52

Table 1-2 500kv Grid Stations

List of 500 KV Grid Stations

1 Islamabad SHEIKH MUHAMMADI PESHAWAR

2 RAWAT
3 Lahore SHEIKHUPURA
4 SAHIWAL (SAHIWAL)
5 NOKHAR
6 Multan NEW MULTAN
7 MUZAFFAR GARH
8 D.G KHAN
9 YOUSAF WALA
10 Hyderabad GUDDU
11 DADU
12 JAMSHORO
13 NKI (KARACHI)

1.4.1 Grid Station Yousafwala Sahiwal

500 KV Sahiwal G/Stn. (Sahiwal) was completed and commissioned on 27.06.1979. 4x450MVA,
500/200KV Auto T/F Banks with four Banks of 500KV Shunt Reactors having total capacity of
3x117.8MVAR (Two Nos. bank of capacity 3x22MVAR) are installed at the G/Stn. The G/S is being
fed through 500KV Muzafargarh G/S, 500KV Roush P.House, 500KV Multan G/S & 500KV
Sheikhupura G/S through 500KV Single Circuits and connected with Barotha Power House through
500KV Double Circuits.

For 500 KV as well as 220 KV bays double bus bar with one & half breaker scheme is used.

2
Chapter 2 - Training Work
Single line diagram of 500kv/220kv grid station of Yousafwala Sahiwal

In power engineering, a one-line diagram or single-line diagram (SLD) is a simplified notation for
representing a three-phase power system. The one-line diagram has its largest application in power
flow studies. Electrical elements such as circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors, bus bars, and
conductors are shown by standardized schematic symbols. Instead of representing each of three
phases with a separate line or terminal, only one conductor is represented. It is a form of block
diagram graphically depicting the paths for power flow between entities of the system. Elements on
the diagram do not represent the physical size or location of the electrical equipment, but it is a
common convention to organize the diagram with the same left-to-right, top-to-bottom sequence as
the switchgear or other apparatus represented. A one-line diagram can also be used to show a high
level view of conduit runs for a PLC control system.

Figure 2-1Single line diagram of 500kv/220kv grid station of Yousafwala Sahiwal

Name Voltage kv Ampere’s Energize’s

Muzaffargarh 500kv 1459A 21-08-2008
Brotha-I 500kv 1215A 10-08-1985
Brotha-II 500kv 1215A 22-07-1979
Lahore 500kv 1459A 14-101993
Multan 500kv 1459A 28-06-1995
Roshe 500kv 1215A 18-11-1986

Table 2-1 Six lines 500kv are coming in 500kv/220kv G/S Yousafwala Sahiwal

3
Symbols of Switchgear

Arrester CCVT Line Trap

Earth Switch SF6 C/B Shunt Reactor

Line Isolator Air Blast C/B Auto Transformer

Current Transformer

Description of switchgears of Grid Station

Surge Arrester

A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients caused by
external (lightning) or internal (switching) events. Also called a surge protection device (SPD)
or transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), this class of device is used to protect equipment in
power transmission and distribution systems. The energy criterion for various insulation material
can be compared by impulse ratio, the surge arrester should have a low impulse ratio, so that a surge
incident on the surge arrester may be bypassed to the ground instead of passing through the
apparatus.

4
 Figure 2-2 Surge Arrester

Difference between lighting arrester and surge arrester

Lightning arrestor gives the protection against lightning only, as you can see these are installed on
the top of the huge buildings. That lightning arrestor is connected to a conductor which runs along
the walls and goes into the earth.

Whereas

Surge arrestor gives the protection against surge currents or voltages in a circuit. Surges can be
produced because of short circuit, lightning, sparking etc. Hence, a surge arrestor can also be used
as a lightning arrestor but a lightning arrestor can't be used as a surge arrestor in case of short
circuits.

Capacitor couple voltage transformer (CVT) or capacitor voltage transformer(CCVT)

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT or CCVT), is a transformer used in power systems to step
down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for metering or operating
a protective relay.

Figure 2-3 Ccvt At Sahiwal Grid Station

5
 Figure 2-4 The circuit diagram for a simple capacitor voltage transformer

Construction

Capacitor Voltage Transformers consist of two primary assemblies

i. The high voltage capacitor sections and

ii. The base box, housing the electromagnetic components.

Figure 2-5 Capacitive voltage transformer’s principal construction

Figure 2-6 Nameplate of CVT at Sahiwal G/S SWL

6
Series connected capacitor elements, housed in porcelain shells, each hermetically (in airtight
manner) sealed, are referred to as capacitor sections. The dielectric of the capacitor elements is made
up of high quality polypropylene film/paper and impregnated with highly processed synthetic fluid.

Each capacitor section is equipped with a stainless steel below which will allow the synthetic fluid
to expand and contract with changes in ambient operating temperature while maintaining the
hermetic sealing.

Wave Trap

A line trap (high-frequency stopper) is a maintenance-free parallel resonant circuit, mounted inline
on high-voltage (HV) AC transmission power lines to prevent the transmission of high frequency
(40 kHz to 1000 kHz) carrier signals of power line communication to unwanted destinations.

Figure 2-7 Wave trap pic at Sahiwal G/S SWL

Why CVT in combination with wave traps?

Capacitor Voltage Transformers also serve as coupling capacitors for coupling high frequency
power line carrier signals to the transmission line.

CVTs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering high frequency communication signals
from power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the transmission
network.

In an electrical power substation, Capacitor Voltage Transformer in combination with Wave Trap
is placed at the sending and receiving ends of the substation. At the receiving end they are found
just after lightening arrester and before line isolator.

7
 Earth Switch

Its function is to isolate the circuit after operation of circuit breaker and discharge the grapes charges
to earth through earth switch. Also it is very useful in maintenance period. Earthing switch. Earthing
switch is used to discharge the charges that are trapped in line after opening of line by circuit breaker.

Figure 2-8 Earth Switch

Isolator or Line Disconnect switch

In electrical engineering, a disconnect or, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure that
an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Isolator is a mechanical
switch which isolates a part of circuit from system as when required. Electrical isolators separate a
part of the system from rest for safe maintenance works. Isolators are used after or before circuit
breakers for extra protection. Isolators are not used for load current break. The work done by
electrical isolators is made easier to achieve using an isolator. An isolator is a mechanical switch
that is manually operated. Depending on the requirement of a given system, there are different types
of isolators. With isolators, one is able to see any open circuit physically as compared to circuit
breakers where no physical observation can be made.

Parts of Isolator

i. Poles
ii. Isolator Posts
iii. Conducting parts (moveable and Fixed)

Isolator has two or three poles that Consist two or three isolator posts. Conducting parts connect at
the top of isolator posts. Conducting parts consist fixed and moving part that made of copper or
aluminum.

Moveable part can be operated using a motorized mechanism as well as by hand to open or closed
electrical circuits. Hand operation happens to be cheaper, compared to a motorized arrangement.

8
 Figure 2-9 Isolator at Sahiwal G/S SWL

Switching procedure before and after maintenance

Step to open circuit

i. Open the circuit breaker

ii. Open the isolator
iii. Close the earth switch

Step to close circuit

i. Open the earth switch

ii. Close the isolator
iii. Close the circuit breaker

Types of isolator

i. Vertical Break Types Isolators

ii. Horizontal Break Types Isolator
iii. Vertical Pantograph Type Isolator
iv. Single Break & Double Break Rotary Isolator

Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical

circuit from damage caused by excess current, typically resulting from an overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates
once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation.
9
SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker

In such breakers, sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is used as the arc quenching medium. The sulphur
hexafluoride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons.

SF6 Gas (Sulfur hexafluoride)

Sulfur hexafluoride is an inert, nontoxic, colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable gas
consisting of a sulfur atom surrounded by and tightly bonded to six flourine atoms. It is about five
times as dense as air. SF6 is used in GIS at pressures from 400 to 600 kPa absolute. The pressure is
chosen so that the SF6 will not condense into a liquid at the lowest temperatures the equipment
experiences.

SF6 has two to three times the insulating ability of air at the same pressure. SF6 is about 100 times
better than air for interrupting arcs. It is the universally used interrupting medium for high voltage
circuit breakers, replacing the older mediums of oil and air. SF6 decomposes in the high temperature
of an electric arc, but the decomposed gas recombines back into SF6 so well that it is not necessary
to replenish the SF6 in GIS.

Advantages of SF6 Gas

i. It insulates 2.5 times better than air (N2),

ii. Over 100 times better arc quenching capability than air (N2), and
iii. Better heat dissipation than air;
iv. Size reduction
v. Weight reduction
vi. Reliable operation
vii. Ease of installation
viii. Ease of handling
ix. Ease and reduction of maintenance

Figure 2-10 SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker at Sahiwal G/S SWL

10
Shunt Reactor

A shunt reactor is an absorber of reactive power, thus increasing the energy efficiency of the system.
It is the most compact device commonly used for reactive power compensation in long high-voltage
transmission lines and in cable systems.

Figure 2-11 Shunt Reactor at Sahiwal G/S SWL

Main Differences

Shunt Reactor and Transformer both appear similar in construction. Reactors are also often equipped
with Fans for cooling similar to Power Transformers.

However, there are major differences between the two. While a Power Transformer is designed for
efficient power transfer from one voltage system to another, a shunt reactor is intended only to
consume reactive VArs (or in other words it can be stated as to produce lagging VArs).

Thus, there are more than one winding on a Power Transformer with magnetic core which carry the
mutual flux between the two. In reactor there is just one winding. The core is not therefore meant
only to provide a low reluctance path for flux of that winding to increase the Inductance.

Current Transformer

A current transformer is a device which is used for the transformation of current at a higher value to
a lower value with respect to the earth potential. It is used with the AC instruments for measuring
the high value of current.

11
 Figure 2-12 Current Transformer Diagram

The line current is too high, and it is very difficult to measure them directly. Thus, the current
transformer is used which decrease the high value of current into a fractional value which is easy to
measure by the instrument.

The primary of the current transformer is connected directly to the line whose value is to measure.
The secondary of the current transformer is connected to the ammeter or meter which measured the
line value regarding fractions.

Figure 2-13 Current Transformer

12
Potential Transformer

A voltage transformer is the type of instrument transformer which is used for the transformation of
the voltage from a higher value to a lower value.

Figure 2-14 Potential Transformer

The primary terminal of the potential transformer is connected to the line for measuring the line
voltage. The potential transformer reduced the high value of voltage into the small value which can
easily be measured by the voltmeter or meter.

Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Current Transformer Potential Transformer

Definition Transform the current from Transform the voltage from
high value to the low value. high value to the low value.
Circuit Symbol

Primary Winding It carries the current which is
to be measured
Secondary Winding It is connected to the current
winding of the instrument.
Connection Connected in series with the
instrument
Primary Circuit Has a small number of turns
Secondary Circuit Have a large number of turns
and cannot be open circuit.
Range 5A or 1A
13
It carries the voltage which is
to be measured.
It is connected to the meter or
instrument.
Connected in parallel with the
instrument.
Has a large number of turns
Have a small number of turns
and can be open circuit.
110v
 Transformation Ratio High Low
Burden Does not depends on Depends on the secondary
secondary burden burden
Input Constant current Constant Voltage
Full line current The primary winding consists The primary winding consists
the full line current. the full line voltage.
Types Current Transformer Two Two types (Electromagnetic
types ( Wound and Closed and Capacitor voltage)
Core )
Impedance Low High
Applications Measuring current and power, Measurement, power source,
monitoring the power grid operating protective relay,
operation, for operating
protective relay
Core Usually built up with It is made up of with high
lamination of silicon steel. quality steel operating at low
flux densities

Auto Transformer

Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares same
common single winding. So basically it’s a one winding transformer.

Basic transformer parts

i. Input/ primary Connections

ii. Output/secondary Connections
iii. Winding
iv. Core

Main parts of power transformer

i. Steel tank
ii. Core
iii. Winding
iv. Conservator
v. Brather
vi. Thermometer
vii. Pressure relief pipe Valves
viii. Bacull relay
ix. LV & HV Bushings
x. Tap changer switch
xi. Oil tubes
xii. Oil gaje
14
 xiii. Readiator
xiv. Cooling fans
xv. Oil pumps
xvi. Insulation oil

Figure 2-15 Auto Transformer

Portable Earthing

Disabling powerful live parts electrical, transformer or power lines fragment does not guarantee full
security of the people working on separate elements of the electrical systems of the lesions. On the
site of the power supply is turned off may be unintended or induced high voltage. To eliminate
human exposure to unforeseen factors applied additional means of protection Grounding portable,
does not allow appearing on the zone installation voltage hazardous to human values.

Figure 2-16 Grounding Portable Device

15
Portable earthing system consists of 3 main parts are

i. Conductive component;
ii. The contact portion;
iii. The insulating element or several insulating elements

16
Chapter 3 - Skill Attained
Testing of Transformer

Basic Transformer Testing

i. Open circuit test

ii. Short circuit test
iii. Insulation resistance test or magger test of transformer
iv. Winding resistance test
v. Transformer turn ratio test
vi. Capacitance and dissipation test
vii. Dielectric test

Here we performed only four type transformer test

Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer

Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried out to ensure the
healthiness of overall insulation system of an electrical power transformer.

Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

i. First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer.
ii. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure insulation resistance
IR value in between the LV and HV windings.
iii. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to
measure insulation resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth.
iv. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to
measure insulation resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth.

NB: It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase wise in three
phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively as because all the windings
on HV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta and also all the windings on
LV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta.

Measurements are to be taken as follows

For auto transformer: HV-IV to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E.

For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E, LV to E.
Three winding transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV to E, LV to E.
Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the IR
value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be recorded at intervals
of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the duration of application of voltage, IR value

17
increases. The increase in IR is an indication of dryness of insulation. Absorption coefficient = 1-
minute value/ 15 sec. Value. Polarization index = 10 minutes’ value / 1-minute value.

Here we perform insulation test of auto transformer and take following reading

Sr. No. Mode Applied voltage 60sec 15sec Oil temp

1 T-G 5KV 301GΩ 80GΩ 35
2 HXN-G 5KV 380GΩ 1.29GΩ 35
3 HXNT-G 5KV 290GΩ 1.5GΩ 35
4 HXN-T 5KV 343GΩ 1.65GΩ 35
5 Core Grounding Plug 500V 960GΩ 35

Table 3-1 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Blue Phase)

Sr. No. Mode Applied voltage 60sec 15sec Oil temp

1 T-G 5KV 167.4GΩ 66.5GΩ 42
2 HXN-G 5KV 130.9GΩ 82.2GΩ 42
3 HXNT-G 5KV 65.9GΩ 45.2GΩ 42
4 HXN-T 5KV 157.5GΩ 90.9GΩ 42
5 Core Grounding Plug 500V 520GΩ 447GΩ 42

Table 3-2 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Yellow Phase)

Sr. No. Mode Applied voltage 60sec 15sec Oil temp

1 T-G 1KV 96.9GΩ 74.8GΩ 35
2 HXN-G 1KV 214.5GΩ 127.2GΩ 35
3 HXNT-G 1KV 102GΩ 93.3GΩ 35
4 HXN-T 1KV 110GΩ 26.5GΩ 35
5 Core Grounding Plug 500V 245GΩ 35

Table 3-3 Insulation test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Red Phase)

H=HV (high voltage)

X=LV (low voltage)
G= ground
T=Tratiary winding

Tratiary winding

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary winding is
used. This additional winding, apart from primary and secondary windings, is known as Tertiary
winding of transformer. Because of this third winding, the transformer is called three winding
transformer or 3 winding transformer

18
 Figure 3-1 Diagram of Three Winding Transformer

Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer

Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or more of the following
requirements

i. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.
ii. It redistributes the flow of fault current.

Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in addition to its main
secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary winding of three winding
transformer.

As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer, it assists in

limitation of fault current in the event of a short circuit from line to neutral.

Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement

Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate the I2R losses and to
calculate winding temperature at the end of a temperature rise test. It is carried out as a type test as
well as routine test. It is also done at site to ensure healthiness of a transformer that is to check loose
connections, broken strands of conductor, high contact resistance in tap changers, high voltage leads
and bushings etc.

There are different methods for measuring of transformer winding, likewise

i. Current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance.

ii. Bridge method of measurement of winding resistance. Kelvin bridge method of Measuring
Winding Resistance.

Measuring winding resistance by Automatic Winding Resistance Measurement Kit.

NB: Transformer winding resistance measurement shall be carried out at each tap.

19
Current Voltage Method of Measurement of Winding Resistance

The transformer winding resistances can be measured by current voltage method. In this method of
measurement of winding resistance, the test current is injected to the winding and corresponding
voltage drop across the winding is measured.

By applying simple Ohm's law i.e. Rx = V ⁄ I, one can easily determine the value of resistance.

Procedure of Current Voltage Method of Measurement of Winding Resistance

i. Before measurement the transformer should be kept in OFF condition without excitation at
least for 3 to 4 hours. During this time the winding temperature will become equal to its oil
temperature.
ii. Measurement is done with D.C.
iii. To minimize observation errors, polarity of the core magnetization shall be kept constant
during all resistance readings.
iv. Voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads to protect it from high voltages
which may occur during switching on and off the current circuit.
v. The readings shall be taken after the current and voltage have reached steady state values. In
some cases, this may take several minutes depending upon the winding impedance.
vi. The test current shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the winding. Large values may
cause inaccuracy by heating the winding and thereby changing its resistance.
vii. For expressing resistance, the corresponding temperature of the winding at the time of
measurement must be mentioned along with resistance value. As we said earlier that after
remaining in switch off condition for 3 to 4 hours, the winding temperature would become
equal to oil temperature. The oil temperature at the time of testing is taken as the average of
top oil and bottom oil temperatures of transformer.

Figure 3-2 Current Voltage Method of Star Winding Measurement

20
 viii. For star connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase would be half of
measured resistance between two line terminals of the transformer.
ix. For delta connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase would be 0.67 times of
measured resistance between two line terminals of the transformer.
x. This current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance of transformer should be
repeated for each pair of line terminals of winding at every tap position.

Figure 3-3 Current Voltage Method of Delta Winding Measurement

Here we perform winding resistance test of auto transformer and take following reading

Sr. No. Tap position Winding connection Applied current R measured R refrance
1 1 H-N 10A 874.2mΩ 1.083Ω
2 2 H-N 10A 707.5mΩ 840.5mΩ
3 3 H-N 10A 664.3mΩ 788.9mΩ
4 4 H-N 10A 769.6mΩ 914.2mΩ
5 5 H-N 10A 0.969mΩ 1.1511Ω
6 3 L-N 10A 210.2mΩ 250.5mΩ
7 3 L-N 10A 6.538mΩ 7.796mΩ

Table 3-4 Winding Resistance test result of 500/22kv transformer T-3(Red Phase)

21
Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test

Figure 3-4 Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test

Turns ratio between the windings

The turns ratio test is an AC low voltage test which determines the ratio of the high voltage winding
to all other windings at no-load. The turn’s ratio test is performed on all taps of every winding.
The Transformer Turns Ratio tester (TTR) is device used to measure the turn’s ratio between the
windings (example shown below).

Voltage is applied on the H marked leads and measured of the X marked lead by the test set.

Ratio measurements are conducted on all tap positions and calculated by dividing the induced
voltage reading into the applied voltage value. When ratio tests are being made on three-phase
transformers, the ratio is taken on one phase at a time with a three-phase TTR until the ratio
measurements of all three phases are completed.

Figure 3-5 Transformer ratio test diagram, using a Single phase TTR test set. Photo: Megger

22
Single-Phase Models

Connect the exciting leads (X1 and X2) to the lower-voltage winding of the two windings to be
compared. Match transformer polarity by connecting the H1 secondary lead to the higher-voltage
terminal which corresponds to the X1 connection. See Figure. Connect the H2 lead to the other high
voltage terminal. Where both windings are grounded on one side, connect X1 and H1 to the grounded
sides. Always excite the entire low-voltage winding. For poly phase transformers, repeat procedure
on each set of windings to be measured

Figure 3-6 Three-phase Transformer Turns Rati (TTR) Connection diagram

Measured ratio variations should be within 0.5% of the nameplate markings

Some TTR can perform transformer ratio measurement and also assess if on-load tap changer
contacts are making satisfactorily during its transition from one tap position to the next position.

Figure 3-7 Hand-cranked TTR – Transformer Turns Ratio Test Set

Example of single phase, Hand-cranked TTR – Transformer Turns Ratio Test Set (Measures the
turns ratio and exciting current of windings in power, potential and current transformers.)

23
Turns Ratio Test Procedure, Step by Step

Step 1

Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and disconnect
all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals connections.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater that the
phase spacing distance. Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and outgoing terminals
as required.

Step 2

Connect the H designated three-phase test lead with the military style connector at one end to the
mating connection on the test set marked with an H. Ensure that the connector’s index notch lines
up properly.

Step 3

Connect the X designated three-phase test of lead military style connector at one end to the mating
connection on the test set marked with an X. Ensure that the connector’s index notch lines up
properly.

Step 4

Connect the H1, H2, H3 designated test lead to the corresponding H1, H2, H3 transformer terminal
/ bushing. Connect the H0 test lead if H0 terminal/bushing is present.
Refer to Figure 1.

Step 5

Connect the X1, X2, X3 designated test leads to the corresponding X1, X2, X3 transformer terminals
/ bushings. Connect the X0 test lead if X0 terminal/bushing is present.

Step 6

Perform turns ratio measurements for all tap positions.

Step 7

Confirm that the measured ratios are within 0.5% of the calculated ratios.

24
Here we perform transformer turn ratio test of auto transformer and take following reading

TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured

HV to LV Ratio
1 512500 220000 2.329 2.325
2 500000 220000 2.272 2.268
3 487500 220000 2.215 2.211
4 475000 220000 2.159 2.155
5 462500 220000 2.102 2.099
TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured
1 512500 11000 26.9 26.632

HV to TW
2 500000 11000 26.243 25.981

Ratio
3 487500 11000 25.587 25.335
4 475000 11000 24.931 24.68
5 462500 11000 24.275 24.031
LV to Tertiart
6 220000 11000 11.547 11.434
Ratio

Table 3-5 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Blue Phase)

TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured

HV to LV Ratio

1 512500 220000 2.329 2.325

2 500000 220000 2.272 2.268
3 487500 220000 2.215 2.211
4 475000 220000 2.159 2.155
5 462500 220000 2.102 2.099
TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured
1 512500 11000 26.9 26.621
HV to TW

2 500000 11000 26.243 25.968

Ratio

3 487500 11000 25.587 25.31

4 475000 11000 24.931 24.665
5 462500 11000 24.275 24.061
LV to Tertiart
6 220000 11000 11.547 11.439
Ratio

Table 3-6 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Yellow Phase)

25
 TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured

HV to LV Ratio
1 512500 220000 2.329 2.3234
2 500000 220000 2.272 2.268
3 487500 220000 2.215 2.21
4 475000 220000 2.159 2.155
5 462500 220000 2.102 2.099
TAP POS. HV LV Calculated Measured
1 512500 11000 26.9 26.611

HV to TW
2 500000 11000 26.243 25.968

Ratio
3 487500 11000 25.587 25.311
4 475000 11000 24.931 24.664
5 462500 11000 24.275 24.013
LV to Tertiart
6 220000 11000 11.547 11.441
Ratio

Table 3-7 TTR Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Red Phase)

Dissipation/Power Factor Measurement (Tan Delta)

Figure 3-8 Dissipation/Power Factor Measurement (Tan Delta)

The condition of the insulation is essential for secure and reliable operation of your transformer.
Measuring capacitance and dissipation/power factor helps you to determine insulation condition in
bushings or between windings.

Changes in capacitance can, for example, indicate mechanical displacements of windings or partial
breakdown in bushings. Aging and degradation of the insulation, coupled with the ingress of water,
increase the amount of energy that is converted to heat in the insulation. The rate of these losses is
measured as dissipation factor.

26
With our testing systems, you can even determine the capacitance and dissipation/power factor at
variable frequency. Therefore, aging phenomena can then be detected earlier, and corresponding
action such as repair, oil treatment or drying can be initiated

Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test Procedure

(Two winding dry-type transformer)

Step 1

Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and disconnect
all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals. Disconnected cables
should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater that the phase spacing
distance.

Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and outgoing terminals as required.

Step 2

Isolate the neutral bushing connection if applicable from the transformer grounding bar.

Step 3

Short-circuit all high voltage bushing terminals together.

Step 4

Short-circuit all low voltage bushing terminals and the neutral bushing terminal together.

Step 5

Connect the capacitance and dissipation factor test set. Refer to Figure 1 above.

Step 6

Record the capacitance and dissipation factor values once the null meter is balance for both phasing
position. Record values for the five test-variable selector switch position.

Power Transformer Testing – Measuring capacitance and power factor or dissipation factor

The condition of the bushings and the overall insulation of power transformers can be investigated
by measuring the capacitance and dissipation factor, also known as the tangent delta, or power factor.
Aging and decomposition of the insulation, or the ingress of water, increases the losses and thus
more energy is turned into heat in the insulation.

27
The level of this dissipation is expressed by the dissipation factor or power factor.

Sr.No Device Mode Total Cap DF Leakage current

kv pF/nF % mA
1 HV Bush (New) UST 10 406.484pF 0.2818 1.277
2 LV Bush UST 10 482.654pF 0.2761 1.516
3 Neutral Bush UST 10 457.484nF 0.4784 14.381
4 GST 10 5.6867nF 0.3141 14.873
5 UST 10 69.5750pF -1.1093 218.58µ
Transformer Body
GSTg-
6 10
A

Table 3-8 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Blue Phase)

Sr.No Device Mode Total Cap DF Leakage current

kv pF/nF % mA
1 HV Bush (New) UST 10 395.094pF 0.2701 1.2411
2 LV Bush UST 10 490.261pF 0.0872 1.5401
3 Neutral Bush GST 10 19.2233nF 0.5052 60.401
4 UST-A 10 68.9320pF 0.1569 216.54µ
5 Transformer Body GST 10 19.2458nF 0.3439 60.467
6 GSTg-A

Table 3-9 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Yellow Phase)

Sr.No Device Mode Total Cap DF Leakage current

kv pF/nF % mA
UST-
1 HV Bush (New) 10 403.123pF 0.2839 1.2665
A
UST-
2 LV Bush 10 484.565pF 0.3087 1.5221
A
UST-
3 Neutral Bush 10 4.35631nF 0.5884 13.694
A
4 GST 10 4.35059nF 0.5925 13.967
5 Transformer Body UST 10 75.8080pF -0.4382 238.14
6

Table 3-10 C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Red Phase)

28
 Dielectric strength of transformer oil

Figure 3-9 The breakdown voltage test for insulating oil

In physics, the term dielectric strength has the following meanings: Of an insulating material, the
maximum electric field that a pure material can withstand under ideal conditions without breaking
down (i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating properties).

Dielectric Strength is a measure of the electrical strength of a material as an insulator. Dielectric

strength is defined as the maximum voltage required to produce a dielectric breakdown through the
material and is expressed as Volts per unit thickness.

Dielectric strength of transformer oil is also known as breakdown voltage of transformer oil or BDV
of transformer oil. Break down voltage is measured by observing at what voltage, sparking straits
between two electrodes emerged in the oil, separated by specific gap.

Transformer oil, a type of insulating and cooling oil used in transformers and other electrical
equipment, needs to be tested periodically to ensure that it is still fit for purpose. This is because it
tends to deteriorate over time. Testing sequences and procedures are defined by various international
standards, many of them set by ASTM. Testing consists of measuring breakdown voltage and other
physical and chemical properties of samples of the oil, either in a laboratory or using portable test
equipment on site.

For a new insulating transformer oil(called virgin oil), the, value is 70kv for a good satisfactory level
but, whereas oil in use (called in service) has values ranging from 25 kv to 50kv depending upon
various factors like ,running hours of use, impurities, moisture content, sludge content etc, but it is
advisable to discard old oil, if value does not improve after dehydration and filtration above 60 KV
in laboratory setup or the oil has not passing a compatibility/mixibilty test with new transformer oil
at different ratio to come to at par in usable ranges as per standards, on the other hand the exact
values and correct figures for Virgin oil are available in IEC-60296 AND for oil in service there is
a complete guide and specification available as IEC-60247 where all the nesseccary information’s
are available, including the test methods and apparatus required.

29
Two standard-compliant test electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by the
dielectric oil. A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to the
breakdown voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s

Figure 3-10 Detail Show of Electrodes

30
DES Test Of 500kv Auto T/F T1 at 500kva Sahiwal grid station.

Breakdown voltage testing procedure

i. To assess the insulating property of dielectric transformer oil, a sample of the transformer oil
is taken and its breakdown voltage is measured. The lower the resulting breakdown voltage,
the poorer the quality of the transformer oil.
ii. The transformer oil is filled in the vessel of the testing device. Two standard-compliant test
electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by the dielectric oil.
iii. A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to the breakdown
voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s.
iv. At a certain voltage level breakdown occurs in an electric arc, leading to a collapse of the
test voltage.
v. An instant after ignition of the arc, the test voltage is switched off automatically by the testing
device. Ultra-fast switches off is highly desirable, as the carbonization due to the electric arc
must be limited to keep the additional pollution as low as possible.
vi. The transformer oil testing device measures and reports the root mean square value of the
breakdown voltage.
vii. After the transformer oil test is completed, the insulation oil is stirred automatically and the
test sequence is performed repeatedly: typically, 5 repetitions, depending on the standard.
viii. As a result, the breakdown voltage is calculated as mean value of the individual
measurements

Insulating property

i. Should not interfere with any part. Therefore, it must be completely free from dirt, dust,
fibers moisture and other solid matters.
ii. Dust, dirt and moisture are enemies of electricity, remove them.
iii. Should be stable against oxidation at working temperature of 90 deg. C
iv. Right viscosity and thermal conductivity to be an efficient coolant.
v. Should not have a tendency to dissolve any matter.
vi. Density of oil is 0.89 gr/cm3 at 29.5 °C.

Specification of insulating oil

i. Certain properties of insulating oil are very important.

ii. Provide a high electric strength.
iii. Permit good transfer of heat.
iv. Have low specific gravity
v. Have a low viscosity
vi. Have low pour point
vii. Have a high flash point.
31
 viii. Not attack insulating materials and structural materials.
ix. Have chemical stability to ensure lifelong service.

R Phase Y Phase B Phase

1 83.1kv
2 83.9kv
3 73.0kv
4 73.7kv
5 77.5kv
Avrage 78.1kv
1 84.0kv
2 72.0kv
3 83.0kv
4 83.4kv
5 65.5kv
Avrage 77.2kv
1 75.7kv
2 73.3kv
3 84.1kv
4 75.0kv
5 80.0kv
Avrage 77.3kv

Value of DES test of Spare unit of T1

1 75.7kv
2 73.3kv
3 84.1kv
4 75.0kv
5 80.0kv
Avrage 77.3kv

Contact Resistance Test

Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement

Ohm’s law defines resistance, “R”, as the ratio of voltage “V” across a component, to the current “I”
passing through it:
R = V/I

To measure resistance, we apply a test current to a wire and detect the voltage drop developed. From
this, we easily calculate the resistance as shown in the following figure.

Figure 3-11 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement

32
 Figure 3-12 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement

Figure 3-13 Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement

We measure the resistance of interest, RW, between the conductor ’s two mating pins. The entire
circuit, however, includes the resistance of the lead wires, RL1 and RL2, so the voltage drop used in
the calculation includes all three of these resistances. In many situations the lead wire resistance is
much lower than the resistance of the conductor or component we aim to measure and therefore can
be disregarded.

In some situations, however, the resistance of interest, RW, approaches the resistance value of the
lead wires used to measure it resulting in an inaccurate reading. We correct this problem by moving
the voltage measurement points out to the endpoints of the mating pins, thus, bypassing any voltage
drop that may occur in the lead wires. Refer to the figure below:

The Ohmmeter then appears to have four wires coming from it. The image at the right shows these
terminals on a typical DMM. Because we now use four lead wires instead of two, we refer to this
approach as “4-wire measurement”, or alternatively “4-Wire Kelvin” measurement in honor of the
19th century British physicist, Lord Kelvin, who originally developed it.

Note that the current flowing through the voltage-measuring circuit of a 4-wire system is extremely
small, typically on the order of fractions of a micro amp (six or more orders of magnitude less than
the source current), so virtually no voltage drop occurs across these lead wires, and it’s effect on the
resistance measurement is negligible. In summary, if there is no current flowing through a wire, there
is no voltage drop across it regardless of its length. This important point means that lead wires may
now be quite long, sometimes exceeding 10 feet (3 meters), without having any effect on the
33
measurement. Long lead wires become necessary when testing large, multi-branch wire harness
assemblies, so this situation is not as uncommon as it might seem.

The principal advantage of 4-wire measurement is that it eliminates any effect of fixture resistance
(the lead wires) to obtain a precise resistance value of the UUT. Because 4-wire measurements
typically employ test currents well above those needed for two-wire testing, a secondary advantage
comes through the use of a high-current stress test for wiring by driving a current of 1 A or more
through each conductor, and the ability to set a dwell time from 100 ms to many minutes ––
observing a slowly-increasing resistance during a long dwell period resulting from thermal heating
may reveal problems not detected with a shorter measurement interval.

Software driving a 4-wire measurement system should permit individual conductors within a UUT
to be independently disabled from a 4-wire test by User selection to avoid potential damage to fuses
or other component not intended to carry high test current. Users should also be allowed to
independently set different test currents and dwell times for different conductors.

Contact Resistance Value

B5Q22 B4Q22
Apply Apply
Phase Contact Result Phase Contact Result
current current
R 1 100A 138µΩ R 1 100A 75µΩ
Y 1 100A 142µΩ Y 1 100A 76µΩ
B 1 100A 137µΩ B 1 100A 75µΩ

B3Q22 B2Q22
Apply Apply
Phase Contact Result Phase Contact Result
current current
R 1 100A 125µΩ R 1 100A 83µΩ
Y 1 100A 127µΩ Y 1 100A 78µΩ
B 1 100A 132µΩ B 1 100A 79µΩ

B1Q22
Apply
Phase Contact Result
current
R 1 100A 102µΩ
Y 1 100A 106µΩ
B 1 100A 99µΩ

Earth resistance test

In broad terms, "earth resistance" is defined as resistance of soil observed in the path of flow of
electric current. In general, Earth is relatively poor conductor of the electricity in comparison to
normal conductors such as copper wire. Resistance can be very low when area of the path where
current is flowing is larger in size. Hence in this condition Earth is considered as good conductor.
34
It is important to know earth resistance as it helps in finding the location which is ideal to ground
the equipment and help to protect human beings. It also helps to determine what lies at few distance
below the earth's surface.

Earth resistance testing

The Earth resistance testing will help find the best earth location and depth to fix low resistance
electrodes. The resistivity of earth is used to indicate degree of corrosion useful in underground
pipelines. These pipelines are used for oil, water, gas etc. Typically, locations with low resistivity
values will have higher corrosion.

In earth resistance testing, earth tester generates AC signal. This signal is fed to the SUT (System
under Test). By measuring flow of current and generated voltage will give us system resistance. The
earth resistance can be measured in the range between 0.001 to 20 KOhm.

Figure 3-14 Earth resistance testing

Figure depicts concepts of earth resistance testing employed in tester equipments. As shown in the
figure, Rod-3 is moved and measurement of voltage and current is recorded at various points between
Rod-1 and Rod-2. By using Ohm's Law (R = E/I), Earth resistance can be determined at various
points and location having low resistance can easily be derived from the plot (earth resistance versus
distance in feet of Rod-3 from Rod-1.

35
 Earth Resistance Test Range=20Ω Earth Resistance Test Of T1
Equipments Rɸ Yɸ Bɸ Rɸ 0.05/0.06 N 0.06/0.05
L.V Post 0.04 0.04 0.04 Yɸ 0.04/0.05 N 0.05/0.06
T/F Body 0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04 Bɸ 0.06/0.05 N 0.06/0.06
Fire Fighting
0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04
PDE
Earth mat 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
P.T Bushar
0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04 0.04/0.04
Post
C.T 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
Droper Post 0.04 0.04 0.04
Control Box
0.03 0.03 0.03
B4Q1
High Gentry 0.04/0.04 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
Bridge
0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
Gentry
Water Pipe 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
Earth Switch 0.03/0.03 0.04/0.04 0.03/0.03
C.V.T 0.04/0.04 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03
Wave Trap 0.04/0.04 0.03/0.03 0.03/0.03

Following are the three test methods used to measure Earth resistance

i. Fall of potential method OR three terminal test method

Figure 3-15 Fall of potential method OR three terminal test method

ii. Two-point test method or Dead Earth method

Figure 3-16 Two-point test method or Dead Earth method

36
 iii. Clamp on test method

Figure 3-17 Clamp on test method

Figure 3-18 Clamp on test method

Neutral

Neutral is return path for an AC circuit which is supposed to carry current in normal condition. This
current may be because of many reasons, primarily because of phase current imbalance and some
time because 3rd and 5th harmonics also.

There may be others reasons too but the magnitude of this current is in fraction of phase current and
in few case it can be even double of phase current. So Neutral wire is always assumed to be charged

37
(in active circuit). This neutral wire is given to ground (by grounding) to make the second terminal
of neutral wire at zero potential.

Earth or Ground

Is for safety concerns against leakage or residual currents on the system via least resistance path.
While phase and neutral is connected to main power wiring, earth may be connected to body of
equipment or to any system which in normal condition doesn’t carry current but in case of some
insulation failure, is supposed to carry some minor current.

This current is not directly coming from live or phase wire, but is from secondary links which was
not in touch with live system in normal condition. This current is usually much lesser than main line
current or Phase current and mostly is in order of mA. But this leakage current is good enough to
kill someone or may risk fire. Such current is being provided a low resistance path and sent to earth
via earth wire.

Because of the difference in application we never mix grounding of neutral and earth. However, both
are made grounded (of-course the process may be different). If both will be mixed then the earth
wire which is not supposed to carry any current in normal condition, may have some charges across
and will become hazardous.

So in Conclusion (On The Difference Between Neutral and Ground/Earth)

i. From the Generation side, the Neutral and Earth have the same common point. Neutral/Earth
is this case would act as the return path of the supply.
ii. From the Distribution side, we start to run the Neutral lines. Neutral in this case would be
the return path of the supply.
iii. Earth is still available but normally there will be no current flowing, only during supply
leakage
iv. Grounding is the commonly word used for earthing in the North American standards like
IEEE, NEC, ANSI and UL etc. while, Earthing is used in European, Common wealth
countries and Britain standards like IS and IEC etc.

In simple words, Earthing and Grounding are synonyms. Both are similar words used for the same
thing

As the neutral point of an electrical supply system is often connected to earth ground, ground and
neutral are closely related. Under certain conditions, a conductor used to connect to a system neutral
is also used for grounding (earthing) of equipment and structures.

How Grounding Is Different Than Earthlings?

While earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate equipment. It is an
alternate low resistance path for current. When we take out the neutral for a three phase unbalanced
connection and send it to ground, it is called grounding

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This gives a small voltage between the grounded metal parts of devices connected to it and true
ground if phases are unbalanced, which is clearly suboptimal, but if you have a faulty device where
a hot wire touches the case, that will at least blow the fuse. It is however wrong to connect ground
to neutral in the wall.

Figure 3-19 Difference Between Neutral, Ground and Earth

Why T/F Neutral Is Separately Grounded

No, the neutral and ground should never be wired together. This is wrong, and potentially dangerous.
When you plug in something in the outlet, the neutral will be live, as it closes the circuit. If the
ground is wired to the neutral, the ground of the appliance will also be live. This can be felt as a
tingling if you touch the grounded casing of the appliance, because most of the current still goes
through the neutral where the lowest resistance is.

However, if there is something wrong and the neutral is disconnected, it will make the appliance
dangerous. If you touch the casing, and some real ground (like a water pipe) at the same time, you
will close the circuit and carry all of the current.

So, connecting the ground to neutral totally defeats the purpose of having a ground, and actually
makes it more dangerous than not having the ground at all.

When the inspector was measuring the ground, he was actually measuring the neutral, which
naturally shows a current when something is connected somewhere in the circuit.

3.5.1 Importance of neutral

In the electrical trade, the conductor of a 2-wire circuit connected to the supply neutral point and
earth ground is referred to as the "neutral". ... All neutral wires of the same earthed (grounded)
electrical system should have the same electrical potential, because they are all connected through
the system ground.

All neutral wires of the same earthed (grounded) electrical system should have the same electrical
potential, because they are all connected through the system ground. Neutral conductors are usually
insulated for the same voltage as the line conductors, with interesting exceptions.
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Chapter 4 - Feed Back and Recommendation
Feedback
• The permission for internship after some struggle.
• In grid station installed very heavy and costly Equipment.
• During internship at grid station learn basic knowledge of grid station shift staff like get the
reading of KWH, load, power factor and weakly maintenance of 110v dc batteries
• Take steps to satisfy the stakeholders.
• Grid station is not a safe area for common people.
• Improved training of the working staff.
• Online attendance system should be introduced.
• Implementation of international safety measures.
• Communication gap between upper level and lower level employees must be reduced.
• Pay concentration for the low level employees.
• Improve collaboration between different departments.
• Steps to increase productivity.
• Hire skillful and talented staff.
• Use of latest technology in work environment.
• Make better plan for eliminate the line losses.
• Provide user friendly working environment.
• Reduce work load to the employees.
• Regular reconciliation is made to keep the records streamline.
• Use of online accounting software.
• NTDC employees may be motivated to compete.
• Efficient and motivated employees should be rewarded.

Recommendation

The Internship at 500 KV grid station was very informative theoretically as well as practically as I
was able to see the functioning of different electrical equipment’s.
I had a sound knowledge of the incoming and outgoing Transmission lines from this grid station to
different cities and industrial Sectors. I became abreast of the Protective devices being installed to
undo any heavy damage to the Yards in case of fault currents and other reasons. Breaker Schemes
used enhanced my knowledge greatly.
So, indeed it was a great experience learning under the supervision of the 500 KV Grid Station Staff.
To understand the purpose of Grid station, Breakers, Relays, Switching, Transformers, CT, PT,
Batteries as well as many more things used at the 500kv grid station. I learned about control panel,
Safety and Tripping.

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 REFERENCE
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Pakistan
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Pakistan
3. https://www.elprocus.com/types-of-circuit-breakers-and-its-application/
4. https://circuitglobe.com/types-of-transformer.html
5. https://www.omicronenergy.com/en/applications/protection-testing/
6. https://megger.com/relay-test-sets-sverker750/780#overview
7. https://smcint.com/product/pte-100-c-secondary-injection-test/
8. https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/power-transformer-turns-ratio-test
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_clamp
10. https://electric4u.com
11. https://www.quora.com

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