SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

TRADE TACTS INTERNATIONAL

(PVT) LIMITED

BSc MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY

Abdul Haseeb
2018-GCUF-89604
8641
Training Period

16-09-2021to 30-11-2021

DEPARTMENT
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
GOVT. COLLEGE UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD
SAHIWAL CAMPUS
2022
 SUPERVISED INDUSRIAL TRAINING REPORT
TRADE TACTS INTERNATIONAL
(PVT) LIMITED

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BSc MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO
THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
GOVT. COLLEGE UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD, SAHIWAL CAMPUS
SAHIWAL
SUBMITTED BY
Name of Student Roll No.
Abdul Haseeb 8641
Training Period
16-09-2021 to 30-11-2021
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD
SAHIWAL CAMPUS
2022
 CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have completed the Eight Weeks Training in partial fulfillments of requirements
for the award of BSC Mechanical Engineering Technology. I did my Training in Trade Tacts
international pvt Limited from 16-09-2021 to 30-11-2021.The matter presented in this report has not
been submitted by me for the award of any other degree elsewhere.

Signature of Student
Abdul Haseeb

Examined by:
Engr. Syed Muhammad Raza

INCHARGE/HOD
Engineering and Technology Department
 ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Definition

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

API American Petroleum Institute

AWS American Welding Society

ASSY assembly

BB bolted bonnet

BC bolt circle

BE bevelled ends (for welding)

BF blind flange

BM bill of material

BOP bottom of pipe

BLDG building

BW butt weld

˚C degrees Celsius
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page No

Acknowledgement i

Table of Content iii

List of Figures v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise and glory be almighty God who is creator of the universe, who enables us to fulfill the required
functionalities of this report. I would like to sincerely thank my report supervisor Engr. Syed Muhammad
Raza for his ideas, contribution and guidance and throughout the report duration and this all was not
possible without his guidance and mortal support. I would like to thanks HOD Engr. Muhammad Adeel
Aslam for his guidance. He was always there whenever his help and ideas. We acknowledge the help of
all our teaching faculty, report director mechanical department and library staff for providing the require
resources, with provided us every opportunity to work in healthy atmosphere.

Signature of Student
Abdul Haseeb(8641)

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 introduction ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Intro to pipe fabrication ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Codes and standards .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Approval of pipping systems ............................................................................................................. 2

CHAPTER 2 TRAINING WORK .......................................................................... 3

2.1 Piping systems ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Pipe ................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Piping fittings ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 But weld elbows .............................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Lap joint stub ends....................................................................................................................... 8-12

CHAPTER 3 SKILL ATTAINED ........................................................................ 13

3.1 Flanges types ................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Weld Kneck flange ............................................................................................................................ 13
3.3Slip on flanges .................................................................................................................................. 13
3.4 Socket Welding flanges ................................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Lap joint flanges .............................................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Blind flanges .................................................................................................................................... 15
3.7 Orifice flange ................................................................................................................................... 15
3.8 Flange fittings ................................................................................................................................. 16
3.9 Raised flange ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.10 Flat flange ...................................................................................................................................... 17
3.11 Ring joint flange ............................................................................................................................ 17
3.12 flange ............................................................................................................................................. 17
3.13 Male and Female ........................................................................................................................... 18
3.14 Lap joint......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.15 Male and Female ........................................................................................................................... 19
3.16 Class rating .................................................................................................................................... 19
3.17 Gaskets .......................................................................................................................................... 19
3.18 Scareted gaskets............................................................................................................................. 20

3.19 Laminated Gasket ........................................................................................................................... 20

ii
3.20 Flat gasket ...................................................................................................................................... 20
3.21 Spiral wound gasket ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.22 Ring joint gasket ............................................................................................................................ 21
3.23 Insulating gasket ............................................................................................................................ 21
3.24 Valves ............................................................................................................................................ 21
3.25 Basic parts of valves ...................................................................................................................... 22
3.26 The body ........................................................................................................................................ 22
3.27 The stem ........................................................................................................................................ 23
3.28 The bonnet ..................................................................................................................................... 24
3.29 The operatior ................................................................................................................................. 24

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION, FEEDBACK & RECOMMENDATIONS .............. 25

4.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 25
4.2 FEEDBACK .................................................................................................................................. 25
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONs ................................................................................................................ 25

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 ......................................................................................................................1
1.2 ......................................................................................................................1
1.3 ......................................................................................................................1
2.1 .......................................................................................................................3
2.2 .......................................................................................................................3
2.3 .......................................................................................................................4
2.4 .......................................................................................................................5
2.5.2.6 .................................................................................................................6
2.7.2.8. ................................................................................................................7
2.9, 2.10, 2.11 .....................................................................................................8
2.12, 2.13 ............................................................................................................9
2.15. 2.16 ..........................................................................................................10
2.17, 2.18, 2.18 .................................................................................................11
2.20 ...................................................................................................................12
3.1, 3.2 ..............................................................................................................13
3.3 .....................................................................................................................14
3.4, 3.5 ..............................................................................................................15
3.6,3.7 ...............................................................................................................16
3.8, 3.9 ..............................................................................................................17
3.10, 3.11 ..........................................................................................................18
3.12 ...................................................................................................................19
3.13, 3.14 ..........................................................................................................20
3.15, 3.16 ..........................................................................................................21
3.17 ...................................................................................................................22
3.18 ...................................................................................................................23
3.19 ...................................................................................................................24

iv
v
Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1 Introduction to pipe fabrication

Pipelines are used to transport fluids, including vapours, gases, slurries and powders
which flow through pipes at various pressures and temperatures. The transmission of
these materials invariably subjects the pipe to intense stresses and strains and this
demands the highest possible performance from the pipe.
All pipework must be designed and fabricated in a way that ensures the safety of plant
operators, the plant, the public and the environment.

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

The fabricator is responsible for the quality of the pipework and pipe fabrication must
be carried out in accordance with all relevant standards and specifications. One faulty
weld could lead to damage costing millions of dollars, personal injury and in serious
cases even death. Welded pipe systems demand the highest degree of excellence in
materials and quality of work.
Because high standards are required, the cost of pipework is extremely high. Typical
costs for pipework in a manufacturing plant are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Fabrication costs

Fieldlabourcosts47%

Materialcosts23%

Designengineeringcosts20%

1.2Codes and standards

To ensure the highest standards of uniformity, safety and work quality, most piping
systems are designed, welded, installed and tested to rigid specifications or codes. The
most commonly used codes for welded pipework in Australia are as follows

1
 Standards Australia International Limited (SAI)
● AS/NZS 3992:1998/Amdt 1:2000 Pressure equipment – Welding and brazing
qualification
● AS/NZS 4645.2:2008 Gas distribution networks - Steel pipesystems

● AS 2885.4-2010 Pipelines - Gas and liquid petroleum - Submarine pipeline

systems
● AS 1796-2001 Certification of welders and weldingsupervisors
● AS 1074-1989 Steel tubes and tubulars for ordinaryservice
● AS 4458-1997 Pressure equipment –Manufacture
● AS 4041-2006 Pressurepiping
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
● ASME IX Piping systems in connection with power boilers, nuclear vessels
and unfired pressurevessels
American Petroleum Institute (API)
● API Std 1104 (R2010) Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities – 20th
Edition, includes Errata 1 (2007) and 2(2008)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
● ANSI/ASME B31.3 Chemical plant and petroleum refinerypiping
● ASME B36.10M-2004 Welded and Seamless Wrought SteelPipe
Some insurance companies, manufacturers and the military forces set up their own
codes to cover the fabrication and welding of pipeline systems.
1.3 Approval of piping systems
There must be a high degree of quality control when high-pressure pipe systems
are being fabricated to ensure that they meet the specifications of the relevant
codes.
The inspecting authority may be the machinery inspection branch of the state or
territory government, the insurance company underwriting the job or the
representatives of the client for whom the pipework is being fabricated.
The quality control program includes the following steps.

I. Approval of the fabricator who may have to prove that there is adequate
equipment and expert personnel to successfully meet the requirements of the
relevantcode(s).
II. Frequent checks to ensure that the specified material is beingused.
III. Approval of welding procedures and regular inspections to ensure that these
procedures are beingfollowed.
IV. Qualification of welders who are tested to ensure that theyare capable of
carrying out the approved proceduressuccessfully.

2
 V. Non-destructive testing as required by thecode(s).
VI. Post-weld heat treatment as required by thecode(s).
VII. Final hydrostatic testing or alternative testingmethod.
Fabricators are responsible for the quality of the work they perform and for the
coordination of all inspection and testing procedures as required by the
relevantcode(s).

3
Chapter 2 –Training work
2.1Piping systems
There are three common methods of joining piping, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages.
Butt welded piping systemsare used for most process, utility or service piping. Butt
welding is the most practicable way of obtaining strong, leak-proof joints; especially
on larger piping. The pipe and fitting used have, or are prepared with,

Figure 2.1
standard weld preparation. They require high levels of workmanship in their assembly
and welding.
Socket-welded piping systemsare used for lines of small diameter which carry
flammable, toxic or expensive materials where no leakage is permitted. They
areeasier to assemble and weld than butt welds and no weld metal can enter the bore.
The pipe end is finished square and fitted into the fittings, usually with a 1.5 mm gap.
This gap sometimes pockets liquids and is not recommended if severe erosion of
crevice corrosion is anticipated.

Fig 2.2: Socket-welded piping system

Screwed piping systemsare used for small lines, usually of 50 mm diameter and are easily
assembled using standard fittings. The removal of metal to create the thread is a
disadvantage and fatigue strength is poor. There is no need for coded welders when a

4
screwed pipe system is used except where seal welding is undertaken.
Only butt welded and socket welded systems will be dealt with in this text.

Fig 2.3: Screwed piping system

5
 2.2 Pipe
Pipe is specified by stating its nominal size (NS), which is only approximate. Nominal
size is neither the inside nor the outside diameter and it is necessary to use standard
tables or manufacturers’ tables to ascertain these two dimensions exactly.
Pipe thicknesses are often described as ‘standard’ (STD), ‘extra strong’ (XS) and
‘double extra strong’ (XXS). However, most manufacturers have adopted the American
piping code classification which classifies pipes into a schedule system. The mass of
the pipe is referred to as the schedule of pipe, and may vary from Schedule 10 to
Schedule 160.
As the schedule number increases so does the wall thickness, and as a consequence the
inside diameter reduces. The outside diameters remain constant enabling
standardisation of pipe brackets or threading. The exact wall thickness can be
determined from standard tables.

Schedule pipe wall thickness

NS

100 pipe

NS100 114.3 (+14.3)

NS150 168.3 (+18.3)

NS200 219.1 (+19.1)

NS 250 273.1 (+23.1)

Comparison of nominal size and

Nominal schedule for 100 NS pipe
pipesize Outside diameter

Fig 2.4: Pipe

Schedule

6
 Pipes are sometimes referred to as tubes. The primary difference is in how they
are measured, Boiler tubes and tubing are known by their outside diameter and
their wall thickness. Both dimensions are required when ordering
2.3 Pipe fittings
A pipe fitting may be defined as any type of pipe connector that is used to:
● make aconnection
● change the size or direction of pipesor
● change the pipe specification from one material toanother.
Fittings are classified by the method of end fixing, eg. butt welding, socket-welding,
screwed or flanged and by name, eg. 90° and 45° elbows, reducing elbows, short and
long radius bends, equal and unequal tees, concentric and eccentric
reducers and stub ends.
Table 2.1

Pressure rating Manufacturer’s Schedule no. Pressure rating

weight
PSI kPa
2000 13 790 STD 40
3000 20 670 XS 80
6000 41 340 XXS 160

Butt welded fittings

Butt welded fittings have a 30° truncated edge with a designed weld preparation
consisting of a root gap and landing that is welded. Types in common use are shown in.

180oLongradiusWeldELL 180oShortradiusWeldELL Cap

Figure 2.5

90o Shortradius 90o Longradius 90o Reducing long 45o Longradius

Weld ELL Weld ELL radius Weld ELL Weld ELL

Fig 2.6: Butt welded fittings

7
2.4Butt weld elbows
Elbows are fittings which are used to change the direction of flow. They are available
for changes in direction of 180°, 90° and 45°. The 180° elbow is also referred to as a
‘return bend’. All butt weld elbows are supplied with bevelled ends.
The 90° butt weld elbow is used to make a 90° offset-in any direction. It is available
inshortandlongradius.Theradiusofthefittingisimportantwhencalculatingcutting sizes
as it must be subtracted in order to achieve correct centre linedimensions.
The long radius elbow is most common, and equals one-and-a-half times the nominal
pipe diameter from the face of the weld preparation to the elbow’s centre-line. Unless
otherwise specified long radius elbows will always be supplied.

1½×NPS

90oLongradiusweldELL 90oShortradiusweldELL

Fig 2.7: Short and long butt welding elbows

1 × NPS
When an offset is required where the angle is not than the standard fitting, it is
customary to use a 90° or a 45° elbow and cut to the desired angle.
Critical dimensions of elbows and other fittings can be obtained from standard tables.
Reducing elbows
Reducing elbows facilitate a change in line size along with a 90° change in direction..

Fig 2.8: Reducing elbow

The centre-line radius is one and a half times the nominal size of the larger end.
Return bends are used to change the direction of piping through 180°. Long radius
returns have a radius of 1½ × NS, iecentre to centre distance of 3 × NS.

8
 3 × NS

Figure 2.9 180oLongradiusweldELL

2.5Lap joint stub ends

Lap joint stub ends are flared pipes that accommodate slip on flanges. They are
supplied mainly in material other than carbon steel, eg stainless steel.
As an economic measure carbon steel flanges are used as an alternative to stainless steel
flanges. The flanges are allowed to float free and can swivel which is useful when pipes
are being aligned.

Fig 2.10: Lap joint stub end

Reducers
Reducers are used to join a smaller pipe to a larger one. Reducers are available
in two types – eccentric and concentric. Eccentric reducers are used when the
top or bottom of the line needs to be kept level.

Fig 2.11: Concentric and eccentric reducers

9
Butt welding tees
Butt welding tees are used to make 90° branches from the main run of pipe and may be
either straight or reducing. Reducing tees have a 90° branch smaller than the main line.
Tees with branches larger than the main line are seldom used, as they must be made to
order.
Reducers
Reducers are used to join a smaller pipe to a larger one. Reducers are available in two types
– eccentric and concentric. Eccentric reducers are used when the top or bottom of the line
needs to be kept level.

Fig 2.12: Concentric and eccentric reducers

Butt welding tees

Butt welding tees are used to make 90° branches from the main run of pipe and may be
either straight or reducing. Reducing tees have a 90° branch smaller than the main line.
Tees with branches larger than the main line are seldom used, as they must be made to
order.
Caps
Caps are used to seal off the ends of pipes.

Fig 2.13: A cap

10
Socket-welded fittings
Socket-welded fittings allow for easy fabrication and fit-up of piping. Square end
preparation of the pipe is all that is required and fillet welds are used, preferably made
in two passes.
Lower levels of operator skill are required to assemble and weld socket joints than are
required for butt joints. The socket-welding system is preferable to the screwed system
as it is simpler to assemble and avoids the possibility of leakage which sometimes
arises in screwed joints.
Elbows
Socket-welding elbows are available to make changes in direction of 90° or 45°.

Fig 2.15: A socket-welding elbow

Tees
Tees make 90° socket-welded branches either as straight or reducing tees.

Fig 2.16: A socket-welding tee

Laterals
Laterals are available to make 45° branches.

11
 Fig 2.17: A socket-welding lateral

Reducers
Reducers are similar to couplings but are used to join pipes of different diameters.

Fig 2.18: A reducer

Reducer inserts
Reducer inserts are used to connect smaller pipes to larger fittings.

Fig 2.19: Reducer inserts

Swaged nipple or ‘swage’

Swages are used to join socket-welded fittings of different sizes or to weld a
socket welded fitting to a butt welded fitting of a larger size.

12
When ordering swages, it is necessary to specify nominal diameter, the weight of the
pipes to be joined and the end preparation.

Fig 2.20: A swaged nipple

13
Chapter -3-SKILL ATTAINED
3.1 Flange types
Flange types need to match the designed pressure and temperature ratings of piping
systems.

3.2Weld neck flanges

Weld neck flanges are distinguished from other types of flanges by their long tapered
hub and gradual transition of thickness in the region of the butt weld joining them to
the pipe. The hub provides an important reinforcement of the flange itself from the
perspectives of strength and resistance to ‘dishing’.
The smooth transition from flange thickness effected by the taper is extremely
beneficial under repeated conditions of bending caused by pipeline expansion or other
variable forces. It produces an endurance strength of weld neck flanged assembles
equivalent to that of a butt welded joint which, if done properly, is the same as that of a
seamless pipe. This type of flange is preferable for very severe service conditions such
as high-pressure, sub-zero or elevated temperatures.

Fig 3.1: A weld neck flange

3.3Slip-on flanges
Slip-on flanges are used extensively because of their lower initial cost. They are easier
to fix than a weld-neck type as the pipe does not require such accurate cutting and the
ease of alignment to an assembly is simplified.
However, the final installed cost is not much less than that of the weld-neck flange and
their strength under internal pressure is approximately two-thirds that of weld-neck
flanges with life under fatigue approximately one-third.

Fig 3.2: A slip-on flange

14
3.4 Socket-welding flanges
Socket-welding flanges are used fairly extensively in chemical process piping, as
smooth, pocketless bore conditions can be obtained by grinding the internal weld flush.
Their cost is about 10 per cent greater than the slip-on flange. Their static strength is
about equal to welded slip-on flanges but their fatigue strength is 50 per cent greater.

Fig 3.3: A socket-welding flange

3.5 Lap joint flanges

Lap joint flanges are used mainly with carbon or low alloy-steel piping systems
where the services necessitate frequent dismantling for cleaning and inspection.
They also simplify erection, as the flange can be swivelled to align bolt holes. They
require lap joint stubs and the combined initial cost of the flange and stub is
approximately one-third higher than a comparable weld-neck flange. Their pressure-
holding ability is no better than slip-on flanges and the fatigue life of the assembly is
approximately one-tenth of a weld-neck flange. They should not be used where
severe bending stress occurs.

15
 Lapjoint
Slipon

Fig 3.4: A lap joint flange

3.6 Blind flanges

Blind flanges are used to close off the ends of piping, nozzles or valves. Due to internal
pressure acting to bend blind flanges at their centre, they are the most highly stressed of
the flange types. Where severe water-hammer or temperature is a service factor
consideration should be given to the use of closures made from weld-neck flanges and
caps.

Fig 3.5: A blind flange

3.7 Orificeflanges
Orifice flanges are used to measure the flow rate of liquids and gases within a pipeline,
thus eliminating the need for hot tapping or pipe modification.

The orifice flange consists of two flanges with an additional tapped hole in each so
that monitoring equipment, an orifice plate and jacking bolts can be attached. These
facilitate the separation of flanges when they need to be inspected.
16
Orifice flanges come in a range of nominal sizes and types, such as weld neck, slip on
and screwed.

Fig 3.6: An orifice flange

3.8Flange facings
There are many facings offered but only a handful are in common use. The main variables in
flange facings are the profile of the flange face; the smoothness of the face; and whether or not
the use of a gasket is employed.

3.9Raised face
Raised face is by far the most common type used, accounting for approximately 80% of
all applications. The face is raised 1.6 mm for Class 150 and Class 300 flanges, and
6.5 mm for other classes.
The raised face is machine finished with either concentric or spiral grooves
approximately 0.4 mm deep which bite into and hold the soft, flat gasket
normally employed with this face type.

Fig 3.7: A raised face weld neck

17
3.10Flat face
The most common use for flat face is for non-steel flanges such as cast iron or plastic. The
gasket used has the same outside diameter as the flange. This reduces the danger of cracking
the flange when tightened.

Fig 3.8: A flat face weld neck

3.11Ring joint
Although expensive, the ring joint facing is the most efficient facing for high-
pressure and high-temperature service. Both flanges of the pair are alike, with a
groove machined into each face. (Flat bottom grooves are standard.) Oval or
octagonal ring type gaskets are fitted into the groove before tightening.

Fig 3.9: A ring joint weld neck

3.12 Lap joint

18
The lap joint flange in combination with the lap joint stub end provides a joint facing
similar to that of a raised face flange.
Slipon

Lapjoint

Fig 3.10: A lap joint slip-on

3.13 Male and female

Male and female facings come in two standard types – one with a large male–female
contact area and the other with a small male–female contact area. The large male–
female contact area is excessive for use with metal gaskets and the small male–female
contact is not suitable for use with screwed fittings of standard weight.
The male face is usually 6.5 mm high (1/4”) and the female face is approximately
4.7 mm (3/16”) deep. Both faces are usually smooth and the outer diameter of the
female face acts to locate and retain the gasket.

Fig 3.11: A ring joint weld neck

3.14 Lap joint

19
The lap joint flange in combination with the lap joint stub end provides a joint
facing similar to that of a raised face flange.
Slipon

Lapjoint

Fig 3.12: A lap joint slip-on

3.15Male and female

Male and female facings come in two standard types – one with a large male–female
contact area and the other with a small male–female contact area. The large male–
female contact area is excessive for use with metal gaskets and the small male–female
contact is not suitable for use with screwed fittings of standard weight.
The male face is usually 6.5 mm high (1/4”) and the female face is approximately
4.7 mm (3/16”) deep. Both faces are usually smooth and the outer diameter of the
female face acts to locate and retain the gaske
Male and female

3.16 Class rating

Flanges are given a ‘class’ rating which refers to service pressure and temperature.
The class of flange may be: 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, 2500.
The number of boltholes in a flange varies with the size and class. For example, a class
150, 80 mm flange has four boltholes, and a class 150, 150 mm flange has eight
boltholes. In a class 300, an 80 mm flange has eight boltholes and a 150 mm has
twelve boltholes.
The diameter of the bolthole also varies with class so that large diameter bolts may be used
for additional strength in the heavier classes.
Dimensions of each class of flange, and the dimensions of the bolts used by these
flanges can be determined from standard tables.
3.17Gaskets
Gaskets are used to provide leak tight joints between matching surfaces. Gasket
materials vary widely and may include:

● non-metals – such as paper andrubber

● metals – such as copper, iron or stainless steel ●
combinations of metals andnon-metals.
The choice of gasket materials depends on factors such as service pressure, service
temperature, corrosion, bolt loadings and cost.
20
Gasket types
Gasket types need to match the designed pressure and temperature ratings of piping
systems and the flange type.

Flat ring gaskets are the most commonly used. They vary in thickness from
approximately 0.2 mm up to approximately 6 mm (the former being the most common),
and in width from approximately 6 mm upwards.
Narrowgasketsarepreferred,astheyrequirelowerboltloadingstoobtainaneffective seal.
However, they must not be too narrow, in case they become crushed or indented into
theflange.

3.18Serrated gaskets
Serrated gaskets are flat metal gaskets which have concentric grooves machined into
their faces. The reduced surface area provided by the grooves allows an efficient seal
at lower bolting loads. They are commonly used with smooth faced flanges where
gaskets of soft material would be unsuitable.

Fig 3.13: A serrated gasket

3.19Laminated gaskets
Laminated gaskets are made up of a skin with a filler material. There are two basic
types of laminated gasket:
● flatjacketed
● spiralwound.

3.20Flat jacketed gaskets

Flat jacketed gaskets can be used at higher temperatures than plain flat gaskets and
they require lower bolt loads than flat metal gaskets.

Fig 3.14: A flat jacketed gasket

3.21Spiral wound gaskets

Depending on the type of metal–filler combinations, spiral-wound gaskets are suitable
for raised face, flat faced and lap joint flanges at pressures upto7000 kPa (1000PSI)
and temperatures up to1000°C.

21
3.22Ring joint gaskets
Ring joint gaskets are available with either an oval or octagonal cross-section. They
can be used with all classes of flange, especially the 600 – 2500 lb classes. They are
manufactured from soft iron, low-carbon steel, chromium and molybdenum steel and
stainless steels For relatively low-temperature joints, plastic may be used to prevent
corrosion or to provide electrical insulation.

Fig 3.16: A ring joint gasket

3.23Insulating gaskets
Gaskets made of non-conductive material together with insulating sleeves around bolts
are used where it is necessary to provide electrical isolation between parts of a line.

Table 2.2: Material gasket vs temperature and pressure

Materia Maximum Maximum
l service pressure at
temperature °C temperature
Synthetic rubber 120 450 kPa (60 PSI)
Synthetic rubber with cloth insert 120 3450 (500)
Teflon 250 2050 (300)
Ring type joint Carbon steel 400 14 200 (2100)
Stainless steel 650 17 250 (2500)
S/S Teflon 250
Spiral wound
above 3450 (500)
S/S ceramic 1000

3.24 Valves
The variety of valves available for use in piping systems is extensive. This is due to the
22
range of functions that valves perform, the diversity of fluids carried, and the varying
conditions under which valves must perform these tasks.
Valves can be examined under the following headings:
● basicparts
● functions performed byvalves
● valvetypes● installation of valves
● specification ofvalves.

3.25Basic parts of a valve

Despite vast differences in valve design, common parts can be identified.

Fig 3.17: Basic parts of a valve

3.26The body
The body is the main structure of the valve which contains – or to which is attached –
the other parts of the valve. The body must possess sufficient mechanical strength and
sufficient resistance to corrosion, erosion and high temperature to meet service
conditions. The material from which the valve body is made is important in this
regard and common materials in use include carbon steel, low-alloy steel, bronze,
23
brass, stainless steel andmonel.

3.26The disc, seat and port

The disc, seat and port arrangement is the means of controlling the flow of fluids
through the valve. Regardless of shape and arrangement the disc is the moving part that
directly controls the flow. The non-moving part upon which the disc bears is called the
seat, and the port is the maximum internal opening through which the fluids can pass.

3.27The stem
The stem is used to move the disc. It is usually a screwed rod, although in some cases
fluid under pressure moves the disc. There are two basic stem types.
● The rising stem – As the valve is operated, the stem rises, lifting the disc with it.
The hand wheel can either rise with the stem, or the stem can rise through the
handwheel.

Fullyopen Fullyclosed

Fig 3.18: The rising stem

● The non-rising stem – The stem remains in the same position whether the
valve is open or closed. The disc moves up the thread on the stem as thevalve is
operated. The screw is inside the bonnet and in contact with the fluidcarried.

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 Fig 3.19: The non-rising stem

3.28 Thebonnet
The bonnet is the top housing of the valve. It provides a bearing in which the stem can
run. It acts as a means of sealing the stem of the valve against leakage (usually by
means of a gland and packing). There are three basic means of attaching the bonnetto
the valvebody.
● The screwed bonnet is generally used on small, low pressure valves. A problem
which can sometimes occur with the screwed bonnet is that the bonnet can become
unscrewed as the valve is operated. This is caused by a tight or ‘sticky’ stem.
● The bolted bonnet is the most common type used in refinery applications. It is
suitable for medium/high pressureapplications.
● The breech lock is a heavier more expensive bonnet, normally used forhigh
pressure work. It employs a seal weld to guard againstleakage.
3.29The operator
The operator is the method of actuating the valve. Valves may be operated manually: by the use
of hand wheels, levers and chains, by geared hand wheels on larger valves or by powered
operation employing electric, pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. Powered actuators are normally
used when:
● rapid opening or closing isrequired
● the valve is operated veryfrequently
● access to the valve isdifficult

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 CHAPTER 4 - CONCLUSION, FEEDBACK & RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Conclusion
The internship is a fruitful experience Mitchell's Fruit Farms Limited. Through the application
of the theoretical knowledge into real-life problem solving situations,I gained a lot of
experience especially in the automotive field.I also got insight into professional practice,
learnt how life can be fruitful as well as challenging under employment; and how to face
and deal with these challenges.It was also a great opportunity for developing personal
networking activities and making contacts with influential people; which is of great value to
means far as my career is concerned. The training also enabled me to discover my strengths
and weaknesses. This further helped me to identify areas to improve on.In a nutshell, Iachieved
most of my learning objectives from the training.

4.2Feedback
We faced some problems during our internship. The problems are given below.

• Most technical words used in motor Engineering work were not familiar to me but more
research and inquiries were made from the senior mechanics and through reading of
maintenance manuals.
• in the early days of the training, several accidents and injuries were sustained for example
cuts on fingers but with time, vigilance on work was increased which reduced on injuries.
• Delay of some spare parts of the machines which made some work not to be completed in time.
• Limited time to share knowledge with all engineers due to a tight schedule at the
workshop

4.3 Recommendations
We found a very good practical learning environment at Mitchell's Fruit Farms Limited. Some
recommendations are given for the students who want to do their internship program.

• They should pay much attention to their employee’s promotion.

• They should use Performance appraisal system.
• The Industry could give Incentives to the employees according to their work to make them
more motivated
• They should pay much attention to promotional tools. They should advertise their product.
• There could be a proper feedback system to know about the customers perceptions about the
Industry
• They should convert manual work to computerized work
• The industry should improve its organizational morale.

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